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AMERICAN HANDY-BOOK 



BREWING, MALTING AND AUXILIARY TRADES 



:ri( 



AMEHCAN HANDY BOOK 



' vx/ 



OF THE 



EwiNG, Malting 



AND 



\uxiLiARY Trades 






)k of Ready Reference for Persons Connected with the 

rewing, Malting and Auxiliary Trades, Tpj?flit 

with Tables, Formulas, Calculations, liib- 

liography and Dictionary of 

Technical Terms. 



COPiOUSLY I L L U S TR A TE I). 



BY 

ROBERT WAHL, Ph. D. 

AXb 

MAX HENIUS. Ph. D. 



Smoond Ediilmnm 



CHICAGO 
WAHL & HENIUS 



u 



COPYRIGHT 1901 
BY 

ROBERT WAHL AND MAX HENIUS 
All rights 



CORRICTION8 



PAOE 

6 

7 

18 

62 

60 

62 

147 

347 

347 

347 
347 
412 



444 

447 
454 
455 
456 
456 
459 

478 

478 

478 
478 
506 
515 
517 
535 
687 
680 
718 
763 
763 

763 



766 
812 
917 

927 
993 
993 
993 



994 
1012 



1087 
1214 
1215 
1244 
1261 



LINE 



10 from bottom . 

bottom line 

10 from bottom . 

10 from top 

9 from top 

18 from top 

under cut 

17 from bottom . 
5, 6, 10 and 14 
from bottom 
8 from bottom , 
3 from bottom , 
8 from top 



9 from top 

lower table 

12 from bottom . 
2 from bottom . . 

5 from top 

6 from top. 

4 from top 

10 from bottom . 
9 from bottom . . 

8 from bottom . . 
14 from bottom . 

2nd cut 

2 from bottom . . 
14 from bottom . 
14 from bottom . 

table 

18 from top 

12 from bottom . 
6 from top 

9 from top 



10 from top. 



16 from top 

14 from bottom . 
bottom line, I 
4th column, f 

9 from top 

2nd formula .... 



bottom 



8 from top 
5 from top 



16 from bottom. 

16 from top 

center, column 1 



NOW READS 



m 

llSf 

3«X 

(axb) 

gage 61 
0.26 

Metorologle 
liof 

100 feet .... 



60 pounds 

166 feet 

Dextrose is not so, 
{wrong line) 



etc. 



0.14 

ipace in l^ of headings. 

endorsperm 

mellbiose 

levnlose 

Tauret 

matters and sulphur 

-resin 

-resin 



-resin 

Bryan 

pastorlanum 

saccharabocillus . . . 

pastorlanum 

melibiose 

n extract 

laddie 

1877 

the smaller 

ordinarily to barrel. 



add the sentence. 



one-fourth 

saccharomyces. 

34.95 



127.2 cents , 

lOO-h 

grits 

formula ehauld be 
(Total yield -yield of 60 m 



40 
it can be mashed directly 

one end of which, etc 



$250 

water (lis.) 438 

— oil testing, 15, 1040 . . . 
20 from top Imeliblose 

^ aid wSSSil?}]- e^PO^foo Ot 483.8631484, 863 



SHOULD RIAD 

3«= 

(a+b) 

page62 

60.24 

lAeteorologle 

twice 

132feet 

66 pounds 

198 feet 

This sugar, also called 
glucose, grape or starch 
sugar, is 

0.014 

ineert Grains i>er Gallon. 

endosperm 

melitriose 

laevosln 

Tanrot 

torong line—croee out 

a-resin 

/3-resin 

7-re8in 

Briant 

pasteurianum 

saccharobacillus 

pasteurianum 

melitriose 

in extract 

ladle 

1887 

the larger 

need not be more than 50 

per bbl 

With Alter use 5-20 chips 

per bbl. according to size 

of chip cask 

one-half 

saccharo- bacillus 

33.95 

]27.9cent8 

7004- 

cereal 

?m2<122=yield of cereal 



it is mashed directly at.. 
67" C 

1 sq. millimeter so that 
the volume of liquid 
between the 

$360 

442 

315.l64b !*... 

melitriose (meliloa^^ .... 



HDITORIAL STAFF: 



Editors: 

RoBKRT Wahl, Ph. D. 
Max Henius, Ph. D. 

Directors oi tlic Sriontitic Station for Brewing of Chicago and of the American 

Brewing Academy; editors of the "American 
Brewers' Review," etc. 



Associate Editors: 

H. E. O. Hbinbmann, LI. M., 
A. NiLsoN, Ph. Dreesbach, 

G. Tmbvbmot, Ph. D., L. Henius, 

H. E. Frbbs, a. Sibbert, 

A. Schmidt, O. Beyer. 



J. P. Arnold. 
J AS. S. Douglas, 
R. H. Gangwisch, 
Carl Habpnkr. 
Franb Hbadden, 
O. C. Paintbr, 
Max Stahl, 



Contributors : 

L. G. Bohmrich, 
J. C. Engblhardt, 
H. F. GuTscH, 
Wm. Habpnbr, 
W. A. Lawrence, 
Wm. A. Rbmenspbrgrr, 
A. Weingartnbr, Ph. D. 
Wm. Zeiss, Ph. D. 



Chas. Buehler, 
C. Flodin, 

Aug. HiKUSSERMANN, 

L. M. Haskins, 

O. LUHR, 

Wm. J. Seib, 
Chas. Wieland, 



PREFACE. 



The American Hakhy-Book op tre Brewing, Mai.tip 
Auxiliary Tradks is designed (o lie a book of ready rei 
for ilic use of persons connecied with the trades dcsignat 
does not pretend lo be a IcxI-book. wliieh the stndent of b 
will read through from beginning to enii with a view of I 
ing acquainted with the principles and practice of tlii- 
industry. It aims lo be, as it were, a pocket encyclopedia, 
erencc lo which the brewer, maltster, refrigerating tr 
engineer, bottler, etc., as well as a person engaged in ihi 
mercial activities of a brewery, may find an immediate i 
lo questions thai may coire up in connection with the e 
oF his calling, without reijuiring him to wade through 
volumes and peruse quantities of information in search of a 
item of knowledge. 

This purpose, kept steadily in view in the preparation 
prewnf volume, imposes many difficult tasks upon the coi 
and editors. While, on the one hand, it necessitates the hi 
range of information and the most complete collation o 
possible, covering the entire science and practice of brewing 
elementary arithmetic and algebra, through the physical sc 
the rudiments of machinery, steam engines and refrigeratic 
theory and practical details of malting and brewing, the 
lalion of materials and cost of production, down to the 
of tanking, casking, bottling and shipping, and the relali 
the brewer to governmental agencies, yet, on the other h 
is imperative lo condense this information, much broader 1 
it be in scope than that embraced vn mv ei^ ^Vvc vetV-Viii 
the smallest compass, both as lo sVattnwn^ m ■wotfe * 



le imporlance and magnitude would appear, » 
irrant, while olhers, apparently of equal or g 
:e, may be deemed lo have been slighted in ll 

and delail of statemenl devoted to them. H 
rpancies, in the judgment of Ihc cditura. are on 
Where so much information is given, the w 
'cnl cUtsei of persons to whom the book will 
msidercd. 

Jcing such allowance for these existing differen 
<sary. and putting themselves, as far as lay ir 
respect to each subject, in ihe position of the 
ck solution of a problem thnt ttiight arise in his 
;. the editors gave to each of the several subjet 

as seemed bcsl lo answer the requirements of 
ase. The result is that, while the treatment 
eels may HOI sccin sirictty harmonious from 
ic writer of a Irxt-book, it is hoped that the w 
ireiitriil^ o( a tio.ik of ready reference far m' 
wo ' ■ riclly metlKMliul arrangement and 



PREFACE. Vn 

methods. The Ainerican brewing industry, in a word, is an in- 
dustry by itsdf. While it has profited much by the old country 
systems, it must look within itself for authority for its own 
operation and progress. No effort has been made, up to the 
l^esent time, to produce a standard work on American brewing 
^ in the language of the country. In that respect, also, the Ameri- 
can Handy-Book of the Brewing, Malting and Auxiliary 
Trades is first in the field. 

It is manifest, from what has been said, that the plan of the 
present work was wholly novel — that the editors had no prece- 
dents to guide them, but were obliged to seek altogether new 
paths. 

It is the common fate of all pioneer work that it is encVimbered 
with many drawbacks and slvortcomings, since it lacks the di- 
rection of the greatest of teachers — experience. The editors are 
conscious of the fact that the present work is no exception to 
ihc rule. They rely on the indulgent judgment of the brewing 
trade and its auxiliaries, and will welcome any well intended 
criticism, hoping to profit thereby for future editions of the book. 

While a book of this character is naturally, to a great extent, 
a compilation of information from many other sources, the 
present volume contains much original work elaborated in the 
course of time by the Scientific Station for Brewing of Chicago. 
It may also be added that the editors derived much assistance 
in planning the book and treating the various subjects from their 
intimate association with brewers in their capacity as directors 
of that institution, and from studying the needs of students at 
the American Brewing Academy. 

It being a matter of universal experience that the value of 
many a book replete with useful information is seriously im- 
paired, for ready reference, by the absence of a complete and 
detailed index, which fact was brought home to the editors with 
peculiar force in the work of compilation connected with the 
j)reparafion of the present book, sptc\a\ ^^\yv^ >n^t^ ^\n^w V5> >^^ 



Ha, of ,1,. """"-vcr. ,|„ editor, 

IW it am, no i»ii„„, '■ '''°™'"e 
{»"■•»■ of Hot „o,l, '"•"''■»■'" 

c,;::,'°„T""'"^"""" ■■'■'■" 



PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION. 



The hope iiuhilgcd by the editors in the preface to the first 
edition, that they may have been measurably successful in the 
preparation of this lK:)ok, has been realized beyond all expecta- 
tions, if the phenomenal sale of the first edition can be taken as 
a criterion. 

After the Handv-Book was issued, it was accorded a most 
friendly reception and favorable review by the trade press of all 
countries, which, with the recommendation of its readers, soon 
exhausted the edition. 

A secoml edition has become necessary in the short space of 
time of less than one year. 

This second edititm is substantially a reprint (^f the first, as only 
typographical errors have been corrected. 

The editors wish again to thank those who have assisted them 
in the preparation of tlu book, also its many fri^^nds for the in- 
Iciest tlK> have taken in the volume. » 

RoBKRT Waul. 
Max Henil-s. 

Chicago. April 30. 1902. 



IX 



TABLB OF CONTENTS. 



Ariihuetic I-SO 

Fractions. Decimal fractions. Perccniage. Interest, Ratio. 
Equation. Proportion. Involution. Evolntion. Squares and 
cubes. Alligation. Arithmetical progression. Geometrical 
progression. Logarithms. 

Algebra 5I-S5 

Equations. 

Mensukatiok 56-78 

Lines. Angles. Triangles. Mensuration of areas. Round 
figures. Trigonometrical functions. SoHds or bodies. Men- 
suration of surfaces. Mensurations of volumes. Capacities 
of tanks, tubs, etc. 

Weights and Measures 79-111 

United Slates customary measures and weights. Measures 
of capacity or volume. Measures of weight. The metric sys- 
tem. Converting metric to common measure. Comparative 
tables of common and metric measures. Conversion tables. 
Miscellaneous. Measures of lime. Legal units of electrical 
measure. Money. 

Pevsics 112-131 

Matter. Forces. Properties of matter. Specific gra\iiy. 
Atmospheric pressure. Moisture of air. Heat, Light. Elec- 
tricity. Magnetism. Sound. 

Mechanics 132-150 

Velocity. Gravitation. Loss of motion. Work and energi-. 
Simple machines. Mechanics of liquids. Brewery hydraulics. 
Mechanics of gases. Thermodynamics. 

Elemkmts of Macoinehv IS [-191 

Lever, Wheel and hoisting drum. Inclined plane. 
Wedge. Screw. Block and fail. Differentia! drum. Gears. 
Worn/ anil iivjrm wheel. Screw jack. Differential screw. 
Principle of lirtual velocity. Safety vaUf. 'Fi'\tA\oi\. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. XI 

Power 192-229 

Standards and measures for steam engines and boilers. Wa- 
ter. Steam. Combustion. Fuels. G>al> table. Boilers. 
Grates. Smokestacks. Smoke prevention. Feed- water heat- 
ers. Economizers. Boiler water and its treatment. Scale. 
Corrosion. Boiler scale preventives. 

Transmission of Power 230-261 

Pulleys and belts. Shafts. Stresses. Wire rope transmis- 
sion. Electrical power in the brewery and malt house. The 
electric plant. 

Steam Engines 262-293 

Portable engines. Stationary engines. Slide valve engines. 
Corliss engine. Differences of the two kinds of engine. 
Examination of engine and compressor by taking indications. 
Criticism of indicator cards. Compressor indicator cards. 
Steam condensers. Steam tables. 

Refrigeration 294-346 

Ice and freezing mixtures. Refrigerating machines. Com- 
pression machines. Absorption machines. Relative merits of 
the different systems. Uses of refrigeration. Water cooling. 
Cellar cooling. Ice making. Practical tests for material used 
with refrigerating machines. Properties of different liquids 
used in refrigerating machines. Solubility of gases in water 
at atmospheric pressure. Strength of ammonia liquors. 
Properties of saturated ammonia gas. Operating refrigerat- 
ing machines. Amount of refrigeration required for a brew- 
ery. The steam end of the refrigerating machine. Insulation. 
Freezing tanks and brine tanks. Insulation of partition walls 
in cellars. Insulation of cold pipes. Irregular bodies, as 
pump cylinders with chambers. Water cooling towers or 
gradir-works. 

Pumps 346-353 

Centrifugal pumps. Rotary pumps. Pohle air lift pump. 
Plunger pumps. Membrane pumps. Piston pumps. Arrange- 
ment and connection of pumps. Compressed air pumps. Com- 
pressing air by using waste water. Steam ejector. Steam 
jet pump. 

Brewery Buildings 354-3^1 

Excavation, filling, concrete work, tu^^owt^ ^xvWtv^Sw^ts^. 
Iron and steel work. Carpenlet vjotV. '?'aATv>CYCv%. ^'^cJwwt- 



\ 



Xll TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

Hollow tile. Tinninc:. galvanized and corrugated iron work. 
Plumbing. Cement floors. Plastering. Asphalt floors. In- 
sulating inside walls of cold storage, stock houses, etc. Mis 
' cellaneous specifications. Refrigerating machine. Machinery 

iand millwright work. Coppersmith and tank work. Foun- 
dation work for machines. Piping. Lightning rods. Appli- 
ances and apparatus. 
HEMISTRY 382-433 

Definitions. Chemical combination and mechanical mix- 
ture. Non-metallic elements. Light metals. Heavy metals. 
Chemistry of carbon compounds (organic chemistry). Alco- 
hols. Organic acids. Fats and oils. Balsams and resins. 
Gelatin and isinglass. Carbohydrates. Starch, dextrin and 
sugars. Pectin substances. Torrefaction. or roaisting prod- 
ucts. Nitrogenous organic compounds, albuminoids. En- 
zymes, or soluble ferments. Diastase and starch. Peptase 
and albumen. 

Brewing Materials 434-497 

General. Water. Hardness of water. General properties 
of brewing water.s. Improving water. English brew- 
ing waters. German brewing waters. Extract-yielding brow- 
ing materials. Starch-containing brewing materials. Barley. 
Barley malt. Wheat, wheat malt and rolled wheat. Rye. 
rye malt, rye flakes. Oats. Corn and rice. Corn and corn 
products. Starch. Brewing sugars. Hops. Hop prcpara 
tions. Colorants. Varnish. Pitch. Clarifiers. Antiseptic^. 
I Preparing and packing samples for examination. 

^ICRO-ORGANISMS 4^)8-526 

General biology. Protoplasm. The living cell. Assimila- 
tion. Excretion. Respiration. Reproduction. Osmose. Fer- 
mentation, putrefaction and decay. Biological description. 
Filamentous, or mold fungi (hyphomycetcs). Table of molds. 
Fission fungi, or bacteria (schizomycetcs). Table of bac- 
i teria. Budding fungi, or yeasts (blastomycetes). Table of 
) yeasts. Table of cultivated yeasts. 

Yeasts and Ferment.\tion 52r-55<^> 

Historical and explanatory. Fermentation other than alco- 
holic. Alcoholic fermentation. Beer yeast. Differences in 
the behavior of yeasts. The products of alcoholic fermenta- 
t/on. Influence of /ernientation products and other agencies 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



XII 



on yeasts. Chemical composition of yeast. Carbohydrate 

Nitrogenous constituents of yeast. Yeast enzymes. Yeai 

extract like meat extract. 

Pure Yeast Culture 557-57 

General. Pasteur's pure yeast. Hansen's pure yeast. Har 

sen's pure yeast apparatus. Operating the apparatus. Wal 

and Hcnius' pure yeast apparatus. 

Malt House Outfit 57i-5^ 

Transfer of grain. Elevators and conveyors. Cleaner 

Malt storage. Barley washing machines. Steep tanks. Floe 

malt house. Mechanical malting devices. Pneumatic or bo 

malting. Malting drums. Malt kilns. 

Malting Operations 587-^M 

General outline. Principles of malting. Points about m«\l 
ing. Steeping. Germinating. Common floor malting. Kill 
ing. American malting operations. Mechanical malting o{ 
erations. Malting in England. Malting in Europe. Chen 
ical and physiological data and processes. Losses and gair 
in storing and malting barley. Insect pests in granaries. 

Brewery Outfit 647-6f 

Gravity or tower brewery. Brew house outfit. Cellar ou 
fit. Fermenting room. Stock cellar. Chip cellar. Was 
house. Pitching, and pitching appliances. 

Brewing Operations rx>8-8( 

General outline. Properties of a beer. Composition c 
beer. Beers classified. Wort. Principles of mashing. Diasta^ 
and starch. Peptasc and albumen. Mashing methods an 
character of beer. Mashing operations. Mashing system 
Rice and com in brewing. Prepared corn. Pure starcl 
American lager beer. Treatment of unmaltcd cereals. Wahl 
lautermash method. A. Schwarz's after-ma?h method. Pre: 
sure' mashing. Export beers. Extra pale beers. The mas 
at rest. Running off the wort. Sparging. Slow flow c 
wort* Boiling the wort. Break of wort. Bottle beer. Hoj 
ping the wort. Cooling. Influence of different materials an 
mashing methods on the composition of wort. Tables. 

Permenting Cellar Operations. — Bottom fermentation. Fei 
mentation phenomena. The yeast cro^. ¥^\\^^^\Na5Cv 
phenomena explained. Higbet ^\Ic\v\tv\^ \ftvw^^\'5^.>^'^^^- ^ ^ 

torn jcast. StrengthenwR xYvt -^^^x. CQ.TwX^^>s>a^^^ 



WV TABLE OF CONTENTS. 

yeast. Treatment of contaminated yeast. Factors affecting 
fermentation. Abnormal symptoms in fermentation. Vac- 
uum fermentation system. 

Storage Cellar Operations, — General. On storage C*Ruh"J. 

Chip Cellar Operations. — Beer in the chip cask. Kraeuscning. 
Clarification of beer. Bunging. Racking. Carbonating. Fil- 
tration. Obstinate turbidities. Abnormal taste and odor of 
beer. Stability of beer. 

Special American Bottom-Fermentation Beers.— Export bot- 
tle beer. Export draught and unsteamed bottle beer. Malt 
tonics. Temperance beer. California steam beer. Pennsyl- 
vania "Swankey." 

Production of Thick Mash Beers in Germany and Austria. — 
Properties of thick mash beers. The decoction or thick mash 
method. Practice of fermentation in Germany. Chip and 
storage cellar. Clarifying chips. Kraeusening. Bunging. 
Special German beers. 

Top-Fermentation Beers in the United Kingdom, America 
and Germany. — English top-fermentation beers. Brewing 
materials. Brewing systems. Top-fermentation appliances. 
Fermenting vessels. Top-fermentation operations. Top- fer- 
mentation beers in the United States. American ales, porters 
and stouts. American Weissbeer. Kentucky common beer. 
Top-fermentation German beers. Berliner Weissbeer. Broy- 
han. Graetzer beer. Spontaneous fermentation beers. Bel- 
gian beers. 
Composition of various beers, tables. 

Brewing Losses from Malt Mill to Platform. — Shrinkage in 
volume from kettle to starting tub. Loss from scouring. 
Loss from malt hopper to mash-tun. Loss in mash-tub. Loss 
by transfer of wort from kettle to settling tank. Losses dur- 
ing fermentation and storage. Losses in chip cellar. Losses 
from racking bench to platform. Total shrinkage. 

Treatment and Protection of Surfaces. — Cleaning operations. 
Cleaning of brewery floors, walls, vessels and utensils. Re- 
moval of waste products. Varnishing. Varnishing and 
staining iron vessels. Pitching. Painting. Whitewashing 
and calcimining. 

^^rujzATToir OF THE By-Prodvcts of the Brewery 869-877 

'^''^'^oi'ijss and skimmings. Malt sprouts. Brewers' grains. 



I- 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. XV 

Underdough. Dregs ("Trub"). Spent hops. Ufiliiation of 
waste yrast. Ulili;c;itioii of carbonic acid. 
The Bonf.iNG Department of a Modebn Bheweky 878-gM 

Bottle shop. Bolllc soaking. Washing and rinsing. Tap- 
ping of barrels. Bottle lilting. Bottle closing or stoppering. 
Pasteurization or "alcaniing." Pinisliing tlie package. Stor- 
age and delivery. Pipe lines. 
FitiuKiNt; IN THE Bkewerv 9'5 OS? 

Calculating the yield of extract of brewing materials. Ta- 
ble of Balling reading in pounds of extract per barrel. Cal- 
culations according to R. Wahl. Yield in Ihc kettle. Coiictn- 
tration of wort in kettle. Calculating the materials. Table 
of materials for one barrel of wort of different gravities in 
the cellar. ' Calculating the cost. Calculating the materials 
according to M. Schwar?. Materials added in keltic. 
Yield calculations according to M. Schwarz. Siebcl's me- 
chanical yield calculator. Heat calculations according to M. 
Henius. Where water only is used. Where malt or raw 
cereal and water are used. Atthe mash tub. Calculations by 
means of latent heat, according to M. Henius. Calculalin" 
of attenuation. Figuring in English breweries. 
The Brewer's Chemical Laboratory 958-1010 

Analytical chemistry. Specific gravity. The sacrharomclcr. 
Comparative tables of different saccharo meters with 
specific gravity, and giving pounds of extract in wort per 
barrel. The balances. The thermometer. Conversion tables 
of thermometer scales. Worts, Beers, Water an.ilysis. 
Barley. Malt, Corn products and rice. Brewing sugars. 
Colorants. Hops. Mineral oil. Chemicals, standard solu- 
tions and reagents. List of apparatus. Baumhauer's alcohol 
table. Balling's extract table. F. AUihn's dextrose tabic. 
The Brewer's Microscopicat. Lauoratobv 1011-1033 

Equipment. Apparatus. Reagents, Stains. Culture 

media. The compound microscope. Sterilization. Staining 

bacteria. Pure cultures of micro-organisms. Examinations 

of materials. Rice. Isinglais. Lupulin. Barley, malt and 

V hops. Water examination. Air examiwaVion. lA\Mtiwn^\«i 

j\ and botanical examination of yeast. DeUrtmi twiW.^ 

I \ beer turbidities. 



.cs payauie lo iiic L iiiicu Mates govcriini 
tax. Special taxes. Books and returns. R 
oiise. Bottling \kct. Marking ca>ks. Penal 
g fermented liquor in bond. Tunic>. cic. \\ 
ting liquor? Liquor laws of the staler and 
: United States. 

xxics AND Economics 

itjr of American beer. What beer was and is. 
aitcd States Senate committee on inanufacti 
i British beer materials committee. Intenip 
d by general natural laws. Effects of beer 
rink it. The temperance problem. Statistical 
n revenue derived from liquor traffic, capital 
inserts and exports of materials, etc. 

10U8 Infoucation 

dard dimensions of brewery vessels. Sizes ai 
>f standard G>rliss engines. Memoranda for 
x>wer of boilers and of belting. Temperatui 
tipe size brass tubes. Measurements and w 
iodise. Pressure in pounds of a column of 
heights. Comparative table of Beau me de] 
; gravity. 

HY 

!S and authors of original contributions to tl 
actice of brewing in the United States. 



ARITHMETIC. 



Arithmetic is the science that treats of numbers, and of the 
OKthods of computing by means of them. 

"Notation" is a method of wriiing numbers by characters or 
fignres. The number ten is the basis of our system 
of notation, containing ten numeral figures or "digits." i, 2, 3, 
4i 5t 6. 7, 8, 9, o, the last, the cipher or zero, having no value ex- 
cept in combination. This sysicm is known as the Arabic. 
(The Roman system uses the capital letters, I for i, V for 5, X 
for 10, L for 50, C for 100, D-for 500, M. for 1,000. An equal or a 
mailer figure placed after a bigger one is added thereto ; a smaller 
one placed in front is subtracted therefrom. Thus. 1888 is repre- 
sented as follows: MDCCCLXXXVIII ; 67--LXVII, 43 = 
XLIII. The use of this system is limited.) 

"Numeration" is the art of reading lipuros cmiiloyt-tl to express 
numbers. The following table shows the i)l;ices of the figures. 
which are grouped in periods of three fi>{uics each, counting 
from the right, commonly separated by commas. 



lA 

B 
O 

s 



n 



o 
o 



s 



I/) 



•r. 



l/i 






tfi 



CWl M 



01 "C « «/> "^ _ '/J 
*« M I/: «^ ^ 'y> 4_> 









*« ^v.«^ ^vi4_ =, 'A ^ 

ffit:5 ^'"5 ~:i'" -■''•'" 

225.910.673.4^5 

This is read two hundred and tweniy five billion nine hun- 
dred and ten million six hundred and seventy -l^Arce \\\ows^w^ 
four hundred Mnd eighty-five. 

M I 



2 ARITHMETIC. I 

Additioti is the method of finding the "sum" of two or morl 
griven numbers. The sign of addition is -f-, reads "plus," anJ 
signifies "more." I 

"Equation" is an expression of equality of two numbers. ThJ 
sign of equation is =, it reads "equals" or "equal to." ThuJ 

3 + 4 = 7* reads 3 plus 4 equals 7. I 
Subtraction is the method of finding the "difference" betweeiJ 

two given numbers. | 

"Minuend" is the greater of the two numbers. I 

"Subtrahend" is the smaller of the two numbers. I 

"Difference" or "remainder" is 'the result obtained by sub J 

trading. The sign of subtraction is — , reads "minus" ana 

signifies "less." Thus 13 — 8 is read "13 minus 8," and signified 

that 8 is to be subtracted from 13. I 

Multiplication is a method of finding the result produced b)l 
a given number taken a given number of times. I 

"Multiplicand" is the number to be multiplied. I 

"Multiplier" is the number by which to multiply. I 

"Product" or '*multiple" is the result of niuliiplication. Mul- 
tiplicand and multiplier are called the factors of the product. 
The sign of multiplication is X. reads "times" or "multiplied by." 

Division is the method of finding how often one given number 
contains another. 

"Dividend" is the number to be divided. I 

"Divisor" is the number by which to divide. 

"Quotient" is the result of the division. The sign of division 
is -T-, reads "divided by." Division is also indicated by placing 
the dividend above the divisor, with a line between them. Thus 
V is read "63 divided by 7," in which 63 is the dividend, and 7 
the divisor. 

Properties of Numbers. An "integral number" or "integer" 
is a number representing whole things. It is cither even or 
odd, prime or composite. "Even numbers" are divisible by 2: 
"odd numbers" are not exactly divisible by 2. 2. 6. 12. 14, etc., 
are even numbers. 3. 7. 13. 15, etc.. arc odd numbers. 

"Prime Number" is a number which has no integral factors 
except unity and itself. 2, 3. 5. 7, 11, etc., are prfme numbers. 

'^Composite Number'* is a number that has other integral fac- 



I * AHITHMETIC. 3 

Vtori besides uiaty and ilseli. Thus 24 ia a composite number, 
fsnce 24 = 8 X 3- 

I "Faclors" of a number arc ihe numbers which molliplicil 
i toaellier will produce such number, o and 7 :iii- hriors nf hj 

1 "Prime Factor" is a prime number used as a factor, and is also 
ihc prime divisor of it; thus 3 and 5 are prime factors of 15, atid 
, prime divisors. 

"Exact Divisor" of a number is one that will divide that num- 

btr without a remainder. 7 is an exact diiisor of 6j. Exact 

divisors of a number arc a!so the faclors n! that uumlier. 

Numbers are "prime to each other"' when ihey have no corn- 

, mon integral factor or divisor. 7 and 16 are prime lo each other. 

i- "Factoring" is the resolving o[ a compusiie number into ilj 

factors, and is dene by divi.«inn. 

To find tht prime faclors of a composite iii'iiiber: Divide the 
given number by any prime factor of it, and ihe resullin),' i|iii.- 
tient by another, and continue the division unlit the Qui.lii'nl is a 
prime number. The several divisors and the last (|uolieiit are 
the prime factors. 

Prime factors of 2310 are; 2) l'.iio 

3) 1155 
5) .185 
7)77 
2, 3. 5. 7, n n 

The product of all ihc prime faclors is the Kivcn iinnilnr. 
A "Common Divisor" of two or more niiinlitrs is a divis'^r of 
each of them, and also a conunon factor of each of them. The 
"Greatest Common Divisor" of two or mure nuniliers is the irrent- 
est "common factor," and is the product nf nil ihc comnmn prime 
factor*. 

To hnd the greaiesi common diz-isor of ivvn iir nvrc niiinlurs: 
Resolve the given numbers into ihiir [.viiiK- l;icti>ri; si.kct ihe 
factors which are common, and nmhiply ihctn i..i;<.tlKr. Th,' 
product will be the greatest common di^i-nr. The Kr'.iic^t cm 
mon divisor of m and 112 is: 

42 = 7 X 3 X 2 C.inmioil to buth fi^ure^ ;in- 7 and 2- 

112 = 7 X 2 X 8 Henc 7 X ^ _■ 14 the jrrcnlcst rAnnr.or. 

divisor 
or a) 42 112 



4. ARITHMETIC. 

"Multiple* of a number is a number exactly divisible by th 
given number. 6 is a multiple of 2 and 3. A "common multiple^ 
of two or more given numbers is a number exactly divisible b; 
each of them. The "least common mnltiple'* is the least numbe 
exactly divisible by each of them. 

To find the least common multiple of two cr more numbers 
Resolve the given numbers into their prime factors; select al 
the different factors, taking each the greatest number of times i 
is found in any of the numbers., and multiply together the faictox 
thus selected: 

The least common multiple of 10, 45, 75» 90 is: 
10 = 2X5 
45 = 3 X 3 X 5 
75 = 3 X 5 X 5 ' 
90 = 2X3X3X5 
and 2 X 3 X 3 X 5 X 5 = 450 

Another method is to write the numbers in an horizontal Im* 
omitting such of the smaller numbers as are factors of the large 
and draw a vertical line at the left. Divide by any prime facte 
that will exactly divide two or more of the given numbers, an 
write the quotients and undivided numbers in a line underneatl 
Divide the quotients and undivided numbers until they ai 
prime to each other. The product of the divisors and the fin 
quotients and undivided numbers is the least common multipl 



3 
3 



10 


45 75 


90 


5 


45 75 


45 


5 


15 25 


»5 


5 


5 25 


5 




— «; 





or 



2 


10 


45 


mm ^ 

/3 


QO 


3 


i 5 


— 


75 


45 


5 


5 


— 


25 


15 



2X^X3X5 "'5=450 



2X3X5>'5V3=45 



(» 



"Cancellation'* is the process of abridging operations in divisio 
by rejecting equal factors from both dividend and divisor. 

Divide 13 X 7 X 5 X 3 by 3 X 5 X 7- Then 



3 > 4> v 



= 13 



or 



S4 V ^o _ 7X 12 X gX g2 _ ,2 y 2 = -4 



15 X 



3 V S X T 



»v 



ARrrHMETIC. 



FRACTIONS. 



5 



unity be divided inlo any number of equal parts, one or 
! of thest parts is called a "fraction/* 
lere arc two kinds of fractions: "Common" or "vulgar" 
ions, commonly called "fractions" simply, and "decimal" 
ions, commonly called "decimals." 

common fraction is represented bv two numbers, called 
ms,*' which arc written one above, the other below an hori- 
al or slanting line, thus: %, %, %, %. 
denominator" of a fraction is the number of cciual parts 

which the unit is divided, and is written below the line. 
s in % the denominator is 4, showing that the unit is divided 

4 equal parts. 

lumerator" of a fraction is the number of equal parts taken 
)rm the fraction, and is written above the line. Thus: in 
le numerator is 5, showing that 5 of the 6 equal parts are 
n or expressed by the fraction. 

Voper fraction*' is one whose numerator is less than its dc- 
inator; as %,%,%, 

mproper fraction" is one whose numerator is equal to or 
ter than the denominator; as {, J , ^ 
ilixed number" is an integer and fraction united; as 4%. 15's. 

REOUCTION OF FRACTIONS. 

r "reduction" the form is changed, the value remaining the 

*. Fractions are changed to higher terms by multiplication, 

iwer terms by division. 

eduction to higher terms: Ji = *= ^\ 

sduction to lower terms: ^\ = i~ ~.\ 

Kluction to lowest tertns: }?= U 

re numerator and denominator are prime to each other. 

7 Reduce an Integer or a Mixed Number to an Improper Frac- 
: Multiply the integer by the required denominator, and to the 
luct add the numerator of the fraction, and under the result 
e the required denominator, 
to sixths = 31 X6 = iS« 
4 = 4X9 + 3=V 

Reduce an Improper Fraction to an Integer, or a Mixed 
nbff, Divide the numerator by the denominator, V=Aii=^^* 



ARTTHICBTIC. 

1 denominalor" it a denominator c 
or more fractions. The "least common denominator" of f 
more fractions is the least denominator to which thejr can 
reduced. 

To reduce two or more fractions to eqwhaleHt fraelions k 
a common denominator: Multiply the terms of each fracti 
the denominators of all other fractiont. 

|. «. H- 7XBX3='&9- 
Then3X8X3= 73 
7 X 8 X 3 = i6B 
5 X 7 X 3 =^ 105^ 
«X7X3 = i68 
2 X 7 X 8 = I la 
3X7X8=1^' 
To Reduce Two or More Fractions to Their Least Co 
Denominator: i. Find the least coincnon multiple of the d< 
nators of the given fraclions for tlwir leitst common ilcnomi 
3. Divide this common dcrominator by the denominator 



of the given fracti 
The products 



;, and multiply 



the n 
, then 3 X 32 = 96, least 

96-=- 3 = 32X2= SJ 
96h-i6= 6X5= is 
964-32= 3X3=. V 

AWHTION OF FRACTIONS. 

Tp add fractions, reduce the fractions 
IS with .1 cnmnion denominator, add the n 
;tions. and nnder llic sum write the common dcnirn 

. To add mixed iiiimhcrs, add the fractions and in 
lely, and cf>ml)mc the results. 



by the qu 



67?i 



Ta subtract fraelions. reduce the fractions to eqiiivaler 
ir/rA a coninum denominator, subtract tbe ti 






ARITHMETIC. 7 

subtrahend from the numerator of the minuend, and under the 
difference write the common denominator. 

Subtract ^ from j% —. /, from l\ = f^ 

2. To subtract mixed numbers, subtract first the fractions and 
then the integers. 

io8% I 
90% I 



/o 



and 2 — 1 = 1 z=z \ ^^^ 



i8i 

MULTIPLICATION OF FRACTIONS. 

1. To multiply an integer by a fraction, divide the integer by 
the denominator, and multiply the quotient by the numerator : or, 
multiply the integer by the numerator and divide the product by 
the denominator. 

2. To multiply an integer by a mixed number, multiply by the 
integer and by the fraction separately and add products. 

96 X 23%. g6 X 23 = 2208; g6 X % = 84 : 2^-08 I 84 =- 2202. 
or 96 or 96 

23% 23% 



288 


84 


192 


288 


84 


192 



2292 2292 

To multiply one fraction by another, multiply the numeratcirs 
together and also the denominators, and reduce the resulting 
fraction to its lowest terms. 

IX A=fJ = A 

DIVISION OF FRACTrf)NS. 

To divide a fraction by an integer, divide the numerator or mul- 
tiply the denominator. 

i't -^- 7 = A; /i-* 10= ,}„ 

To divide an integer by a fraction, multiply the integer by the 
denominator of the fraction, and divide the product by the numer- 
ator. 

63 -+- A = 630 -f- p =: 70. 

7i ^ ^=S^S -f-s= Ti3g. 



o ARITHMETIC. 

To diz'idc a jraclion by a fraction, reduce the fraelion to equi*- 
si.ni iraciions with *a common denominatar, and divide the nn- 
r^trator of the dividend by the numerator of the diviEor. 

J, -> 'l ^?s^ ||.= 3-r-4='i 

Or, invert the terms of the divisor, and then multiply the r 
nieraiors together, and also the denominators, and rcdnce the re- 
sulting fraction to the lowest terms. 

!-=.=^ = lt = .J 



DECIMAL FRACTIONS. 

Decin^al Fraction is a fraction having for its denominator 

fjt a number produced by multiplying lO by itself a given 

Ttumber ol limes, that is, loo, i.ooo, lo.ooo, etc. Decimal (ractio 

Hiay be expressed as follows : 

1. By words, as three-tenths, sixty-hundredths, etc.; 

2. By writing the denominator under the numerator, as ,1,. ,"„' 

3. By omitting the denominator and writing the numerator 
the decimal form, as .3, which reads "decimal three;" .6?. which 
feads "decimal six seven ;" 3. 654, which reads "three, decimal, 

"Decimal Point" is a period placed at the left of the order of 
tenths, to distinguish a dedmot from an mleger, as .45. Owing 
to ihp liahililv of coiifL^ifiTi by llie use of the decimal point alone 

(■'- ■■ ,. . ,.11: ..- of writing decimals is gradually be- 

iitj; iuiiiii]ui.i:u. w1111.11 It U.43, wiiling a cipher before the decimkl 
point where it is a genuine fraction, i. e.. less than i. This style 
has been adopted by the United States Internal Revenue Office 
and a number of scientific institutions in this country, and will 
be followed in this book. 

"Mixed Decimal Number" is an inl^fer and a decimal written 
together as one number, as 3.4s, and is also called a "mixed num- 
ber." 
Ttie following table gives the names of &\'x. inte^Tal and lix 



ARITHMETIC. 



4eamal orders of units, denoted by the position of the fig 
ned in expressing a number. Ten units of any order in a n 



ber make a unit of ihc next higher order : 



ures 
mini- 



■0 . 






















c 




















in 


ct 




















JS 


« 


lA 










«j 








•«-• 


9 


c 

3 


Tcn-thousandi 


en 

1 

tn 

J 


CO 

•s 

Ui 

1 


C 


CO 

C 


c 

"cfl 


*-• 

c 


u 

c 


c 

zi 
o 


c 
o 

*-• 
1 

c 

0^ 




^^. 


ffi 


H 


13 


p 


H 


X 


H 


H 


6 


5 


4 


3 


2 


I 


• 


I 


2 


3 


4 



(/. 



c 

en 
O 

cn 

•c c 



5 



Integral Orders. — Increasing in Decimal Orders. — Decreasing 
value from rigfht to left. in value from left to right. 

Decimal fractions thus appear as fractions of which the numer- 
ator only is written, the denominator being the continued product 
of so many tens as there are decimal figures. 

In writing decimals, vacant orders must be filled with ciphers. 
Thus: 3.107 means 3 units, i tenth, no hundredth, 7 thou- 
sandths. 

Annexing ciphers to a decimal, or decimal ciphers to an in- 
teger docs not change its value ; thus : 0,5 r^ 0.50 - - 0.500, etc. 3-- 
30=3.00, etc Removing ciphers from the right of a decimal, or 
decimal ciphers from the right of an integer, does not cliangc 
its value; thus: 0.125000=0.125, and 365.00=365. 

To Reduce a Decimal to a Common Fraction in its lowest 
terms: Omit the decimal point, supply the proper denominator, 
and then reduce the fraction to its lowest tcrnib. 

25 666 

0.25 = = V4 ; 0.666 = = ^U nearly. 

100 1000 

To Reduce a Common Fraction to a Decimal: Annex ciphers 
to the numerator and divide by the denominator; point off as 
many decimal places in the result as there are ciphers annexed. 

5000 625 I . 00(X) 

% = = = 0.625 ; Mj = 0.3333 -j- 

oooo 1000 3 

The sign + is sometimes placed after the result to indicate that 

there is Miiii m remainder. 



I '1 



lO 



ij 



ARITRMETIC. 



To Add Decimals: Wrile the numbers so that figures of tlw 
same order shall be in the same column, then proceed as in simplt 
addition, and place the decimal point at the left of the tenths' 
order in the amount. 

0.9503 
11.007 
3-4 

lOTIS 

135.5073 
To Subtract Decimals: Write the numbers so that fipires ol 
the same order shall be in the same column; subtract as in sinipU 
subtraction, and place the decimal point at the left of the tenth: 
order in the remainder. 

56.600 
ia403 

56.6 — 18.403 = 38.197 

To Multiply Decimals: Multiply as in multiplication of in 
tegers, point off as many decimal places as there are decima 
places in both factors. 

3-25 X 0-14 = 04550. 

To Multiply a Decimal by 10. too. ia)0. eli:: Remove Ihi 
decimal point as many places in the right as there are ciphers ii 
the multiplier. ' 

1.004 X 100 — 100.4: 6.05 X 1000 = 6050. 

To Diride Decimals: Divide a.= in the division of integers, an( 
point off as many decimal places in the quotient as the number o 
decimal places in the dividend exceeds the numbfr in the divisor 
Ciphers nuist he .iildcd t" the dividend to make its decimal place 
at least cijual to tho5e in the divisor, and as many more as it is de 
sired to have in the quotient. 

ofc? -.- 0.25 = 2.5; 35.05 -^ 2.0721 = 35.0500 -^ 2.0721 = 
1(5.9103 -f- 

To Divide a Decimal by to. 100. lono. el.\: Remove ihe dfci 
mal point ap mnnv places to liie left .t lliere are ciphers in thi 
division. 

0.04s -;- 100 = 0.00045: 340.12 -i- 10 — 34.012. 
PERCF.NTAGE. 
"Pfrrenl" ;.': ,in abhrevialion of Latin "per rei!tiim'' cind sipnific; 
'by"or -lo the litwtrcd." Its sign is *, arA "w «4As"^t ctirt.* 



ABITUUETtC. It 

Thus I* reads "one per cent," or rio. or o.oi, 5!< reads "five per 
cent," i8o = o°S; IS* reads "fifteen per cent," (".fu = 0.15. 
"Rate per cent" is the nnmber of hundredths taken. 
"Base" is the number of which the per cent is taken. 
"Percentage" is the resuh obtained by taking a certain per 
cent of the base. 
"Amount" is the sum of the base and the percentage. 
"Difference" is the remainder found by subtracting the per- 
centage from the base. 

To Rnd a given percentage of any number, multiply the num- 
ber by the given rate percentage, and divide by too. 
63 X 33 2079 

33* o* 63 = = = 2079. or 63 X 0.33 ■-■ - 20.70, 

100 100 
5X 12 60 
i2<of S = = = 0.6; or 5 Xo.iz — 0.6, 

When the rale is %, Mt, Vi. %. etc.. of 100, that h tn say 50. 
33%, 25, 20, etc.. the percentage may be found by (.iking ?4, 
'.4, W, % of the number, thus : 

sot of $82.00 is *6 of |8a = $41 : 33%l' of $60 is % of $60 ^ $;«. 

To And the rale of percentage, or what per cent one lumibfr 
is of another, multiply the number which i?i the perceiitagi-, by 
!0O, and divide by (he other number ; the quotient is the rate ptr 

What per cent of 180 is 45? 45 X 'oo -;- iSo — 25*. 

What per cent of $650 is 32-50? 32.50 X 100 ^ 6511 - t 5*. 

3,000 lbs. malt give 1,950 lbs. extract. How many per irnt 
of extract is obtained? I,9SO X 100 ^ 3.000 %- 65*. 

To And a number when a per cent of il ii gn-cn. divide the 
number which is the percentage by the given rate ptT cent and 
multiply the product by 100. 

50 is 25* of what number? 50 ~ 25 >: 100 --_ 200. 

$3(^.50 is I2%* of what number? 3(1.5 : w.^ X 100 :- ?.:o.:.oo. 

INTEREST, 
"Interest" is money paid for the use of money. 
"Principal" is the sum on which interest is paid. 
"Rate of Interest" is the per cent of the prii\ci'pa\, ?a.\4 lox ** 
use for one year. ■ 



12 ARITHMETIC. 

To find the interest of any sum at any rate per cent,, for 
and months: Multiply the principal by the rate, and the prodoct 
is the interest for one year. Multiply the interest for one year by 
the time in years, and the fraction of a year; the product is tbt 
required interest. Add the principal to the interest for the 
amount. 

Interest of $640 for 5 years and 6 nK>nths at 7^. 

$640 X 0.07 = $44.80 interest for i year. 

5% 



246.40 Interest for 5 years 6 months. 
640.00 Principal. 



$886.40 Amount of principal with interest. 

.S'lx Per Cent Method. — At 6^ per annum the interest of $1.00 

For 12 mo is 6 cents or 0.06 of the principal. 

" 2 mo. or J of 12 mo. ..is I *' o.Oi 

•* I mo. or ^ of 12 mo.. is { " 0.005 ** 

" 6 da\*s or J of I mo is ^^j * o.ooi ** 

" I day or J of 6 days... is ^ '* o.ooj " 

The following table denotes the part of the interest to be added 
or subtracted to give the interest at the given per cent: 
7 ^ = 6J^-i-^dof6< io^=:V^of6^X 10 

7Mjj(=r6^ + Viof6J< 5^z=6J^ — %of 6^ 

S % — 6^-\-%oie^ 4^ — 6% — %oi6f 

9 ^ = 6^-i-%of6j^ 3^ = 6^ — %of 6^ 

To find the principal, when interest, time, and rate arc given: 
Divide the given interest for the given time by the interest of 
$1,00 for the given time at the given rate. 

Interest gained in 2 years at yi is $84. What is the principal ? 
At 7i the interest of $1.00 per year = 0.07 
At 7^ the interest of $1.00 2 years = 0.14 
84 — 0.14 = $600. 

RATIO. 

"Ratio" is the relation between two numbers, denoting how often 
one quantity is contained in another. The ratio of 16 to 2 is 16 U 
= 8. The sign of ratio is the colon, or sign of division without 
line, thus: 

A "simple rath" is the ratio of two t\un\\>tTS, ^& ^\v 



ARITHMETIC. 13 

A "compound rario" is the ratio of the products of the corre- 
sponding terms of two or more simple ratios. Thus 2 14, 5 :i5» 3^ -3 
arc simple ratios, 2 X 5 X 30^4 X iS X 3 is a compound ratio. 
When the multiplication is performed the compound ratio passes 
into a simple ratio — 300:180. 

EQUATION. 

Equation is an expression of equality between two or more 
numbers. 4 + 6 = 10; 15 + 5 = 12 + 8. The numbers to the left 
of the sign (=} are called the "first member/' those at the right 
of the sign the "second member" of the equation. The numbers 
of the equation are called "terms." 

PROPORTION. 

Proportion is an equality of ratios, or an equation in which each 
member is a ratio. Ratio of 2 to 4 equals ratio of 3 to 6, J = J. 
expressed thus : 2 14 = 3 :6, reads "2 is to 4 as 3 is to 6." The first 
and fourth terms are called the extremes, or outer terms, the 
second and third the means, or inner terms. 

The product of the means = product of the extremes. 

The product of the extremes divided by either mean will give 
the other mean, thus 14 7 = 6 13 ; 3 X 14 = 42 ; 42 -:- 6 = 7 ; 
42 -^ 7 = 6. 

The product of the means divided by either extreme will give 
the other extreme, thus: 8:4 = 10:5; 4 X 10 = 40; 40 -^ 5 == 8; 

40 -4- 8 = 5. 

(The sign : : is often used in place of the "equal" mark in 
proportions, but is not used in this book, as it introduces needless 
complexity.) 

SIMPLE PROPORTIONS. 

A simple proportion is an equality between two simple ratios. 
When three of the terms are given, the fourth can be found. Of 
the three given members two must be of the same kind, and the 
third of the same kind at the required term. 

The Rule of Three shows how to find the fourth term of a 
proportion when three terms are given. Of the three quantities 
given set that down for the third term which is of the same kind 
as the term required. If the amount to be found will be greater 
than the third term, make the greater of the two remaining ^Ivctv 
quantities the second term, and the other iVie fvTS\.\ V\\. \\ V^'s*, 
put the less term second and the greater first. '^Vv^tv \>a^ n>cv^^ 



14 AUTHHE11C. 

terms are so arranged, multiply the second and third together, 
and divide the product by the first The first and second teno 
must be reduced to the same denomination. 

Example /. — If 3 tons of coal cost $15 what will 11 tons cost? 

Here the terms are 3 tons, 11 tons, and $15, and the required 
term is a certain number of dollars, that is, of the same kind as 
$15, which is, therefore, set down as the third term. As 11 tons 
will cost more than 3 tons, the required term is greater than 15 ; so, 
take the larger of the remaining terms, or 1 1 tons, for the second 
term, and make the proportion thus: 3 tons : 11 tons = 15 : ? 

fThe fourth term is 11 X I5 or 165 -7- 3. or $55. 
Example 2. — If 8 bushels of malt give 5.5 barrels of wort, how 
many barrels will 300 bushels give? 
i The terms are 8 bushels. 300 bushels, 5.5 barrels and a certain 

' unknown number of barrels which is greater than 5.5 barrels. 

The third term is, therefore, 5.5 barrels, the second 300 bushels 
L and the first eight bushels. Hence 8 bushels 1300 bushels = 5.5 

]i i barrels : ? The fourth term is 300 X 5-5 -r- 8, or 206.2 barrels. 

f Example 3. — If 152 lbs. malt give 94 lbs. extract, what will loo 

lbs. give? 

The terms are 152 lbs. malt. 100 lbs. malt and 94 lbs. 

extract, and a certain unknown number of lbs. of-extract less than 

94. The arrangement is, therefore. 152 lbs. : 100 lbs. =94:? 

The fourth teriji is 100 X 94 -^ 1S2. or 61.8 lbs. extract. 

Example 4. — If 3 tons of coal cost $15, how many tons can 

Bi4 be bought for $50? 

The terms are $15. $50, and 3 tons, and the proportion is : 

$15 : $50 = 3 tons •: ? The fourth term is 3 X 50 ^ 15. or IQ 

tons. 

INVOLUTION. 

Involution is the continued multiplication of a number by 
itself a given number of times. A "power'* of a number is the 
prodiict obtained by this process. Thus 8 is the third power of 2, 
since 8—2X2X2, and 16 is the second power of 4. since i<5 

= 4X4. 

The "base" or "root" of a power is a number which multiplied 
by itself a certain number of times gives the power. Thus 4 is 
the base or root of 16. since 4 X 4 = 16; 3 is the root of ly since 

J X J X 3 = 27. 
The "exponent" of a power is a number p\aceA ^x xW x\^\ o! 



ARITHMETIC. 15 

the base and a little above it to show how many times the base 
mast be multiplied by itself to produce the power. 

Thus 2* or 2 is the first power of 2 = 2 

«■ or 2 X 2 is the second power of 2 = 4 

2* or 2 X 2 X 2 is the third power of 2 = 8 
2* or 2 X 2 X 2 X 2 is the fourth power of 2 = 16 

The second power of a number is called the "square*' of the 
number; the third power is called the "cube" of a number. Thus 
3* or 9 is the square of 3 ; 2* or 8 is the cube of 2. 

If two powers of the same number are multiplied, the product 
is the same as if the number had an exponent equal to the sum 
of the two exponents. Thus 2* X 2' = 2°; for 2' = 2 X 2 and 
2" = 2 X 2 X 2, hence 2*X2* = 2X2X2X2 X2, or 2' = 32. 

For squares and cubes see tables under the respective heads. 

EVOLUTION. 

Evolution is the finding or extracting the root of any power 
of a number. The "square root" of a number is that number 
which, raised to the second power, will give the first number. 3 
is the square root of 9 since 3' or 3 X 3 == 9- The "cube root" 
of a number is that number which, when raised to the third 
power, will give* the first number. Thus 3 is the cube root of 27, 
since 3' or 3 X 3 X 3 = 27. 

The "radical sign" (from radix, Latin for root) is V ; V 100 
denotes the square roots of 100 = 10; f 64 denotes the cube root 
of 64 = 4; v^ 16 denotes fourth root of 16 = 2. The small index 
above the radical sign indicates what root is to be found. When 
no index is written, the index 2, calling for the square root, is 
understood. 

TO FIND ANY KOOT OF A NUMBER UV FACTORING. 

I. To find the cube root of 9261. 
3 I 9261 
3 I 3087 

3 I 1029 The prime factors of 9261 are 3, 3. 3. 7. 7. 7*. 

7 I 343 hence 9261 = (3 y 7) X (3 X 7) X (sX?)- 
7 i 49 therefore the cube root of 9261 is 3 X 7 or 21. 

71 7" 



i6 



ARITHHETIC. 



2. To find the square root of 144. 

2 I 144 

The prime factors of 144 are 2, 2, 2, a. 3, 3; 
hence 144 = (2 X 2 X 3) X (a X 2 X 3)- 
therefore the square root of 144 is 2 X ^ X 3i 

or 12. 



2i 


72 


2l 

2i 


36 
18 


3l 


9 


3i 


3 



Rule. — Resolve the given number into its prime factors, then, to 
produce the square root, take one of every two equal factors; to 
produce the cube root, take one of every three equal factors. 

A perfect square is a number which has an exact square root; 
such are 4, 9, 16, 25, etc. 

GENERAL METHOD OF TIXDING THE SQUARE ROOT OF A NUICBOL 

Example i. — To find the square root of 1522756. 

Separate the given number into periods of two figures, bepn- 
ning at the right. The left hand period may contain only one 
figure. Thus: 1.52.27.56. 

Find the greatest number whose square is contained in the 
period on the left, and this number is the first figure in the root 
Subtract the square of this figure from the left period and to the 
remainder, if any. anne.x the next period to form a new dividend. 
The greatest number whose square is contained in i is i and the 
square of i is i, subtracting i from i leaves no remainder and 
we, therefore, have the next period, or 52, as divided. Thus: 

iVrs2r27T56 (I 
I 



52 

Double tlic first figure of the root (1) and divide it into the 
new dividend, omitting the figure on the right (2). the quotient 
is the second figure of the root. Thus: 

I V 1.52.27.56 (12 
I I 



2 ! ^2 

li'r/te the second figure of the rod (2) ^XXKi vVvt iv^vi dLVfvmi 



AKITHMBTIC. 



17 



n tnult^ly this divisor t^ the last figure of the root, and 
the product from the dividend (52). Thus: 

I V 1.52.27.56 (12 
I I 



22 52 
144 



8 

3ring down the next period and continue as before. Thus : 

I V 1.52.27.56 (1234 = square root 
I I 



22 52 
2144 



pie -?.— 



243 I 827 

3 1 729 

2464 I 9856 
I 9856 

What is the square root of 204504? 

4V 20.43.04 (452 = square root. 
4 16 

8S ) 443 

SI425 



902 I 1804 
I 1804 

pie 3. — What is the square root of 498436? 

7V49.84.36 (706 = square ^oo^ 
7 49 



140 
o 



84 
00 



1406 



8436 
8136 



umber contains a decimal, begin at the units place and pro- 
th toward the Mt and right to separate \tvlo ^wo^^, >^^^tv 
as in the extraction of the square root o\ viVvoXe tvwvv^^x^. 



i8 



ARITHMETIC. 



Example i. — What is the square root of 104.24^? 

I V 1. 04.24.41 (10.21 := square roo«. 
I 



flo 04 
o 00 



202 

2 



424 
404 



2041 I 9041 

I«4l 

GENERAL METHOD OF FINl/ING THE CUBE ROOT OF A NUMBER. 

Separate the given number into periods of three figures, begin- 
ning at the right for an integer, and going left and right from the 
decimal point for a decimal fraction. Thus: 12.758,927. 

Example i. What is the cube root of 405,224? 

Find the greatest number whose cube is contained in the 
first period 405. It is 7. Subtract the cube of 7 tens from the 
given number, the remainder is 62,224. Divide this remainder 
by three times the square of the tens of the first figure of the root 
(3 X 70"). This will give the quotient 4. 70 + 4 is the cube root 

405.224 (70 -h 4 -: 74 



70* = 343. coo 



-JO- X 3 -- 14,700) 62,224 

74 is the cube root. 

Example 2. — What is the cube root of 12812904 (abridge<l 

form) ? 

12.812,904 (234 
2»= S 



3 X 20* = I2CO 


4 


3 X 20 X ^ = iSo 




3«= 9 




13S9 


43i2 
4167 


3 X 230* = 15S700 

3 X 230 X 4 = 2760 
4« = 16 


645 


161476 


645.904 


\ (»AS»*)OA 


Ci 


ibe Tool \s 23A. 



\ 



ARITUMFTIC. 19 

SQUARES AND CtlDES, SgUAKE HOOTS AND CUDE ROOTS FOB 1 TO 1,000, 



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ARITHMETIC. 



25 



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88.3313 
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38.3378 
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tt.435$ 
38.4438 

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38.9857 
88.5833 

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sn.Awo 
18.7054 
38.7138 

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W.7750 
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38.8087 

38.8171 
2N.A444 
38.8817 

38.M781 



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t.1815 
8L1866 

8.1884 
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8.3863 

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f.S170 



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8.3887 
8.3838 
8.3885 
8.8404 
8.344S 

8.8483 

8.3511 
8.3580 
8.3S08 

8.3638 

•.36n 
O.ITlf 
8.3754 
8.1788 
8.3831 

8.3870 
8.008 

8.1048 

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8.3035 

8.8063 
8.3101 
8.3140 
8.SI78 
8J117 

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8.8184 
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8.3370 
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8.3447 
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9.3513 
9.3M1 



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841 
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847 
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630650477 
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635036375 

617131016 
619111798 
631628711 
638839779 

vvOOoQUOv 



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640&A.1938 
641735047 
644971544 
647214625 

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681473000 

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690807104 
6V31541fi 

68660(;456 
«97*«4103 

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7CW732WJ 
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89.1378 
38.1548 

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891680 
39.3061 

89.1333 
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0.1746 
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29.8479 
39.6648 

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89.7489 

39.7658 
29.7><25 
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0.8496 
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29.M998 
29.9166 

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8.4615 
8.4651 
9.4890 
9.47n 

9.4764 
8.4801 
94888 
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9.5033 
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9.5184 
95171 
9.5107 
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9.531? 
9..S3&4 
9.5391 
9.5437 
9.5464 

9.5501 
9.5537 
9.5574 
9.5610 
9.5647 

9.56ftl 
9.5719 
9.5756 
9.5792 
9.5028 

9.5865 
9 5801 
9.5037 
9.5973 
9.6U10 

9.n>M 
9.60K1 
9.6118 
9.6154 
9.6190 

9.6136 
9.6263 
9.6298 
9.«:i34 
9.6370 

9.6106 
9.6441 
9.6477 



ARITilHBTIC. 












IGHER HOOI THAN THE CUBE. 

Tlic foi;rth rool is Ihc square rixit of the square root. The 
sixth rpQi is ilic cube root of the square root or the square 
root of the cube root. 

For square rnois and cube roots see tables under their respective 

OiIht roots arc most conveniently found by the use of 
Jogaiilhms. 



ARITHMETIC. 27 

ALLIGATION. 

Alligatioq '§hows the value of a mixture of difTerent ingredients 
when tlK!" quantity and value of each ingredient is known. 

» 'Example. — What is the value of loo lbs. of a inixtiire of 200 
lbs. of hops at 15 cents a pound, and 100 lbs. of hops at 21 cents 
a pound? 

200 X 15 = 3000 Therefore 5100 -^ 300 = 17.0 cents per 

100 X 21 = 2100 lb., or $17.00 per 100 lbs. 

300 lbs. 5100 c. 

ARITHMETICAL PROGRESSION. 

Arithmetical progression in a series of numbers is a progressive 
increase or decrease in each successive number by the addition or 
subtraction of the same amount at each step; as i, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc., 
where i is added at each step, or 16, 14, 12, 10, etc, where 2 is 
subtracted at each step. The numbers in such a scries arc called 
its "terms," and the equal mcrease or decrease the "(common) 
difference." 

The general formula for working an arithtnetical progression is: 

To find the common difference, knowing the first and last terms 
and the number of terms: Find the difference between the first 
and last terms and divide by the number of terms less i. 

To find the last term, knowing the first term, the common 
difference, and the number of terms: Multiply the number of 
terms less i by the common difference, and to the product add the 
first term. 

To find the number of terms, having the first and the last ones. 
and the common differences: Take the difference between the 
first and the last terms, divide by the common difference and add i. 

To find the sum of all the terms, having the first and the last 

ones, and the number of terms: Add together the first and the 

last terms, divide by 2 and multiply the quotient by the number of 

terms. . 

GEOMETRICAL PROCRESSIOX. 

Geometrical progression in a series of numbers is a progressive 
increase or decrease in each successive number by multiplication 
or division by the same multiplier or divisor at each step ; as 2, 4, 
8, 16, 32, 64. etc., where each succeeding term is produced by mul- 
til^ying the preceding one by 2; or 80, 40, 20. 10, S, v«Wt^ ^^Ocv ^v^- 



28 ARITHMBTIC. \ 



ceeding term is found by dividing the precediiip«Qiie by 2- The 
common multiplier or divisor is called the "(comnuM) ra^'* 

To find the last term, knowing the first one, the nm^^and the 
number of terms : Raise the ratio to a power i less than thcTnui^ 
ber of terms, and multiply by the first term. 

To find the sum of all the terms, knowing the first one, the ratio 
and the number of terms : Raise the ratio to a power equal to the 
whole number of terms, subtract i, divide the remainder by the 
ratio less i, multiply the quotient by the first term. 

LOGARITHMS. 

The logarithm of a number is the exponent of the power to 
which it is necessary to raise a fixed number to produce the given 
number. This fixed number or "base" in the common logarithms 
is 10, in the "Naperian*' or "hyperbolic" 2.71828182a . . . The 
abbreviation is "log." 

Logarithms are employed to facilitate numerical calculation, 
substituting the simpler operations for the more complex, as addi- 
tion for multiplication, subtraction for division, multiplication for 
involution, division for evolution. They are peculiarly convenient 
in computing powers or roots higher than the third or cube. 

The logarithm of i is o in any system ; the logarithm of the 
base is I. In a system where the base is greater than i, the 
logarithms of all numbers above i are positive, those below i are 
negative. 

The unit or integral part of a logarithm is called the "index" or 
^'characteristic.** the decimal part the "mantissa." 

In the usual tables of common logarithms only the mantissa it 
given, with the decimal point in front omitted. To find the index 
take the number of digits to the left of the decimal point less i. 
From o to 10 il is o. from 10 to 99 it is I, from 100 to 999 it is 2, 
etc. 

The index of the logarithm of a decimal fraction i> a negative 
nimiber and is equal to the number of places which the first fig- 
ure of the decimal other than o is removed from the decimal 
point. Index of log. 0.005 == — 3 or 3- the minus sign being often 
placed above the figure. The mantissa is always positive, even 
though the index be negative. 

The "difference" is the tabular difference between the two near- 
**/ Jograrithms. 



ARITHMETIC. 29 

The "proportiofnal part" is the dUTerence between the given and 
the nearest^ftnaHer tabular logarithm. 

RULES FOR USING TABLE OF LOGARITHMS. 

To find tilt logarithm of a whole number. 

For I to 100 inclusive. The complete logarithm is given in the 
table. 

For 101-999. Find given number in first column of table. Take 
decimal part of logarithm from column under o, including the two 
figures to the left of it, making six figures ; prefix the index 2. 

For 1000-9999. Find the three left-hand or first figures of the 
given number in No. column and take decimals from the column 
under the fourth figure of the given number (including the two 
figures to the left of the o column) ; prefix the index 3. 

For numbers consisting of five digits or more. Find the log- 
arithm for the number composed of the first four figures, as above ; 
take tabular difference from last column and multiply it by the 
fifth; fifth and sixth; fifth, sixth and seventh, etc., whatever the 
excess may be over four figures; from the product reject as 
many figures, beginning from the right hand, as the excess over 
four is in the given number, one for five figures, two for six, etc. ; 
add the remaining figures to the logarithm for the first four fig- 
ures, beginning at the right hand. 

For a mixed number: Find logarithm as if it were an integer 
or whole number and prefix the index of the integral part of the 
number. 

For a decimal fraction: Find logarithm as if the figures were 
all integers, and prefix index according to rule. 

For a vulgar fraction: Reduce to decimal fraction and proceed 
as for the latter. Or, subtract logarithm of denominator from that 
of numerator, the difference being the required logarithm. 

To find the number where the logarithm is knozvn: First. 
where the given logarithm is contained in the table: Find first 
two decimal figures of logarithm in colunm of two figures to left 
of o column and the other figures in the columns to the right. The 
first three figures of the number will be found in No. column, the 
fourth at head of column in which the decimals of the logarithm 
were found. Point off decimals or prefix ciphers according to 
the index. 

Second, where the given logarithm is not conlamed m xVvt V^* 



30 ARITHMETIC. ' 

ble: Find the next smaller logarithm in the taUe^fuid take the 
number for it, which will give the fint four figuretos^ the re- 
quired number. Subtract the same logarithm from the gi^<em«(0^ 
add ciphers according to the number of places wanted, and di- 
vide by the difference found in last column, opposite the logarithm 
used. Annex quotient to the four figures first obtained and place 
decimal point, allowing one figure in excess of the index to the 
left of the decimal point 

COMPUTATION BY MEANS OF LOGASITHMS. 

To multiply two numbers, add the logarithms of the numbers, 
and the sum will be the logarithm of the required number. 

To divide two numbers subtract logarithm of divisor from that. 
of dividend, the remainder will be the logarithm of the required 
number. 

To raise a number to a given power, multiply the logarithm 
of the number by the exponent of the power; the product will 
be the logarithm of the required number. 

To find any root of a g^ven number, divide the logarithm of 
the number by the index of the root; the quotient will be the 
logarithm of the root. 

To find the fourth term of a proportion, add the logarithms of 
the second and third terms and subtract the logarithm of the 
first. 



ARITHMETIC. 



31 



TABLES OF CX)MMON LOGARITHMS (l TO lO.OOO). 



3 

4 

5 

6 

7 
8 

9 
fo 

11 

la 

13 

14 

IS 

16 

17 
x8 

19 
so 

81 

22 

33 
24 

25 



Ka 



.30103 

-177 "I 
.60206 

.69897 

.778 151 
.845098 

•90309 

•954243 

I 

1.041 393 
1.079 18' 
X.I 13 943 
1.146 12S 
Z.176091 

1.204 12 
1.230449 

1255 273 
1.278 754 

1.301 03 

1.322 219 
1.342423 
1. 361 728 
1.380211 

1-397 94 



26 

27 
28 

29 
30 

81 

32 
33 
34 
35 

36 
37 
38 
39 
40 

41 

42 
43 
44 
45 
46 

47 
48 

49 
50 



.414 973 
4313^ 
•447158 
462398 

477 "I 

.491362 

•505 «5 
.518514 

53M79 
544068 

•556303 
.568202 

•579784 
•591 065 
.60206 

.6x2 784 
.623 249 
.633468 
.643453 
•6532x3 1 
.662 758 ! 
.672 09S j 
.6S1 241 I 
.690x96 
.69S97 



51 


1-70757 


52 


r. 7 16 003 


53 


X.724 276 


54 


1732394 


55 


1740363 


56 


I 748188 


57 


1.755 875 


58 


1.763428 


59 


X 770 852 


60 


X.778 151 


61 


1-78533 1 


62 


1.792392 


63 


I 799341 


64 


1.806 18 


65 


1.8x2913 


66 


1.819544 


67 


1.826075 


68 


1.832 509 


69 


1.838849 : 


70 


1.845098 , 


71 


1.851 258 ' 


72 


I •857 332 j 


73 


1-863323 : 


74 


1.869232 


75 


1.875 061 \ 



76 

77 
78 

79 
80 

81 

82 

83 

84 

85 

86 

87 
88 

89 

90 

01 

92 

93 
94 
95 
96 

97 
93 

99 

100 

8 



100 

XOX 

102 
loa 
103 
104 
104 

10» 
Z06 
307 
io*» 
X08 
X09 
X09 

110 
III 

112 
1x2 
X13 

"4 
114 

Mai 



00- 0000 0434 0868 X30X X734 2166 2598 

00- 4321 4751 5181 5609 6038 i 6466 6894 

00- 86 9^ 9451 9876 — : — — 

OX- — — — — °3 1 0724 1 147 

01- 2837 3259 368 4x 4521 494 536 
ox- 7Q33 7451 7868 8284 87 9116 9532 

02-— — — — — i— — 



3029 3461 
7321 7748 



03- 
02- 
02- 
03- 
03- 
03- 
04- 



735 7757 



X189 1603 aox6 2428 2841 3252 3664 

5306 57x5 6125 6533 6942 

9384 9789 — - — 

— — 0195 06 1004 

3424 3826 4227 4628 5029 



157 

5779 

9947 



4075 
8164 



7426 7835 8223 862 9017 



140S 1812 

543 583 
9414 9811 



>39!3 "787 2x82 2576 2969 3^^62 3755 

5323 57*4 6x05 6495 6885 7275 7CO4 

92x8 9606 9993 — — I — — 

— — — 038 076611153 1538 

3078 34^ 3846 423 4613 4996 537^^ 



2216 
623 

0207 

4148 
8<-'53 



880814 
886 49X 
892095 
897627 
90309 

908485 
913814 
919 078 
924279 
929 419 

934498 

939519 

944483 

94939 

954243 

959041 

963788 

968483 

973 128 

977724 

982 271 

986 772 

991 226 

995635 



3891 
S174 



1993 
6197 

0361 

44 S6 
8571 



2415 
O61O 

0775 

48.^6 
897S 



2619 
06 29 



Y)2 1 

7028 



0602 0998 



454 

8442 



4932 
S83 



8805 9185 



1924 23(->9 2694 

576 6142 6524 

9563 9942 — 

— — 032 

7 a ^ 



D 

433 
428 

j 425 
I 424 
: 420 

! 417 
;4i6 

412 
408 

405 

404 

1 400 

398 
397 

393 

3«9 
, 3»8 
'386 
383 
383 
379 



V 



\> 



i I07i MSa >8^ ««* 

s 483" s»* 558 sou 

& B557 ^ s>gB j^ 

1 zij a6i7 9q8s 33S* 

J 5913 6076 66^ 7004 



I 4ai6 s 



08- 3785 3 

98-656 6 

<*- 9905 



09B7 1347 >707 "67 "*a* 
4570 «34 S^» »7 60O* 
8ij6 Sff eSfS 919a 9S5> 



»6« 899 9J3S ftti 



;@: 



loss i*»3 >747 
44S7 4&« 1169 
7888 8317 8565 



3091 3434 "7n 3"9 3 
SSX 58JI 6191 6ui 6 
8903 9*4< 9579 99'6 



0926 1163 IS99 1934 »37 atoi 394 3375 3 



'- 39*3 *'77 4 



■3- 033* " 
>3- 3539 3 
■3- 6;3i 7 



3 1331 156 i8S3 3ai6 3S44 0871 3'98 Si'S 

S 4504 483 SIS6 S+81 5806 6'3' <i»S<i 6781 

9 7753 Bo;6 8399 _ 8;»a 9CHS 93^ S*9 — 

S 0977 1198 16191 '939 3i6 »S8 39 3!"9 

8 4177 4496 4814 ! 5'33 MS' 5769 6086 64(q 

7 7354 767' 7987 8303 8618 8934 9349 95&4 



0194 0508 0833 
5 331; 3639 39S» 
S 6438 674S 7058 
) 95^7 9835 — 



736/ ■ 7676 3985 Saw 8603 Sgii 



Ml/ o 



i 166; 1967 3366 

3 465 4947 SS44 
7 7613 7908 8jo,i 
2 ojss 0848 "41 
5 3478 3769 406 

1 6381 667 6959 

7 9*64 9S53 9839 

4 3139 a4'5 "7 

' 497S SaS9 5S4» 
1 7803 8084 8366 



0449 ■ 0756 1063 137 i6j6 1983 

351 3S'5 413 4434 4738 S03» 

6549 • 6PS3 7^ 74S7 7759 8061 

— i ~ 0168 0469 0769 1068 

3S&t j 3B63 3161 346 3758 40SS 

S54' 5838 6134 643 6736 703a 

8497 ' 8793 9086 938 9674 9968 

I4J+' 1736 3DI9 3311 3603 3895 

43SI : 4641 493^ ja^a S5'3 5801 



0136 I 0413 

39851337 

5815 : 6108 

8647; 8938 



<*99 0986 1373 1358 



ABlTHMEnC. 



ut 


19- <1XP «6" "^ >>7> 145' 








19- » 6176 (i«3 61J9 700s 
19- 8657 8933 9JC16 w8' 9755 


■5 
Iff 



439' 4663 
5 -096 7365 
i 9783 



S OJ7 0631 
S 3976 3a.V> 
J SS68 5S26 
7 8144 84 



3ai6 3488 
493* S»4 

/6w 7904 

I 0319 0586 o8s3 

3986 ytS' .15 '8 

3 5638 590» ' " 

8373 8536 8798 

0S9I 1153 I+r, 

3496 3755 40'i 

60&4 6341 66 

8657 8913 9.7 



173 »l M89 1567 1846 ; 

4S14 479» S^ 5346 5633 : 

7181 7556 783a 8107 8381 ■■ 

00J9 030J 0577 0S5 

17*1 3033 3305 3^77 3848 : 

5475 5746 6016 6386 6556 ; 

8173 8441 871 8979 9247 



3 783 4049 

643 6694 

906 9313 

167s 1936 

4374 4533 

6858 7115 

9)i6 968] 



3- 3996 
1- SS»8 
3- 8046 



0704 096 1115 147 

3>S 3504 3757 4011 . 

578' 6033 6385 6537 I 

8397 8548 8799 9049 I 

J 0799 104S 1197 1546 179s 3 

i 3=86 .W34 3783 403 4377 4 

3 57S9 6006 6i5» 6499 6745 6 

J 8219 &464 8709 B954 9198 9 



4 '979 "34 3 

4 4S"7 4J7 S 

J 7041 7393 7 

9 9SS 98 



4314 4579 : 

6957 7" 

958s 9846 : 

3196 345* '■ 

4791 5051 

7372 763 

9938 - 

0193 ; 



3743 ■■ 



i 358 38=3 



181 I 3S- 7679 

183 36- 0071 
1S3 36- a4si 

184 . 36- 4818 



79'8 8isS 
031 054S 
36BS 3935 
S054 3»9 
7406 7641 
9746 998 



.,. 6337 . 
8398 B637 ■ 

3 "63 3399 
SS»S JTCi 
7875 811 

3 1446 ' 



187 37- 1S43 3074 3306 3S.33 !.. 

iSa 37- 4158 4389 46J 485 5^' 

189 ■ 37- ^03 6693 6931 7'Si 73S 
100 37- 8754 898J 9311 .^439 9667 • 

190 38- — — — 
19' j3- 1033 1161 1488 
193 38- 3301 3537 3733 
193 I a8- SSS7 55=2 t"? 
■9) ! 38- 7801 8016 8149 
ID* =9- 0035 0357 048 
11* =9- 3as6 3478 3699 
197 39- 44** 4687 4907 
158 : ig- 6665 68S4 7>04 
i« 19- 8853 907' 9*89 



5 3368 361 I 343 
* 479 5031 24a 
3 7198 7439 34' 
S 9594 9K33 '39 
y 1976 3314 338 
) 4346 4583 337 
7 6;o3 6937 335 

3 9046 9279 ! 334 

— — ' "M 

4 1377 '6o>! =.U 
3&]6 39'7 j 233 



' 3'3i 3Jfi* 

' 5S4» S77» 

9 7H38 H067 

0'33 0351 OJ78 0806 ; 

1} 1396 3613 aS*- 

I 4656 4881 5107 5333 

1 6905 71^ 7354 7S78 ; 

9'43 9 ' " ■ 



■wly 




ABTTHMBnC 



seo 


30- ,03 .147 "464 i68. .898 


3.14 =331 =S47 "TO* "98 


31 J 




3P- 3'96 34'= 3*»8 38*4 4059 


64=5 6639 Ms* 706S 7* 


3I6 




y>- 535- 55*6 S7Bi 5996 6=>I 


fft 


■»'3 


30- 7496 77' 79=4 8'37 8351 


8564 8773 8991 9>04 9417 


313 




3f>- 9*'3 9*43 — — — 






«M 


31- — — 0056 0368 0481 


0693 0906 1118 133 .542 




s«s 


31- 1754 t9f6 ='77 3389 =6 


=811 3013 3=J4 3445 3656 




«« 


3'- 3867 407S 4=89 4499 471 


49= S>3 534 555' 576 




307 


3'- 597 6iS 639 6599 6809 


7018 71=7 7436 7646 7854 


309 


■xS 


31- S063 E173 8481 SbHg SS98 


9106 9J14 9S2I 973 9938 


N8 


309 


3=- 0146 03S4 0563 0769 0977 


1184 1391 '598 '805 =011 


307 




3=- 3319 24=6 =633 3839 3046 


3=53 345S 366s 387' 4«>77 


ao6 




31- 41S1 44*^ 4691 4899 S'OS 


53' SS'6 S7=i 59=6 6131 






31- 6336 6s4t 674s 6m 7'JS 


7359 7563 7767 797= 8176 
9398 9601 9S0S - - 


>H 


ai3 


3=- 8.18 8583 8787 8991 9194 


«H 










33- 0(14 t^'T 0819 I013 1335 


14=7 "63 1831 ao34 33j6 






,13- 3438 =64 =S4= 3044 3=46 


3147 j6t9 385 4051 42U 






3.1- 4451 4'555 4856 5057 S=S7 


5458 S65S 5859 6059 636* »>, 


317 


33- 646 6to &S6 706 7=6 


74S9 7659 7SS8 8058 8357 . 300 


3lS 

aiB 


33- S456 S6i6 8855 90H 9=53 945' 965 9849 — " ! =«> 


.14-— — — — — 1— — — 0047 0346 . igg 


319 


34- am t&i» i*)! '039 "37 1435 163= 1B3 =0=3 ===5,198 


S20 


J4- 1413 i6j 1S17 3f"4 3='= iiog -T^* 35oJ 3999 4'96 197 




M- 439a 4589 47-''S 49»i 5'7-'< 5.174 557 57<il' 5*-= 6157 196 




_u- 6,is3 6549 6T44 i-nici ;'-i^ T.U jsjs -;= 7913 st. im 


"3 U- Sjas P5 »«M J^^ SOSJ 9=78 917= 9«6 9S& — IW 


"J JS- — — — ~ — ' — — — — 0OS4 '9* 


ai4 35-0=48 CM= CijO oSaj io;3 I=i6 141 1603 i;g6 19S9 193 


tit '■ 3S- ='S3 =37S sjliS =761 =9>4 3'47 XVS 35.H 37=4 39i6 '93 


3=6 35- 4toS 4J01 J49.1 4(*s 4^:6 "■^ 5=0 S45= s6jj S8J» I*! 


M7 35- 6o=6 6J17 &40S 0599 679 (rtSl Tlji 730,1 7554 7744 191 


»M! ,13- WIS Siis Sj,6 8jo(. £696 SSS6 9076 9^ WS6 9646 . ■« 


3=9 35- V^iS — — — — — — — — — 189 


3=9 .lO- — TOI3 021S 04CH 0593 o;*!^ 0573 iiCi 13J 1539' 1S9 


taO 3^ I7i3 191J aios ==94 =4"= =671 :S.=9 304S 3136 34=4' 188 


aji .to- 3613 3S 393S 4176 4363 455' 47,W 49^ S"3 S3P' . >8S 


«j 3ii- 54SS 5675 stei 6p49 6ij6 &4=,1 001 6796 6983 7169 187 
"it ,!*> 73S<> 754= 7T=9 79'S 8101 S=S7 8473 S659 64|5 903 : iM 


»34 jw- 9="i 9401 95S7 977= OSSS — — — - - ■ 186 


*" 37- — — - — — 0143 03=S O-i'S =«9g 08S3 ' i8s 


=3J! 37- 1=68 1=5.3 1417 i6== i,'<ci6 1991 =i;s =,16 1544 271S >«* 


3J6 17- =9" 3°^ 3=8 J464 3647 .VS31 40'.1 4">S 4jS= 4565 ' i8» 


=37 .17- -I74!< 401= 5"S 5=98 S4S> 5"4 5^6 6019 6..i= 6394 iSj 


'31* .17- *'5:7 Wra 094= 71=4 73<* 74^ 767 -jUsi »>« 8ji6 ' iSa 


'in -.7- ».v)S SsS S76. S9J) 91^ gyA 94S7 96^*9*49 -183 




240 3S. 0211 0391 OJT3 0754 o?34 1115 llrfi 1476 1656 iS;7 t8l 


=41 JS- MI7 =197 =377 1557 3737 =9'7 y^' ,1=77 345^ 36.(6 iSo 


=4= 3S- S^'S ,3995 4174 4,153 4531 47i= 4*7' S'i? 5=49 IJ-'S 179 
»43 ,iS- 56U6 S7'<5 5964 614= 632. 6459 tf77 ('■■<-^6 ^w 7^i= >^ 


"44,3** 739 7S«S 7746 79:3 t"OI Hiji) S4j6 W^ !«ii 89,^9 


178 



ARITHMETIC. 



txl 


• < 3 ] 


« 


S 1 


7 B 


B 


1)^ 


<U 


3R. 9166 93*3 953 9698 987s 


_ _ 


— _ 


TT" 


'77 


28 


jj. _ _ — — 




0051 033S 


040s 0583 


0759 


'77 


39. 093s >it> 1383 1464 
39- !i697 s873 3048 3114 


.<i,. 


1817 "993 


3169 334s 


353. 


.76 


a»7 


34 


3575 37S> 




4377 


■76 


a«8 


39- 6'99 W* 6548 &7M 


5159 


53»6 55°' 


5676 585' 


6«5 


'75 


149 


685»S 


7071 7345 


7419 7593 


7766 


'74 


»• 


39- 79« 8114 8187 8461 


8634 


S808 S981 


9'S4 9^8 


9501 


'73 


aji 


39- 9*74 98+7 — - 










'73 


»S> 


40- — — OM 0191 


0365 


0538 07.. 


0BS3 .056 






95a 


40- 140I IS73 "743 '917 


30B9 


3361 3433 


3605 3777 


3949 




35J 


40- 31JI 3»9» 3464 3635 

40- 4834 s™s 5170 5340 


3807 


3978 4'49 


439 449a 


4t£3 


'7' 


1=54 


S5>7 


568B 5«S8 


6039 6199 6J7 




»* 


4P- 654 671 6381 70S> 


ffl 


739' 7561 


773' 7901 


807 


'70 


356 


40- 814 841 8S79 8749 


90B7 9>S7 


9496 9595 


97641 169 




40- 9933 — — — 










169 


«S7 


4. oioj 0271 044 


oCo, 


0777 0946 


.1.4 1283 


■45' 


.69 


J58 


,.- ,63 ,78a '9^ aiM 
4'- 33 3467 3035 3803 


9393 


346. 3639 


3796 3964 




iCS 


*S9 


397 


4137 4J05 


447= 4639 


48^ 


,67 


9I» 


4<- 4973 3'4 S3P7 5474 


564' 


5808 sg74 


6141 6308 


£474 


<67 


361 


4.- 664r 6807 6)7J 7'33 


7306 


7473 7638 


7804 797 




.66 


aba 


4- 8,J. 8467 86S3 8798 8964 


9139 9395 


946 9635 


979" 


'65 


163 


4<-99S6 - - - 










■65 


3^ 


43- - on. a>a6 <HSt 


0616 


0781 094s 






■6S 


aS 


4a- 1604 1768 19JJ 9097 


336l 


9436 359 


2754 2918 


3082 


'64 


»• 


43- 3946 3*1 3574 3737 
43- 48S3 sots S3o8 537' 


3901 


406s 4328 


4393 4555 


4718 


164 


a66 


5534 


S697 S86 


6^3 6i86 


6j49 


■63 


a67 


43- 6511 6674 MsS 6999 


7.61 


7334 7486 7648 7811 




16a 


>6S 


43- 8.JS 8397 8459 Sfci, 


8783 


8944 9106 


9168 9439 


959' 


l63 


«59 


43- 97S» 99'4 — — 












XS9 


43. _ - 0075 0336 


0398 


OS59 073 






j6i 


*:o 


43- 1364 "595 '68s '846 


30o; 


a.67 3328 


2488 3649 


3809 




T' 


4J- 9969 313 399 345 


36' 


377 393 






160 




43- 4569 4739 4888 S043 




5367 5536 5685 5844 6004 




aji 


43- 6'63 6333 6481 6fi| 




6957 7116 


7375 7413 


759= 


"59 


"74 


43- 77S> 79^ 8367 8336 




8543 8701 


8859 9017 


9' 75 


'S8 


>I» 


43- 9333 949' 96*8 9806 


99^ 








'5? 


IS 












158 


S76 


44- 0909 iofi6 1394 '381 


.S]3 


■ 69i .H53 




9.1=3 


'57 


^ 


44- 348 3637 3793 39s 


3106 . 3j6j 3419 


3576 373= 


3S89 


157 


44- 4045 430' 4357 45"3 


4669 48=5 498' 






156 


"79 


44- S6iH 576 S9'5 6071 


6236 


6jS3 6537 


6*91 6848 


7003 


"53 


180 


44' 8706 886' 9015 917 


7778 


793,1 80S8 


8^42 8.197 


855= 




381 




947» 9633 9787 9941 




154 


aSi 












154 


081 


45- 0349 0403 05S7 0711 
45- 1786 194 9093 3347 


0865 




.326 .479 


•GjJ 




38.1 




25SJ 2706 


3859 3013 


3'6S 


■S3 


aB4 


45- 3J'8 347' 3634 3777 


393 


40S3 4^35 


4387 «4 


4692 


'S3 


SS( 






S6o6 5758 


591 6063 






aB6 


45- 6jlM 6518 667 6S11 
45- 7& 8033 8.84 8336 


6973 


7125 7Jj6 


7438 7579 


773' 


15= 


S 


3487 


8638 8789 804 909" 




'S' 


45- 939* 9543 9*94 984S 










aSS 


— 1 0146 0396 


0447 0597 


0748 




"B» 


46- («pB tOtS >.98 .348 


HiVj 1649 1799 


,948*^ 




\"^ 


35" 


• ' * t 











ARITUMBTIC. 



I 46- 2.198 1S48 2697 

46- 3893 43W 4'9» 

1 I 46- sjSj ssj» s6» 

I < 46- 6Sb8 7016 7164 

I ; 46- 8347 8«5 8643 

i I 46- 981a 9969 — 



.J9» '43S .583 

2756 J903 3049 

41 16 4,161 4508 

5671 5816 sg6a 

7121 7166 7411 

8s66 8711 8Sss 

0007 0151 039t 



4B- STSI s^j 600s 

' 7138 73S 74»' 

Sss. 869J S833 



2847 a997 
434 449 
SSaa S977 
73" 746 
879 8so8 



3146 3196 
4639 478S 
6116 6174 
7608 7756 
908s 9^33 



»43 3S9t 3744 

4936 sons «4 

^3 0371 67I9 

7904 Sosa 8j 

9j3 9s»7 967s 



173a 1878 
3'9S 3M' 
4^ 4799 
6107 6ija 

7SSS 77 
8999 9>43 
0438 osSi 
1 871 30l6 
33" 3445 
4727 4869 
6147 6289 
7S63 7704 
8974 9114 



OSS7 "Tttf o8si 0998 II4S 

3<»S 317' »3'8 34^ »i 

3487 ^33 3779 3)1$ 407' 

4au JK>9 533s 5381 S5a6 

6687 6S33 6976 

S133 8273 8423 

ISJI 9719 9*3 

loi: 1156 1199 

344S 35S8 373' 

387a 401s 4'S7 



6J97 6hj e 

7844 7989 s 

9*87 9431 9 



6* J 6571 
7S4S -9S6 
9=55 939^ 



I 5=95 S+37 5S79 

67 r4 6SSS 6997 

8127 8269 841 

9517 9677 9818 



0099 0239 033 051 0661 oSoi ixni 



49" ij6a 1502 1(142 178; 19J2 , 2o6; :x<x 

49- 276 39 304 3>79 33>9 13453 3597 

JO- ji«< iXii iiii i^-!i d7ii ' iSs 4989 

.:^33 t'ilf- 



I 49- 693 706S 7X16 

i ; 49- 83" 8448 8586 

> 49- 96S7 9S14 95*» 



5S6 6099 
7344 7483 
8;z4 8363 ■ S999 9137 9275 9,13 955 



1,141 =481 2611 ' 140 

3737 3S76 4015 "39 

5128 5267 54(*, 139 

6513 «33 6J9' "J9 

7S97 S035 S173 138 



317 50- 10S9 "96 "333 "47 '607 

31S 50- 2417 25(14 27 1837 2973 . 

3"9 50- 3791 3937 4063 4199 433S ■ 

»" . SO- S'S 5^36 5421 5557 5693 

331 ■ so- 6305 6&4 G;7« 6911 7046 

333 SO- 7856 7991 S126 826 S395 

333 50- 9J03 9337 9*7' 9606 974 



5828 5964 
TiSi ;ii6 
853 t«54 



3=4 S'- 0545 0*79 0813 0947 "o8i ■ 



J 49*6 5079 Sin ,VW4 

} bi;i 6403 65.55 C063 

759' 77-4 TSsS 7987 

J S909 904 9171 9303 



- 7 -96 73=3 7 

- Ssu B646 8 
■ 9838 99S9 



; «3J 

064S o;8s 0933 137 

2017 3IS4 3391 : 137 

3.1S: 35'8 365s 1^ 

4743 4S78 50'4 Kfi 

6099 6334 637 136 

7451 75S& 7721 13s 

8799 8934 90M I '35 

^-^ ^_ -^ I ;-» 

14S; i5i6 17s 134 
oSiS 2951 30S4 133 
4145 *f^ ■;4'5l>3J 
5476 !.Ck9 S74I ■ 133 
63 tvjjj 7064 13a 
8119 ,Si5i 8333,133 
9134 9566 9697 , 131 



.ID SJ- =14*4 2573 3705 = 
JLit JJ- JU6 jS,-6 4006 4 



; 0745 0S76 1007 131 

! 2053 2.83 3114 13' 

* 3356 34*l> 3&16 130 

& ^6* :^^as 4 



49'S I IJ 



ARITHUSTIC. 



8IS [ 5"- SO*S 



S"74 5304 5434 SSO 
6469 6598 6727 6S51 

" "-.6 81+ 



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7 54.11 SS5S 5678 5S03 

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7"S9 7:81 71'.'5 75=9 7<',-2 ' 

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4 S»'S 5336 5457 5578 I S099 5«3 KH OUit OiHi 1 
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17 7627 77+8 7S6S 7983|Sio8 ^-':8 S,i,1 S^(/) tJs-^ 
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966 O0S4 (aal 633 I O437 OJ55 &j;i •■■7-V 
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57- 1709 1825 194a J058 s 



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S7- 4031 



0076 O103 03^ 0426 

S 1343 '3.=i9 '4/6 159= 

1 2407 ^5=3 ^39 =75S 

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■ 57- 7«» 7607 77" 78.16 795' 1 

, 57- WJP 8734 886B SgSj 9097 | 



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1953 ao;3 ::i03 = 

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1 7Sti7 T'JyJ 

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4347 4ju!l . 4+1; 

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571 36'>> J«3 3 

049 617: tiirfi (I 

iSi 7405 TSjg 7 

512 SO.-^ S7ifl K 
735 9*J» 9>'*4 

9&3 10S4 13^6 I 



3944 



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S4'') ^5^9 ■ 
9t'^7 K>^; 



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a65 3769.2887 
3837 3953 i 4074 
SMI S139 5=S7 
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7379 7497 | J^U 
«S5* 867' I S7S3 
9735 984a 9959 

0893 loi 
acisB B174 : 

3" 333s ; 



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J 94:8 954S 

<*i4 0743 OSi.! ^'9S; 

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419= 43H 44?) 454S 

SJJU 5151 S'-i'-! 573 

•JSSS &JJ3 ";)i OjJ? 

7733 7849 7967 S^ 

8903 »«3 9'4 9-37 

oojO 0193 03i)<j cjai 

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I 1407 =5=3 =035 =755 

1 3S<>S 36S4 3S 391s 

47=0 4S4I 



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AUTHH 

a 1 * t 4 


BTIC. «^ 

S « T J 9 


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tia 
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106 

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393 
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399 

403 


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58- 0935 I039 '>53 "67 '381 
58- 3063 '>»77 »»9' •404 «5"8 
S8- 3'99 33" 34"6 3539 305" 
S8- 4331 4444 4557 467 4783 
58- S461 SS74 sMS CJ99 3913 
58- 6587 67 6B13 6935 TO7 

SS- 883a 8944 MB 9*7 9»79 


jSti 374s 3858 1973 3085 
3W 3879 399" 4>05 4318 
4*96 5009 5™ S«S S34« 
6»4«WfaS «S3fa6»7S 

£^ a §2 SS S^ 

939' 9S03 SP'S 97^6 9ltfi 


S9- — 0061 0173 taB^ oxfi 

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59- 3386 i397 Sa 3618 37*9 
59- 4393 4503 4614 47»4 4834 
59- 5496 5606 5717 5837 5937 
59- 6S97 6707 M'7 69>7 7037 
59- 71595 7805 79'4 8034 8134 
59- (^. 89 goog giig 9338 


0507 0619 073 0843 09S3 
1611 1733 >a«3 19SS !»a66 
3733 3843 3954 30&1 3175 
384 39S 4061 4'7> 43g 

7.46 T'SH 7366 7476 7586 
8243 835J &i(a 8573 S6S1 
9337 94^ 9556 9665 9774 


60- — — oioi 03I 0319 
60-0973 "oSa "9" 1299 'V^ 
&>- 306 3169 3377 3386 3494 
60- 31*4 3*53 336" 3469 3577 
60- 4136 4334 4443 455 4658 


0438 OS37 0646 07SS 0864 
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160J 3711 3819 2928 3036 
3686 3794 39=" 40" 4..8 

6919 7026 7133 7341 7343 

7991 8093 820s 8312 8,19 
9061 9167 9274 ft38i 9(SS 


407 
406 
409 
410 
4" 
4" 
413 
414 

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tit 

4>9 
410 
433 
4>3 


6<- 066 0767 0873 0979 >o86 
61- 1733 »839 .9^ 3042 3148 

61- 3784 389 39S«5 3>" 3»7 
61- 3843 3917 4053 4159 4364 

6|. 39S 605s 616 6265 637 
61- 7 710S Til 73ts 74a 
61- 8048 8.S3 8357 8363 8466 
^- 9°93 9198 9303 9406 95i> 


0138 0134 0341 (H47 "SSI 
119a 1398 1405 15" '^1; 
3254 2j6 3466 3573 267S 

33'3 3419 3535 363 37j6 
437 447S 4S8' 46S6 4792 

a? IIS a 1^ S! 

7535 7629 7734 7839 7943 
8S7' 8676 873 B884 B989 
961s 97'9 98>^ 99^ — 


63- 0136 034 0344 044S 0552 
63- ..76 138 1384 ■488 .593 
fa- 3314 3318 3431 353J 3638 

63- 3*49 33S3 3456 3559 3«3 
63- 4382 4385 4488 4591 469s 

£§;■§« assist 

6^-066 7468 ?57i 7673 777S 


0656 076 oB6| 0968 .072 
169s 1799 1903 »«J7 an 
3733 383s 3939 3043 3146 

3:« 3869 3973 4076 4'79 
5837 5939 6033 6135 623S 
68J3 6956 7058 7161 7363 
78^ 79S 8083 SiSs 8187 






I « 1 » » 





ABtTHHETIC. 



te- 8389 8491 859. 
*»- 941 9S>a 961. 



«3- "457 
63-3468 
63- 4477 
63- S484 



i66 3761 3862 

367 377' 387a 

4679 4779 48S 

s6Ss S78s sSS6 

b6e8 6789 68S9 

769 779 789 



1 


B489 8589 8689 8789 8883 
94S6 9S86 9686 978s 9885 


0481 osSi 
1474 i573 
"465 =563 


068 


0779 


SF 




34S3 3SS' 36^ 
4439 4S37 4636 

^ IS fi" 

■7383 7481 7579 


3749 3847 
4734 483' 

7676 7774 


t 


836 
9335 


8458 8555 8653 875 
9t3i 953 9617 97=4 



89 9001 9104 9106 93ci8- i 

9919 — — — 

— OMi 01J3 0334 

0936 103S 1139 1141 

I9SI 3051 3153 335s 

3963 3064 316s 3*66 

3973 4074 4'7S 4376 



5'a3 5 



59B6 60S7 6187 6387 

69S9 7089 7189 7»9 

799 Bog 819 839 

898S 9088 918S 9387 



02S3 038; 
1376 137; 



3 040s 0503 0599 0696 
3 "373 1473 >S69 ><*^ 
5 3343 =44 35j& 3633 



65- 609S 6194 629 

65- 7036 7153 7347 7343 743S 



6s- 8965 9c6 915s 9^5 



66- 1813 1907 J003 2096 2191 

66. 275S 3853 39,7 3041 3135 , 

66- 3701 2T0S 38«9 3983 4078 . 

66- 4642 I7j6 483 4934 soiS ; 

66- 5581 567s 5769 SS62 5956 ■ 

*5" 7453 7546 764 7733 7826 ■ 

66- 8386 8479 N57» 8^5 ^759 ■' 

66- 9317 94' 9503 9596 9^ ' 



5 4044 4143 4241 434 

1 5029 5127 S»*6 5334 

3 6011 611 630S 6306 

4 6992 7089 J1S7 7285 

2 '969 £067 8165 8263 

3 S91S 9043 9"4 9»37 
I 9919 — — 

— 0016 0H3 

3 089 0987 1084 I 

3 1859 1956 1053 aij 

3836 2933 3019 3116 



1 04S6 0581 0676 0771 
9 '434 '5^ 1633 17'8 
6 238 »47S 2569 2663 

3324 3418 3S12 3607 

3 4266 436 4454 4548 

2 SM* 5399 S393 548; 
6143 6237 6331 6 

5 7079 7173 7266 7 

8013 8106 8199 8293 

2 894s 9038 9131 923^ 

> 9875 'ff<l — — \ Hi 
— — a* Q\t,T,\ <i-i 
oSoi liB^s -xfHt. vH* \ 1^ 
56 173a \6ai lya 3no&\^ 



AIUTIIUBTIC. 



410 67- 3098 3 
471 fij- 30" 3 
473 I ^T 3W= 4 



33S3 «J5 ^467 ! 

} 3»S 3^7 339 : 

i 4ia6 411H 431 i 

J SOH 5137 Sm8 J 

596J 60SJ 6i4S < 



, 67- 6694 G785 6S-fi 6 

■ 67- 7^7 769s 77S9 ; 

< 67. (jjiS S6og E7 8 

I 67- 94:8 9519 S*' 97 979' 

0436 0517 0607 0698 < 

133* i*=a 1513 "603 

3 "37 3"7 33 '7 M°7 . 

4037 4"7 4i"7 4307 ■ 

4935 5<»S S"4 S»l . 

■dS I 68- S741 SS31 59" *" *' 

486 68- eejG 6726 6815 6904 6994 

487 ■ 68- 7SJ9 7618 7707 7796 iSao 

488 68- 841 KS09 a^gS 8637 8776 

489 I 68- 9309 939S 94S6 957S 9664 



482 63- 3047 

483 : 68- 3917 

484 : 68- 4845 



a 2744 3836 igag j « 
4 3666 3753 J85 \m 

4 4SS6 4677 4769 '5 
a 5503 5S9S S6S7 91 

3 6419 6511 (j6o2 I 9a 

» 73J3 7414 7S"6 91 

4 8j45 SJ36 8437 91 
4 9'SS 9=46 9337 9> 

OC63 0154 oi4s . 9t 
9 (^7 106 iiji I 91 

4 "874 I^ M35 90 

6 277J 2867 S9S7 I 91, 

7 3677 3767 3857 I go 
6 4S76 46** 4756 ; 90 
3 S473 5563 5631 90 



SS6S S953 9041 9'3 



0639 P7=S oSi6 0905 01593 : Sg 



492 I 69- '96s 2 

493 j 69- 2847 ' 

494 . 69- 3727 3 

tB3 69- 4605 4 

496,69- 5482 5 

497 69. 6356 6 

495 69- 7139 7 



3 3143 3^3 3318 

S 3°'3 J"" 3"99 

5 390J 399' 4073 

3 47S1 4868 495'' ' 5044 5'3' 5 
9 5657 5744 5^y 59'9 6007 6 

4 6s3i 6618 6706 &re3 683 6 
7 7404 749' 7S78 7665 77S' 7 
a Bjjs Kj6a B449 85JS 8623 8 



uO.I 70- 319 

SP6 70- 41s 



9057 9'44 9>3' 9317 

J 9934 — ~ ~ 

t 079 0S77 0963 lOS 

5 1654 1741 1827 1913 

I 2317 2603 26S9 a77S 

' 3377 3463 3S49 36,15 

1 4336 43^3 44«i 449» 

■S S094 .1179 S>6S 535 

4 S949 U133 613 6306 

8 tiBoj 6SSS 6974 7059 

76SS 774 7826 7911 

I Syid 8591 8676 8761 

93SS 9» 95^ 9609 



941H 9491 957S 9'J64 9751 . 87 

— — — — — 87 

i 0444 05.11 (617 87 

» '309 1395 HSj S6 

i 3171 3J5S -344 I 86 

J 3033 3'"9 3»>S ■ 86 



4579 466s 

S436 55" 

6291 G376 

7144 73»9 

7996 8081 

8S46 S931 

S^ 9779 



rata 1133 1317 '30' 



3893 3979 4065 . 86 

475' 4837 49»2 86 

5607 5693 577B 86 

^463 6547 (1633 8j 

TJ'S 74 7485 85 

81G6 8351 8336 8i 

901S 91 9185 I 8s 

9863 9948 — I 85 

— — 0033 I Ss 

071 0794 0879 85 
>5W **■» na^\^ 



. 7>* >^ '^ '97^ 3°^ ' 

I 71- 365 3734 aSiS 39M a 

S 3659 374a 3 

* 4497 4S8i 4 

' 5335 M18 i 

- 6003 6087 617 6354 6 

- 6838 6911 7004 708S J 
. - 7671 7754 7837 79J 8 
71- Bsoa 858s 8t«J 87SI a 
71- 933' <M"4 9497 958 5 



;- 0159 0242 0325 0407 049 

I- 0986 io63 1151 1233 1316 

I- i3ii 1893 197s aojS 214 

I- a634 2716 279S 2881 2963 

I- 3456 3538 363 3701 3784 

I- 4276 435S 444 45'2 4604 

- 5095 5176 5=58 531 S423 

- S9"3 5993 6075 6156 6238 
;- 673; 6809 685 &)7a 7053 
1- 754' 7633 7704 ■'■'SS 7866 



32»9 2313 3397 SI481 3^ 

30; 3'S4 3"38 33^3 3407 

391 3994 4078 4i6» 4346 

4749 4833 49'6 5 5084 

SS86 5669 SJS3 S83S S9» 

6431 6504 6588 6671 6754 

7154 7338 74»' 7504 7587 

8086 Si6f, 8253 8336 S419 

8917 9 908J 9165 9*48 

9745 9S38 99" 9994 — 
— — — — 0077 

0573 <*5S 0738 oSai 0903 

1398 14S1 1563 1646 1728 

3333 2305 33B7 3469 3553 

3045 3'>7 3309 3291 3374 

3866 3948 403 4"3 4-94 



4685 4767 4849 
5503 5585 5667 
633 6401 6483 
7134 7316 7297 
7948 8029 811 



493' 50'3 
5748 583 
6564 6646 



i 0378 0459 054 t^si 0703 

"' latA 1347 1428 1508 

2073 2153 3233 2313 

; 3596 2S76 2956 3037 3117 

■ 3598 3^79 3759 3839 3919 

44B 456 464 473 

5'79 5359 5439 5519 

3 607S 6157 &337 6317 



;- 6397 6476 6356 663s 6715 

i- 7"93 7171 7353 7431 7511 

I- 7987 8067 8146 8335 830s 

I- 8781 386 8939 9018 9097 

;- 9573 9651 9731 98' 9889 

,- 0363 044a 0521 06 0678 

.- IJS3 133 1309 1388 1467 

,- 1939 3018 J096 2175 =254 

- 3735 3804 2882 2961 3039 

- 351 358S 3&67 3743 3823 



6874 6954 7°34 7113 

767 7749 7839 7908 

8463 B543 S623 K7QI 

9356 9335 9414 9493 



0757 0836 0915 09J4 107J 

.546 I6J4 1703 WSa 18O 

3332 3411 3489 2568 2647 

3118 31^ 3275 3353 3431 

3903 3'^ 4058 4"30 431S 

4684 4762 484 49'9 Vfn \ 1- 
5465 6543 S^^ tf^ ^m\i* 
6245 6313 (1401 bt,-n *^'^\'V' 
70J3 iioi -!i^^ lasfa Ti^\'»\ 

78 ^^^9, toss a°3a ^^'^ \ JZ 



ARITHMETIC. 



7S- >8.6 
7S- 3583 
7S- 43*8 
7S- S"" 
o- 5875 
75-*6j6 
75- 735* 
7S- B.5S 
75- S9H 



74- Bias 

M- 8963 
74- 9736 



8066 8343 8431 8«0B 
go* 9118 9199 9*7* 
9814 9891 99« — 



7S- 0508 0586 066] OJ4 0817 
7S- "79 '35* '433 >S' 'S?? 



aS93 297 
3» 3736 
4435 4SO' 
5189 sa6s 

6713 67SS 
747» 7548 
Baj 8306 
8988 9063 



n79 «3^ 

3047 3"3 

38m ^ 

4578 4654 

S34I 54'7 

6103 618 
£864. 694 

76»4 77 

838a 84^ 

9'39 *"4 



i"8 9743 93'9 9894 997 
'16- 0431 0498 OS73 o6|9 0714 



f^ 


3C»J 


1078 
>8i9 


ai53 


»97B 




3503 3S78 3653 37»7 
♦•SI 43*5 « 447S 
4998 5D7" 5'47 S"I 


J.S6JS 
J^ 9377 


T'i 
945" 


8786 886 
95»5 9599 


2tS 



77- oiis 0189 <m6j 0J36 041 

1653 0936 0999 1073 "4fi 

S87 1661 1734 180B iSSi 

ijM 3395 3468 3543 3615 

POJS 3138 yxn 3374 3348 

1786 3S6 3933 40^ 4079 



77- 4S"7 
77- 5=46 

77- 5974 
77- 6701 



6™ 78- - 
_ Av/7S- JOJ7 1 



459 4663 47,16 4809 
S3'9 539" 5465 5538 
6047 613 6193 6365 
6774 6S46 6919 6993 
7499 7573 7^ 77'7 
S334 8396 83G8 8441 
8947 9019 9°9' 9'63 
(^69 9741 9S13 988s 



^5> 



01*3 ca 0077 03S4 0431 
[«94 0971 1048 ii>5 laoa 
1G64 1741 1818 1895 1973 



3906 4043 4 
473 4807 4 
5494 557 S 



777S 7851 
8533 8609 
9>9 93(6 



6|o8 &(84 « 
71M 7344 7 
7937 8003 8 
S685 8;6i 8 
944» 95>7 9 



0045 0131 

0799 0875 

>S5» '&"7 • 

3303 =378 3 

3DS3 3"8 3 

380a 3S77 

455 4634 

5296 537 



39Sa 4017 4 
4^ 4774 4848 
5445 553 5594 



6785 6859 6933 7007 7083 

7537 7601 7675 7749 7833 

8368 8343 8416 B49 8564 

9008 goBa 9156 913 9303 

9746 983 9894 95« 

— — — — e . 

0*84 0557 0631 070s 077S 



3(68 3763 
3431 3494 
4153 4335 

48S3 49SS 
S6> 5683 
6338 641 1 
7t64 7'37 
7789 78&1 

8s'3 85S5 S 
9336 9308 9 
9957 ~ 



3103 3175 3348 

383s 3908 29S1 

3^ 364 37'3 

4393 437' 4 

5038 5" 5 

5756 5839 5, 

6483 6556 6639 

7309 7383 73S4 I 

7934 8m^ 8079 



) oioi or73 0345 
) 0831 oSqi oq6s [ . 
& \^ All \tguv\ 



ARITHMETIC. 



43 



7«- »755 

78- 2473 
78- 3189 

78- 3904 
78- 4617 

78- 5J3 
78- 6041 
78- 6751 
78- 746 
78- 8x68 

78- 8875 

78- 9581 

79- — 
79- 0285 
79- 0988 
79- 1691 



1837 

2544 
326 

3975 
4689 

5401 
6iia 
6823 

7531 
8239 

8946 
9651 



1899 
2616 

333a 

4046 

476 

547a 
6183 

6893 
7602 

831 

9016 

9723 



1971 3043 

2688 3759 

3403 3475 

4x18 4189 

483X 4902 

5543 5615 

6254 6325 

6964 7035 

7673 7744 

838X 8451 

9087 9157 

9792 9863 



79- 2392 
79- 3092 
79- 379 
79- 4488 
79- 5185 
79- 588 

79- 6574 
79- 7268 

79- 796 
79- 8651 

79- 9341 

80- 0029 

80- 0717 
80 X404 
80 2089 

80- 2774 

80- 3457 
80- 41.39 
80- 4821 
80- 5501 

80- 618 
80- 6858 

80- 7535 
80- 821 I 

80- 8886 

86- 956 
8:- — 

81- 0233 
81- 0904 

81- 1575 
81- 2245 

81- 2913 
81- 3581 
81- 4248 
8j- 491J 



0356 0426 0496 0567 
1059 1 129 X199 1269 
X76X X831 1901 1971 

2462 2532 2602 2672 
3162 3231 3301 3371 

386 393 4 407 
4558 4627 4697 4767 

5254 5324 5393 5463 

5949 6019 6088 6158 

6644 6713 6782 6852 

7337 7406 7475 7545 

8029 8098 8167 8236 

872 8789 8858 8927 

9409 9478 9547 9616 
CXD98 0167 0236 0305 
0786 0854 0923 0992 
1472 1541 1609 1678 
2158 2226 2295 2363 

2842 291 2979 3047 

3525 3594 3662 373 

4208 4276 4344 4412 

4889 4957 5025 5093 

5569 5637 5705 5773 

6248 6316 6384 6451 

6926 6994 7o6x 7129 

7603 767 7738 7806 

8279 8346 8414 8481 

8953 9021 9088 9156 

9627 9694 9762 9829 



A'o. 



03 0367 0434 0501 

0971 X039 1 106 1 1 73 

1642 1709 1776 1843 

2312 2379 2445 2512 

298 3<^47 3"4 3181 

3648 3714 3781 3848 

4314 4381 4447 4514 

498 5046 51x3 5179 

5644 57" 5777 5S43\59^ 



3x14 2x86 3358 3339 340X 73 

2831 3903 3974 3046 31x7 73 

3546 36x8 368^ 3761 3833 71 

4261 4333 4403 4475 4546 71 

4974 5045 5"6 5x87 5259 71 

5686 5757 5828 5899 597 71 

6396 6467 6538 6609 668 71 

7x06 7x77 7248 73x9 739 71 

78x5 7885 7956 8027 8098 71 

8522 8593 8663 8734 8804 7» 

9228 9299 9369 944 951 71 

9933 — — — — 70 

— 0004 0074 0x44 0215 70 
0637 0707 0778 0848 0918 70 
134 14X X48 X55 X62 70 
204X 21 XX 2i8x 3252 2322 70 

2742 28x2 2882 2953 3022 70 

3441 35" 3581 3651 3721 70 

4139 4209 4279 4349 44x8 70 

4836 4906 4976 504s 5XX5 70 

5532 5602 5672 574 X 581 X 70 

6227 6297 6366 6436 6505 69 

6921 699 706 7129 7198 69 

7614 7683 7752 782 X 789 69 

8305 8374 8443 8513 8582 69 

8996 9065 9134 9203 9272 69 

9^5 9754 9823 9892 9961 69 

0373 0442 051 X 058 0648 69 

1061 X129 XX98 X266 X335 69 

1747 X815 XS84 1952 2021 69 

2432 25 2568 2637 2705 69 

31x6 3184 3252 3321 3389 68 

3798 3867 3935 4003 4071 68 

448 4548 4616 4685 4753 68 

5 161 5229 5297 5365 5433 68 

584X 5908 5976 6044 61x2 68 

6519 6587 6655 6723 679 68 

7197 7264 7332 74 7467 68 

7873 7941 8008 807^ 8143 68 

8549 86x6 8684 87s X 88x8 67 

9223 929 9358 9425 9492 67 

9896 9964 — — — 67 

— — 003X 0098 0x65 67 
0569 0636 0703 077 0837 67 
X24 X307 X374 X44X X508 67 

191 1977 2044 2XIX 2178 67 

2579 2646 2713 278 2847 67 

3247 3314 33SI 3448 3514 67 

3914 3981 4048 4x14 4'8x I 67 
45^1 ^6^1 an'iiv M*^ «^V\V^, 
S^iAb s:?^^'* ^:S1^ ^\N't> ^V'^^^ 



^Cf^ ^f^ ^v^ ^\'\%\ 



UL 



AUTHMBnC. 





> 1 4 


t « r 1 


9 


81 


tux 6jj3 6j74 6h 6306 


6573 «,» 6?J5 6771 


6838 




69^ <i97 T036 7'0> -Idg 


7:3s 7JOI 73^ 743J 


7499 




;S65 76J. 7698 77<4 783 


jSt* 7961 JtoiS Sow 


816 


Si 


Si* S39J S^sS S414 iiw 


SJSS K^J ««S 8754 






*«s S9S> 90'7 90SJ 9'« 


9=.S 9=Si 93(6 94ti 


9478 




9SM 56< 56:6 974, 9807 


9''73 99TO — — 




Si 




— — (X&4 007 


0136 




f^i orf7 Oiu <>J99 0(64 


053 OJ9S t<*> 07=7 


0791 


Si 


oSjS o>>J4 f^?** 'f*SS '" 


11S6 1=51 1317 ijSJ 


144S 


<t2 


IJ14 1579 i6*S IT> I77S 


.4(1 ,gc6 .971 ;oj7 


1103 


Us 


uW =3.13 i;« Jjft4 =4J 


149s =5* =6=6 3691 


37Sf> 




=Sji iWy 1951 JoiH 30Sj 


3143 3='3 3^79 3344 


3V^ 


S3- 


3)74 3S39 y*>S ^^7 37.1S 


33 3St>5 3^3 3We 


4061 




+116 4191 4i5'i 43"! 43M. 


+43' 4SIO 4JSI A^-i 




Sj 


477^ 4''+' 4)06 4-)7> Wie 


Sioi 5.K, ji,i 5:96 


1^' 



67J S.-. 7369 7414 7499 7563 7j;3 



* W3= 94^7 SSUt 



SIS' SSiS 


sss 


5945 6oi 


(WW 6461 


6wS 


6i93 «SS 


















CSj' Si95 




Oil] 


9175 9»39 


96=55^9 


97H 


t-<.S 9*S> 



t79 '*3- "3 "9* ' 



t*2 ij. ■ 

6S3 S3- ; 

«4 Sj-J 

»«5 »3- ' 

686 Si- I 

687 !<3- ! 
(Bi *j- ■ 
689 il3-! 



'573 =*37 s? =7*4 



:-ri' ?*W4 'MJ 07=9 ^79- 



;;03 .-;i50 t.j 



I- 3^33 yr>s 

I- 3>5S 39'S 
1- 4477 4539 



4601 4«14 47A J 



^J- 6U7 6]t]9 6 
'- TS-j 76 » 7* 



a O711* 677 6S31 t*9i 

4 -jA -JWA IM^ -.i\\ 
li 79*3 *ur>4 *»«fc *\a*. 





ARITHMETIC. 




Na 




5 e 7 ■ 


D 


fM 


at> 8189 &>5< 83" 8374 8435 


8497 8559 863 8683 8743 


63 


70A 


B,r 8865 8866 8928 8989 90Si 


,9113 9'74 9335 9»97 9358 


61 


707 


8«- 9419 9(8r 954» 9604 9665 


9726 97SS 9849 99" 9972 


61 


70B 


8s- oojj 009s ois6 M17 M79 


034 0401 0463 0534 0585 




709 


Ss- o6«6 0707 0769 083 089. 


0933 ,0,4 '■J75 "36 1197 


6j 


IW 


85- 115B 13a 1381 IMJ 1303 


1361 1625 .686 .747 >8o9 


6. 


71 J 


8s- 1B7 19J> 199a ^Si a>"4 


2,75 3336 3297 3338 3419 


61 


71a 


Ss- 14S IS*' 16™ 2663 3714 


2783 3846 3907 396S 3039 


61 


T^S 


8s- 309 3'5 3»" ;l»7" 33J3 


3391 3453 35'6 3577 3637 


61 


714 


8i- 3698 3759 38a 3881 3941 


4«a 4063 4,14 4,85 4345 


61 


Tit 


85- 4306 4367 4438 4,88 4549 


461 467 473' 4793 4853 


6r 


716 




5I'6 5277 5337 5398 5459 


61 


717 


8s- SS'9 558 564 S70I 3761 


5823 5B83 5913 6003 6064 


61 


718 


85-6.34 618s 6345 6J06 C366 


6437 6487 6548 6608 6668 




719 


8s- 6729 6789 685 69. 697 


703' 709' 7'Sa 7213 7272 


60 


7td 


85- 7332 7393 7453 7S"3 7S74 


7634 7694 7755 78,5 7875 


60 


731 


Ss- 7935 7995 8056 S116 S176 


8236 8297 8357 84.7 8477 


60 


jaa 


8S- 8S37 8597 S637 8718 8778 


8S38 8893 8938 90'a 9078 


60 


7=3 


85- 9>33 9'93 9358 931S 9379 


9439 9499 9559 ^"i 9679 


60 


734 


85- 9739 9799 9859 99"8 9978 




60 


T»4 


se- — — — — — 


0038 0098 0,58 03,8 0278 


60 


»S 


86- 0338 0398 0458 OJ18 0378 


0637 0697 07S7 o8r7 0877 


(So 


7=6 


86.c^„o995 .056 .1.6 -.76 


i3,j6 129s 1353 ■4'5 '475 


60 


7>7 


86. 1334 ,594 "Sjl '714 1773 


'833 1893 '952 3011 2072 


& 


738 


86- 3131 2igi 315I 231 137 


243 2489 3549 2608 2663 


60 


739 


86- S7J8 27S7 S847 =9°6 =966 


3023 3083 3'44 3204 3263 


60 


!S« 


86- 33'3 3,182 3443 3501 3561 


363 368 3739 37'W 3S58 




731 


86- 3917 3977 403S 4096 4135 


43,4 4274 4333 439a 4452 


59 


73> 


86- 4311 4ST 463 46S9 474S 


4S08 4S6J 4926 4985 504s 


59 


733 


86. 5104 5163 5123 3282 5341 


54 S4S9 S5I9 SS78 5637 




734 


86- S696 S75S S8t+ 5874 5933 


5992 6051 611 6,69 632S 


59 


I8G 


86- 6:37 634O 6405 6,65 6534 


65S3 6642 6701 676 68,9 


59 


73^ 


86-6Sj8 6937 6996 7«5S 7m4 


7>73 7232 7291 735 7409 


59 


737 


86- 7467 7536 7585 7644 770J 


7762 7831 783 7939 7998 


59 


738 


86- 805& Sus K174 8333 MJ93 


835 S409 B46S 8527 85S6 


59 


739 


86- 8644 S703 8762 83^1 8.S79 


8938 8997 9036 9114 9,73 






86- 913a 919 9349 9408 91<^ 


9555 9584 9642 9701 976 


59 




86- 981B 9877 993s 9994 — 






74' 


87- ~ — — — 0033 


oil, 0,7 0238 0387 OJ45 






87- 0404 C463 0331 0579 0633 


0696 0755 0S13 0S72 093 


s8 


743 


87-0989 .047 II06 1.64 T233 


,281 .339 1398 ,456 .515 1 38 


744 


87- 1573 1631 J69 '748 i8c6 


,865 [923 ,981 304 3098 58 


I4fi 


87- 3156 32,5 "73 =33' 2389 


3448 2506 2564 2623 36S1 ! 38 


746 


87- 2739 =797 2855 2913 2973 


303 308S 3<46 3204 3^ 1 58 


747 


87- 3321 3379 3437 349S 35S3 


36,1 3669 3737 3785 3844 




748 


87-. 3902 396 40'8 4076 4"34 


4.9a 435 ^308 4366 4424 


53 


749 


87- 4483 454 45J3 4656 47'4 


4772 483 4saa 4945 5«>3 


S8 


760 


87- 506r 3„9 5177 5^35 5=93 


535" 5409 S466 5534 3582 


S8 


7S' 


87- 561 5698 5756 58,3 .SK7. 


5929 59S7 6045 6l03 616 


58 


75a 


87- 6218 6276 6333 639, (1449 


6307 6s6i 0611 668 ins\ \ '^ 


I?? 


S7- 679s 0SS3 69' 696S 7036 


,c8i i.v ni-ft 1'* TO 


\* 



733 "7- "} 
'MJS?- 73. 

h/ 7 



75* 87- 737' 7429 7487 7S44 T^OJ \ 76W 11^-1 111^ ^'^^S^ -i^<i\^ 



AlITRMBnC. 



s* 




s • 7 -^mt. 


Jfe 


let 


87- 7947 8004 8j6» 8lt9 B177 


8334 8393 8349 B407 84a« 


n 


7S6 


87. 85" 8579 MJT 8694 87S" 


S809 W£ 8^ 898, ,^ 


S7 


li 

759 


87- 9096 9isa ^Jw 9168 g3»5 


9383 944 9497 9SS5 S^" 


S7 


87- 9669 9716 9784 9a4« 9»*98 


99S6 - - - - 


SI 

$r 

St 


88- o»«j 0399 ojs6 OiU 0471 


^r^j^s^ssj-^ 




8S- 0814 0871 0928 098; 1041 


1099 "!* "*3 >»7i Kg* 


a 


361 


B8- tjSs 1443 1499 IS9& i6ij 


tin .7»7 "j«« »a«« iSi 


SI 


76" 


M- I9S5 »o>» >J6? f^ !»8j 
88- IPS =581 3638 b69S *7S» 


334 »97 »3J4 »4>I H** 


SI 


763 


>eo9 •«66 >9«3 ,98 3°» 


ST 


7&« 


83- JOSO 315 3»7 3^64 »" 


3377 3*34 3491 3*48 360s 


ST 


:«s 


88- 3661 37'8 377S 3*3" 3SSS 


3945 4°c» 4059 4'>5 4>T> 


ST 


i66 


83- 4i>9 4a8s 43M 4399 44S5 


45" 4569 46>S 4683 4739 


ST 


767 


88- 4795 48S» 4909 496s SO» 


S078 S'3S Si*» 5^48 S305 


ST. 


7M 


8S- sifn S4i8 54J4 SS.1' SSS? 


6309 *o6s 6331 6378 6434 


'i 


769 


83- s9j6 S983 fe» 6096 6>si 




8S- 6491 6547 66ai fitt 67.6 


6773 6639 68SS 694J 6998 


S» 


77' 


88- 7054 7""' 7rt>7 7»3 7»8 


7336 739i 7449 7SOS 756' 


58 


77» 


88- 7617 3674 773 77» 7843 
SS- Si79 &.35 ta9» ai4S 8,04 


7898 79SS Soil S067 8ti3 
ST 85.6 8573 86,9 861^ 


sS 




96 


774 


SB- S74> 8797 HM Sgep 8965 


goii 9077 9134 919 9x46 


50 


II( 


88- 9303 9358 9(14 9*7 9S»6 


9581 9638 9694 975 9606 


^ 


776 






56 


88- 9S6a 9918 9974 — — 




736 


89. _ _ - «y 00S6 


0141 0197 0233 0309 036s 


S6 




89- 0411 0477 f>533 0389 <*4S 


07 0736 0S.3 0S6S 09M 


56 


778 


89- 098 103s >o9' '>47 IK13 


I1S9 i3'4 137 '436 1481 


96 


T79 


89- '537 '593 1649 1705 ITS 


1S16 1873 IgiS 19S3 1039 


S6 


7ga 


89- J09J aij M06 w«a 3317 


>373 1439 1484 254 259s 


96 


78. 


S9- 36s. ^T<n ^763 rf.8 »873 


39»9 3985 3=4 3096 3-S> 


S6 


78a 


89- 3»7 3a6a 33.8 3373 34=9 


34^ 354 3593 jOS" 37"* 


S6 


783 


89- 37^ 38'7 3S73 39*8 3984 


4039 4094 4'S 430S +26. 


55 


J84 


89- 43'6 4371 4417 44SJ 4538 


4593 464S 4704 4759 4814 


SS 


tsi 


89- 487 4935 498 y>fi 5091 


SI46 S*>' SIS7 S313 5367 


55 


796 


89- 54« 5478 SS33 S58S S^ 


5699 5754 5809 5864 59^ 


35 


787 


6>si 6306 6^, 6,16 &,7' 


S5 


788 


68ca «S7 69.3 6967 70J3 


55 


789 


89- 7077 7133 7187 7143 7J97 


73S> 7407 746J 7S'7 757= 


S5 


W 


89- 7617 j68i 7737 7793 7847 


79<" 79S7 80" 8067 8.33 
8»S" 8sc6 8s<Si S61S 867 


55 


K> 


S9- 8176 8311 8386 8341 8396 
89- 8735 8;! B83S 8S9 S9M 




7*' 


8999 9054 9.09 91&4 9118 


55 


7M 


89- 9273 9J»8 9383 943J 9493 


9347 9tol 9654 971. 97« 






89" 9"' 9**7S 993 9985 "" 






7W 


90- — — — — 0O39 


0094 0149 MO3 MSS OJIJ 


51 


1»G 


93- 0367 0413 0476 ojji osB6 


064 C69S 0749 o8q| 0859 




796 


90- 0913 0568 lOM 1077 1.31 


1.S6 114 .395 13,9 ,404 


55 


797 


90- .458 .SI3 i^ i6)3 1676 


1731 '78s '«* 'S94 191S 


S4 


798 


90- aoo3 ao57 3113 3166 3331 


"75 3339 1384 14.18 1493 




799 


90- 3547 ^m 36ss 171 3764 


38i8 3873 3517 2981 3036 


54 


SM 


9t>- 309 3'44 3199 3»S3 3307 


3361 34'ii 347 3514 3S7E 




Sai 


90- 363J 3OB7 374' 3795 3849 


390^ 3958 4<"a 4066 4" 




Hoi 


90- 4.74 4*>9 4^83 4337 439' 


444S 4499 4SS3 4607 4«. 




^J 90- 47'6 477 **14 4878 493a 


V^ StH !PW 5,1* <.««' i^ 


^ 


*- «5e W JJ&I 54.8 S47i 


ss*6 ss» st-M ^*a •=■)'<. 


, W 



ARITHMETIC. A 


M. 


• ■ > ) « 


9 E 7 B g 


D 


MS 


9©^ S756 58s 5904 S9S8 60" 


6066 6119 6173 6aa7 6j8i 


54 


806 


90- 6,135 6389 6443 O497 6551 


(604 6658 67.1 6766 633 


54 


807 


90- 6874 6937 6981 7035 70H9 


7'43 7196 735 71Q4 7358 


54 


808 


90- 74" 746s 7519 7S73 76^ 


768 7734 7787 784' 7S95 


54 


809 


90- 7949 Booa 8056 811 8163 


8al7 837 8324 S378 8431 




BID 


90- 848s ES39 S592 8646 8699 


8753 8807 886 B9.4 S967 


54 




90- 9031 9074 S'lo 9'8i 9»3S 


9289 934a 9396 9449 9503 


54 


813 
8» 


90 95s6 91^ 9663 9716 977 


9833 9S77 993 9984 - 


S4 










813 


9' 




035S 0411 0464 0518 0571 


S3 


8.4 


9' 


0624 067S 0731 0784 083S 


0891 0944 0998 1051 1104 


S3 


Bit 


9' 


i.jS .211 1264 1317 1371 


J4!'4 1477 '53 '584 '637 


53 


8.6 


9' 


T69 1743 1797 185 i9fJ 


1956 2009 3063 aii6 3169 


S3 


B17 


9" 


aaaa 1^75 ajaS ajS. a435 


2488 as4i 2594 3647 37 


S3 


818 


9' 


2753 =8=6 2859 agi3 ag66 


3019 307a 3125 3178 3231 


S3 


819 


9> 


3284 3337 339 3443 3496 


3549 360a 3655 370S 376' 




8)0 




3B14 3867 39a 3973 4026 


4079 413a 4184 4237 429 


53 


831 


91 




4608 466 4713 4766 4819 


S3 


8m 


9' 


487a 492s 4977 503 S083 


5'36 51S9 534' 5394 5317 


S3 


833 




54 34S3 SS05 SS58 S6ii 


5664 57'6 5769 SBaa 5875 


S3 


8>4 


9' 


S937 59" 6033 608s 6138 


6.91 6243 6296 6349 6401 




BIB 




6454 6507 6SS9 »I3 «*1 


67.7 677 6823 6373 6927 


S3 


816 


9' 


69S 7033 70SS 7138 719 


7343 7395 7348 74 7453 


53 


8*7 


9' 


7506 7558 7611 7663 J7i6 


7768 78a 7873 7935 7978 


sa 


SaS 


9' 


803 B0S3 8135 8.88 824 


8293 834s 8397 845 Ssoa 


5a 


8j9 




S355 8fc7 80s9 S7'3 37&J 


88.6 8869 B9ai S973 9™6 


Sa 


SID 


91 


5078 913 91S3 ijajs 9187 


934 9»a W44 9496 9549 


S' 


83. 
8ji 


9' 


96o> 9653 9706 9738 98. 


986J 9914 9967 -- — 


S» 










833 


93 


D113 0176 o2aS oaS o3ja 


0384 0436 0489 054. 0593 




IS 


9= 


0645 0&97 0749 oSoi 0853 


0906 09s3 101 106a 1II4 


S» 


8J4 




,.66 .2.8 .27 .32a ,374 


1426 1478 153 1582 i6j4 


S' 


8B6 


93 


16S6 1738 179 1842 .894 


19,6 1998 205 2102 2154 


s» 


8j6 


93 


a2o6 2258 33. 2362 241+ 


2466 35.3 357 a62a 2674 


S" 


B37 




27=5 3777 a8a9 aSBi =933 


3985 3037 30S9 314 3'93 


S3 


B% 


9* 


3=44 3396 3348 3399 345' 


.T503 3555 3607 3658 37' 




8» 


93 


37O2 33.4 3865 39.7 3969 


4oai 407a 4134 4176 4338 




841 


9=- 


4279 4.13. 4.183 44J4 4486 


4538 45S9 464" 4693 4744 


s» 


841 


93 


47Gi6 4848 4S99 495' 5«>,1 


5034 S'o6 S'S7 5309 5361 




aia 




S\'^ .s,lC4 SI'S 5467 SS'S 


557 5621 5673 5735 5776 


5" 


9^3 


93 


s!<2(( SS79 59JI 5982 6034 


60S3 6137 61B8 624 6391 




a« 


9= 


6,142 6jrJ4 6443 6497 6548 


66 66s. 67" 6754 6305 








6857 690S 6959 70" 706* 


7,14 7'65 7316 7368 7319 




846 


9a 


7,17 74=3 7473 7524 7S76 


7627 7678 773 778. 78ja 




8J7 


93 


7883 7915 79S6 8037 8088 


814 S191 8343 8393 8345 




84S 




S396 Kh7 5498 S349 8601 


R6s2 8703 8754 S80S SS57 




8^ 


9a 


8908 B9S9 901 9°6i 9"3 


9.63 93.5 9366 93'7 9,T«f 




8(D 
8ji 




94>9 9*7 9531 957a 9623 


9*74 9735 9776 9837 9879 












8S' 


93 




Di8s 0336 0387 0333 0389 


w 


85s 




044 0491 054a 059a C643 


060* 01*5 oi^ (A\i (S*#,\ w 


«JJ, ft' 


09,9 • losi I103 i'53lii03 iiM i»>5 iT^f* ^WnX* 


1^ 


9.S-_ 


.45» 'S°9 >l6 161 ,661 171a i-jfej ^&t^ \«.i iii 


^\ 



ABITUMETIC. 



^ 




a 




1 


3 4 


J « T 


S. 


■ 


■ 


sts 


93 


~l^ 


3017 


^68~ 


11 rS IT69 


3» 1>7I SJM 


3371 


^^ 


31 


856 


93 




3Si4 




;A,6 ^77 


=717 377S 3Si9 3379 193 


5» 


8S7 


93 


2gBt 


30J' 


3081 


3133 3'83 


3>J4 31S5 3115 


33S6 


3437 


i> 


8s8 




^487 3538 35S9 3639 369 


374 379' 3341 


3*>» 39M 


51 


859 


93 


3993 








4:146 4»96 4147 




4448 




810 


93 


«98 


4549 


4S99 


465 47 


4751 4801 4S51 


490a 


4953 


90 


861 


93 






5104 


5154 5305 


5J5S 5.106 5«6 


54=6 


5457 


99 


861 


93 


5507 


555S 


s6oS 


S6S8 STC^ 


5759 5S09 536 




596 


90 


863 


<J3 


60.. 


6061 






6?6i 6313 6j6j 6413 


6463 


5= 


864 




6SM 


G5&4 «14 6»5 671S 


6;6s 6S<5 6S65 6916 


6966 


50 


Mi 


9.1 


7015 


7=« 


7'"7 


7167 7217 


T167 73"7 7367 


7418 


7468 


90 


see 




75'S 


7568 


7618 


7668 77"8 


7769 7S.9 7369 


79'9 


7969 


SO 


867 


93 


E019 


B^ 


S119 


S.159 8ZI9 


S36g S3ig S37 


84. 


847 


9» 


868 


93 


^K 


S57 


S61 


8&7 873 


877 8S1 637 


893 


897 


50 


B69 


9J 




907 


9" 


917 93a 


9=7 93= 9369 


94 '9 


9469 


9» 


S-0 


9:1 


95"! 


9369 9619 


9669 9TI9 


9769 9S19 9S69 


951S 


9968 




871 






Ct61 




0i63 021S 


0267 0317 0,167 


C4t; 


0467 


SO 


87= 






0566 0616 


0666 0716 


o;6S «S'S -^5 


°9'S 


ojt, 


50 


873 


94 








1163 1 313 


■=*3 '3>3 -362 




.46:. 


50 


8;^ 


W 


■Sit 


.SO' 






.76 1S09 i»S9 


1909 


"938 


9" 


s:s 


9+ 


200S 


^58 




IIS7 3=07 


Z2s6 =306 J3SS 
J7S2 =tei s^it 


=4^3 




9* 


8;6 


94 




=554 


=603 


=653 =7" 




S95 


SO 


8J7 




3 


3^9 




3US 3'9S 


3^47 3B)7 XM6 yv/i 


3445 


49 


87» 


91 


31^5 


354-1 


jS'y 


3*43 3^= 


374= 3791 3^4" 


.v*-> 


3939 


49 


in 


94 


3Vi9 4'>3S 


4C-SS 


4<37 4i« 


4336 4.-SS 4jj5 4ji( 


4433 


49 


8M 


94 




453= 


4SS< 


4631 4S* 


4739 4779 4S=S 4S77 


49=7 


49 


BSi 


94 


4976 SMS 


S'>;4 




5"3 Si7' 51^' 


537 


S4'9 


49 


8S3 




5469 S5'3 S07 


j6.6 "5^.,5 


ST'S 57^4 S3l3 


SSJ3 




49 


883 




.'■^i 




to?) 


610S 6ij; 


C3:.7 6356 CJOS tiS* 


^4^3 


49 


8&1 


91 


0453 


OjJi 


655" 


66 i;64j 


to)8 6747 6796 li!i*5 0i94 


49 






(0*3 <vn> 




709 7'4 


71S9 71,18 7aS; 


73* 7.1SS 


49 


836 






74-^3 




75^1- 703 


7<1» 77J« 7-77 


7i36 


-"(S 


49 


8S7 


91 




7971 






t.i-jd ^3I7 ^26!i 


f.VS 


^=04 


49 






^^tl3 


K+Gj 




Xi'i Ko.^ 


S6S7 S;«i K75S 


SSt-4 


*^,'3 


49 


889 




S^l 


^35' 


t->» 


!>-44 9>>7 


9H6 9.93 9:44 


9J92 


95:' 


49 


SDO 




919 


94W 


9t^-< 


■>536 95S5 


9634 9W3 9731 


c.;f 


o'.-g 


49 


f" 




9S;S 


99:6 


99J5 










49 


891 












0121 017 03T9 


03&7 


P31C 




B93 


^i 


03OS 




046.' 


0511 0* 


o«oS 0657 O7o(i 








S93 


95 


«15I 


°9, 


o>4<) 


09^7 1046 


'OBS 'MJ 1103 




13S9 


49 


804 


W 


.33S 


13S6 


I43S 


14S3 153» 


ISS 1639 1677 


i;:6 


'7-5 


49 


A« 


9> 


1^3 


.3;2 


191 


■^ "-7 


3=66 =.14 =16.1 






43 


89O 


93 


=3«i 


J5i6 


--405 


:45i ISOI 


=55 3.109 30(7 


if'^yS 




48 


f'i 


93 


379f 


:S4i 


;s*, 


=9j3 19S6 


3''34 3--;^3 3131 


.lis 


Si=s 


48 


89S 




^ 


3J=5 


3373 


34.;' 347 


3Sli 3S66 J6is 


3'Al 


37" 


4S 


sw 


95 


376 


3S0S 


S-V-' 


3305 3753 


4-.»l 4049 4098 


4.46 


4'94 


4» 


•M 


95 








4.1S7 M35 


44-'^ 453" 45^* 


4&:8 


4''77 


48 


901 




-i;=3 


4773 


4Kii 


4Sf9 V"* 


jq66 50.4 *:«= 






48 


903 


95 


5=07 


SJ5S 


S.W3 


535' 5.W0 


5447 549^ 554.1 


559s 


■4 


43 


903 


95 


,«iSS 


S73f> 


57S4 


5S« 5SS 


5138 S976 <>«14 






48 




9S 


(ijM 6j<6 


6165 6313 Oj6i 


(.409 6*51 byJS 


^':V\ 


y"-\ 


* 



ARrTHUBTIC. 



Hn 




s 


I a ) 4 


s a ; e e 


D 


*0S 


93- 6649 669; 6745 6793 684 


6SS8 6936 69S4 703= 708 


4S 


906 


93- 7"S 


7i;& 7"4 7=?= 73» 


73™ T4'6 7464 7Sla 7559 


48 


907 


9S- 760; 7GJS 7J03 77S' 7799 


7847 7894 7943 799 3oj8 


S 


90S 


95. 80S6 


8134 8181 S1J9 8=77 


831s 8.173 84=' 8468 8316 


% 


909 


93- 8564 


86ij S6S9 8707 8755 


3303 SSj-* 8898 89,6 8^ 


S 


fflO 


9S- 904' 


9389 9137 9185 9J3» 


938 9328 937S 94=3 9*7' 


48 


911 
91a 


9S- 9S'8 
9S-9995 


9S66 5614 9661 9709 


9757 9804 985= 99 9947 


48 






9" 


96- - 


004= "9 O'SS oiSs 


0=33 038 0328 oyfi 0423 


s 


9'3 


96-047< 


0318 0566 0613 0661 


0709 0756 0804 0851 0899 


48 


914 


56- C946 


"994 '041 '089 "136 


1184 1231 1379 1326 1374 


47 


>1S 


96- US' 


.469 .S>6 .36,1 i6m 


1658 '7d6 1753 'Boi 1848 


4T 


916 


96- .895 




2133 3iS 7227 M75 2322 




917 


96- 3.i&) 


3417 »4<M 2511 =559 


=606 1653 370. =748 =795 


47 


918 


96- 2&,3 


=89 1937 1985 303= 


3079 3'=6 3T74 3==> 3268 


47 


919 


96- 311& 




355= 3599 3646 3693 3741 


47 


«10 


96- 3783 3835 3S8J 39=9 3977 


4024 4071 4.18 4165 4212 


47 


931 


96-4=6 


4307 4354 4401 4t*3 


4495 4542 459 4637 4684 


47 


93a 


96-473" 


4778 4815 4871 4919 


4^ 5013 S061 5108 515s 


47 


9»3 


96- SH« 


5W9 s»96 5343 5,19 


5437 S484 S5J' 5578 5635 


47 


924 9^ 567a 


S7"9 5766 5H13 586 


5907 S9S4 6001 6048 6093 


47 


OtS 96- 614a 


6189 6J36 6183 63J9 


5376 6423 647 6si7 6564 


47 


926 


96-66.1 


C6s8 670s 6,5= 6799 


6ais 6892 6939 6986 7033 


47 


937 


•fo- 70S 


7. =7 7-73 7== 7=67 






9>8 


96- 7543 


7595 7643 7633 7735 






9=9 


96-8016 


Mo6a 8109 8156 8k>3 


8349 8396 83+3 839 8436 


47 


•to 


96- 8483 853 8576 86J3 K67 


8716 8763 SSi S856 8903 


47 


931 


96- 89s 


8996 9043 909 9136 


9183 9229 9376 9323 9369 


47 


93> 


9&-94^6 


9463 9519 9556 960= 


9'it9 9695 9742 97S9 983s 


47 












933 


9; 




— — <ai\ 0)68 


0..4 0.6. 0207 0254 03 


47 


934 


97 


0347 


0393 044 0486 0533 


0379 06=6 o6j2 0719 0363 


46 






oSia 


0858 0904 0951 0997 


1044 109 1137 1183 1239 


46 


9J6 


97 


.376 


13== 1369 1415 '461 


'5'>3 13S4 1601 16,7 1693 


% 


937 


9: 


■74 


17S6 t3ji 1879 '9=5 


1971 2018 2064 311 2157 


4S 


933 




2103 


2=49 s=9S =34= =388 


3434 =481 25=7 =373 =619 


% 


939 


97 


=666 


=71= =753 =304 =851 


=897 1943 3989 303s 3083 


% 


940 


97 




3174 3== 3=66 3313 


3359 3405 343' 3497 3S43 


4S 








3636 36S3 37=8 3774 


382 3866 39'3 3939 4"S 


46 




9: 






42S' 43=7 4374 44= 4466 


40 


9*3 


97 


4S'' 


4558 4<J04 465 4696 


474a 4788 4834 488 Srt 


46 




97 


497= 


SOiS 5064 5" S'S6 


S201 5=43 3294 534 3386 


% 


04.-. 


97 


543= 


5473 55=4 557 S6i6 


5663 5707 5733 5799 3843 


46 


946 




5891 


5937 5983 6m9 6075 


612' 6167 63.3 62?8 630J 


46 


94; 


9: 


63s 


6.196 6443 64SS 6533 


6379 662s 6671 6717 6763 


46 


9tS 


97 




6354 69 6946 699= 


7037 70B3 7'=9 7"75 7= 


ifi 






7J66 


731= 7358 7403 7449 


7495 ;S4< 7586 763= 7678 


46 


tto 


95 


77=4 


7769 ;8'5 7S6. 7906 


795= 799S 8043 80S9 3i3s 


46 


93' 




SiK. 


Hj26 8372 S117 8,i0j 


3409 8454 35 Kj46 Ssgi 


A 


951 ; 9; 


K6jj K633 8;=S K;;4 88,9 


8S6s toll aq=f, ««a. cp4,-i\^ 


JSJ/ 97- 9^1 


9'J8 9'»4 9=3 9375 \ 91^' 9»*> "W^^ "i^^l "5^"i\ ■* 


RW/97- 95J« 


9S9* 96J9 9683 973 \ 9Tlt» q»^^ '^^ Sfi'1 ^^-X 





99-8695 
99- 9"3« 
99-9S6S 



760s 7648 

S041 SoSs 

8477 852. 

8913 8956 

ftH* 939" 

97S3 9816 



J691 7736 
S119 8171 S216 
8564 8608 86si 
9 9043 9087 I 
9435 9tT9 95'^ j 
987991 3 9957 I 



ALGEBRA. 



In arithmetic figures are used to express quantities. In Al- 
gebra quantities of every kind are denoted by the characters of 
the alphabet. The first letters of the alphabet, a, b, c, etc., are 
used to denote known quantities, while unknown quantities, or 
those which are to be found by calculation, are represented by 
the last letters, r, x, y, etc. 

The signs in algebra have the same meaning as in arithmetic. 

a + b is read "a plus h" and means that the two quantities are 

to be added, a — b is read, "a minus b," and means b is to be 

subtracted from a. a X b is read, "a times b," and means that a 

is to be multiplied by b. This may also be expressed in the follow- 

a 
ing way: a X b, or generally, ab; abc = a X b X c; — = a -r- 6, 

b 

means that tf is to be divided by b. 

Quantities having the sign + prefixed are called "positive." 
Those having the sign — are called "negative." When no sign 
is prefixed to a quantity it is always understood to be -f- or posi- 
tive. 

The sign of equality is =, as in arithmetic; a + b = c, a = b, 
a 

— z=z d, ab =: c, are "algebraic equations." 
b 

The part on the left side of the sign of ec\>iaL\\Vv ^^ C3J\^^ ^^ 
"fin* member'' of the equsLtion ; the part on tVve n^V «v^^ \% 

51 



52 ALGEBKA. i 

called tha "tecond meinber." The parts of each member -tfinfrH 
by + or — are called "term*." 

Parenthesis is used to denote that several temu are to be cctt 
sidered as one. (a -J- b)d meads that the mm of a + b u to fat 
multiplied by d. (,a + b — e)d shows that « and b are to bi 
added, e subtracted from the sum, and the remainder mtalti^id 
by d. Thus, if in the equation (d + ^ — t)d = f. a shonht bt 
= S,b = 3,c = i,d = 4,tbe equation would be (j + J — *) 4 
= f, or f = 24. Instead of a parenthesis, a straight line ove 
the terms is sonielinKs used, thus (a + b)c, or a -(- 6 X C. 

A number prefixed to a letter is called a "numerical coefficienL' 
ja signifies that a is to be taken 3 times, or a + a + a. Mb sigai- 
fies ab + ab. 

If a quantity is 10 be multiplied several times by itself, a smal 
figure, called an "exponent," is placed a little above and at tb< 
right of the quantity. Thus, a' means j X o X a; o' is called thi 
"second power," or the "square" of o. b' or 6 X ^ X & is tht 
"third power" or "cube" of b, d' is the fourth power of d, etc 
(See also Arithmetic — Involution.) 

A "root" of a quantity is one of (he equal factors, the prodiK 
of which is equal to the quantity. ^ is a root of 4, because 4 = 
i y. 2. f is also 3 root of S, 16. 32, etc.. because these number) 
can be produced by muhiplying 2 by itself 3. 4, j. etc., times, a ii 
a root of a', because 0' = a X "■ is also a root of 1^, o*, o", etc 
Roots are named from the number of limes they must be taket 
to produce the given quantity. Thus, if the factors are taken twice 
each is a second root, or "square root." 3 is the square root of p, I 
is ihe square root of b'. If the factors are taken three times, eacV 
is a third root, or "cube root." 4 is the cube root of 64, becausi 
4 y. 4 "A 4 = 64: a a \iiK cube root of a". 

The sign of root or the radical sign is v' ' thus ^/ ^ =- 2. f jy ^= j. 
When no inJex is wrilten over the raJioal sign, the square too 
is understood, j/a' stands for J/o' and is equal to a. \^a' z= a. 
(See also .■\rithmetic--Evolution.) 

The sign > means "bigger than," the sign < means "snialtei 



ALGEBRA. 53 

EQUATIONS. 

An equation is an expression of equality between numbers or 
quantities. In an equation there may be one or more unknown 
quantities connected by algebraical signs with one or more known 
quantities. To solve an equation means to find all such values 
of the unknown quantities as will make the two members of the 
equation identical, if substituted for the unknown quantities in 
such equation. 

The degree of an equation is determined by the powers, or 
number of factors, of unknown quantities contained in any term 
Thus x+a^=b, x + a = b^ — 3x, are equations of the first de- 
gree, or "simple equations." jr* = a, ^ + ^jr + J = 7, are equa- 
tions of the second degree, or "quadratic equations." jr* = ^7, 
X* 4- ^^ + x + b = c-^Sd are equations of the third degree, or 
**cubic equations." 

SIMPLE EQUATIONS. 

To solve a simple equation we make use of the following prin- 
ciples : 

1. The same quantity may be added to, or subtracted from, 
both members of an equation without destroying their equality. 

2. The two members of an equation may be multiplied or 
divided by the same quantity without destroying the equality. 

Example: If a + x = c + d 

then a + x + b=ic + d + b 

and a + x — b=zc + d — b 

and 2 (a + x) =2 (c + d) 

a-\:x c + rf 
and = 

2 2 

By means of these principles the unknown quantities can be 
brought together in one member of the equation, and all the 
known quantities in the other member. 

Example: 7 + x = 12, Subtract 7 from both members. 

J" = /^ — 7» or ^ = 5. 

It will be seen that a term may be transposed from oiv^ tcv^vcv- 
bcr of an equation to the other by chatiging its sv^tv itoxtv -V \o — ^« 
or from — to -/-. The following rules are, tVieteioTe, o\>\.^ca«A. W^ 
solving a simple eqiatha : 



HENSURATION. 



Mensuration treaU of the nKUuranait of lioe^ s 

Tolumcs. 
A "point" is thst which hu only position, hot n 
A "line" is that which has only one dimension— that is, I 

but neither breadth nor thickness. The lines we dnw on paper 

are only symbols to represent the ideal lines. 
A "straight" or "right" line is a continuons line, p M r anin g 

the same direction at all points. 
A "curved" line is a tine of which no portion is straight 
"Parallel" lines are lines having the same direction and an 

equal distance from each other at all pcunts. 




An "horizontal" litw is 
to the horizon. 

A "perpendicular" line i; 
line so as to incline no mi 



Fie 1— Parallel Lino. Fiii' j-Pcipendienlar Liu. 

line parallel to the water level Of 



Kin. . -V..-rlicil Line. FiK. 5 -Angle. Fig. 6-Ki|?hl Aimltt. 

A "vertical" line is a straight line perpendicular to an hori- 
zontal line, or a line pointing to the center of the earth. 

An "angle" is the difference in direction of two lines proceed- 
ing from one common point. 

A "right" angle is formed by two lines pei^tidicolaT to etch 



M ENSURATION. 



57 



An "acute" angle is an angle less than a right angle. 

An "obtuse" angle is an angle greater than a right angle. 

A "surface" is that which has two dimensions — that is, length 
and breadth. 

A "plane" is a surface in which a straight line joining any 
two points of it will lie wholly in the surface. 



Fig. ;-Acd 



K. B— Oblusc AnRls Fid. 9— Trianile 

> a part of a plane surface bounded by 
s figure is the surface included within 



A "plane" figure 
straight or curved lines. 

The "area" of a plan 
the lines which bound i: 

A "triangle" is a plane figure bounded by three sides, composed 
of straight lines, and having three angles. 




A "right-angled" triangle has one right angle. 
An "obtuse-angled" triangle has an obtuse angle. 
An "acute-angled" triangle has all its angles acut 




An "equilateral" triangle has all three sides of c<vw.\ V:TiSOR. 
An "isosceles" triangle has only two sides ol tt^viA \«ntf&. 
The "base" of a triangle is the side on w\hc\\ 'A « ^^i^V^^* 



58 MBNSURATION. 4i ^ 

The "altitude" or 'bdght^ of a triangle it a ttn^ft 
drawn perpendictdar to the bate {rom the angle opposite. 
The "hypotenuse" is the side opposite the cjgfat an^ 

right-angled triangle. 






Figs. i6 and 17— Altitude or Height of a Triancle. Fie. 18— HypotMNUtt. 

The "cathetae*' are the two sides enclosing the right aa^ 

in a right-angled triangle. 

MENSURATION OF AREAS. 

To find the area of a triangle, multiply the base by the heii^ 
and divide the product by 2. 
Area = base X height -h 2; Height = 2 X vea -h base; Ease 

= 2 X area -i- height; 
Example. — Area = 6X 10-^2 = 30. 

Height = 2 X 30 -> 6 = 10. 
Base = 2 X 30 -^ 10 = 6. 




7 



Fig. 19— Caiheiae. 



Fig. so— To find the area of a Fig. 21— Parallelogram. 
Triangle. 



**Polygons" are plane figures, having three or more sides. 
They are regular, or irregular, according to whether their sides 
are of equal length or not; and are named from the number of 
their sides or angles. A "triangle" is a polygon of three sides or 
angles. A "quadrilateral'* is a polygon of four sides or an^es. 

Quadrilaterals are divided as follows: 

"Parallelogram/' which is bounded by two pairs of parallel 
sides. 

'Trapezoid/' having two sides parallel. 

'Trapezium/* having no two sides paraWeV. 



•<' 



//» 



MENSURATION. 

A parallelogram with right angles is called a "rectangle." 
A rectangle whose sides are all equal is called a "square." 
A "pentagon" has five sides. A "hexagon" has six sides, 
heptagon" has seven sides. An "octagon" has eight sides. 



59 



L 



Fig. aa— Trapezoid. 



\r\ 



Fig. 23— Trapezium. 



Fig. 24— Rectangle. 



The "perimeter" is the boundary line or circumference of a 
plane figure. 

To find the area of a parallelogram, multiply the base by the 
height, which is the perpendicular distance of the base from the 
parallel side opposite. Area = ad X h. 




Fig. 25— Square. Fig. 26— Pentagon. Fig. 27— Hexagon. Fig. 28— Heptagon. 

In a rectangle, the height is equal to the side which is per- 
pendicular to the base. Hence, to find the area of a rectangle, 
multiply the length by the breadth or height. Area = ad X ab 
— ab X be. 





Fig. 39 — Octagon. 



a^ 



Fig. 30— To find the area 
of a Parallelogram. 




Fig. 31 — To find the area 
of a Rectangle. 



To find the area of a square, multiply the side by itself. Area = 
ad* = ab* =. be* = cd'. 

To find the area of a trapezoid, multiply the sum of the two 
parallel sides by the height or perpend\cu\2iT ^\^l^vvc^i. Xitv^^^'^ 
tifci^ !^n4 divide the product by 2. Area = (^^^ -V ^^^ ^ '*'' 



6o 



MENSURATION. 



To find the area of a trapeaium, divide tt into triaiq^es hf 
drawing a diagonal, which is a line connecting two points of 
the figure not connected by a single side. Multiply the diagonal 
by the sum of the two perpendiculars falling upon it from the 
opposite angles, and divide the product by 2. Area = ac (be 
+ df) -- 2. 

To find the area of an irregular polygon, divide the polygon 
into triangles and add the areas of the triangles. Area = A + B 
C. i See Fig. 35. pasre 62.) 

b, X 






Fiu. 31 — To find the area 
of a Square. 



Fig 33— To find the area 
of a Trapezoid. 



H»K> 34— To find the area 
(.•f a Trape/ium. 



To find the area of a regular polygon, multiply the length of a 
side by the perpendicular distance to the center, divide the 
product by 2. and multiply the quotient by the number of sides. 

(See Fig. 36.) 

ab X oc 
Area = X 6. 



} 



ROl'XD FIGURK<. — CIRCLE. 

The "circle'* is a plane figure bounded by a curved line, of 
which all points arc at an equal distance from a point within 
called the center. 

"Circumference" or "periphery" is the curved line which 
bounds the circle. 

"Diameter" is a straight line passing through the center and 
intersecting the circumference on both sides. a> abc. (Fig. 37.) 

"Radius" is a straight line, extending from the center to any 
point on the circumference, and is one-half the diameter, as bd. 

An "arc" of a circle is any part of its circumference, as cd. 

A "chord" is any straight line joining two points of the cir 
cumference. as ed. 

A "segment" is any part bounded by an arc and its chord, 
as A. 

A "sector" is any part of a circle bounded by an arc and its 
tfvo radii as B. 
A ''semicircle" is half a circle. 



MENSURATION. 6l 

dxauetess, circumferences and areas of circles (l to i50 

diameter). 



Diam. 


Circum. 


1 


3.1416 


2 


6.2832 


S 


9.4248 


4 


12.6664 


5 


15.7080 


6 


18.850 


7 


21.901 


8 


».133 





28.274 


10 


31.416 


U 


34.558 


12 


37.609 


18 


40.841 


14 


43 982 


15 


47.124 


10 


50.265 


17 


53.407 


18 


56.540 


19 


59 600 


20 


62.832 


21 


65.973 


22 


69.115 


28 


72.257 


24 


76.398 


25 


78.540 


26 


81.681 


27 


84.823 


28 


87.965 


29 


91.106 


80 


94.248 


81 


97.389 


8^ 


100.53 


83 


108.67 


81 


106.81 


35 


100.96 


36 


118.10 


87 


116.24 


88 


119.38 


89 


\22.h2 


40 


125.66 


41 


128.81 


42 


131.95 


43 


135.09 


44 


138.23 


45 


141.37 


46 


144.51 


47 


147.65 


48 


150 80 


49 


158.94 


50 


157.08 



Area. 


Dlam. 


Circum. 


0.7854 


51 


160.22 


8.1416 


52 


168.86 


7.0686 


58 


166.50 


12.5664 


54 


109.65 


19.635 


55 


172.79 


28.274 


56 


175.93 


38.485 


57 


179.07 


50.266 


58 


182.21 


63.617 


69 


185.35 


78.54C 


60 


188.50 


95.038 


61 


191.64 


113.10 


62 


194.78 


132.73 


63 


197.92 


153.94 


61 


201.06 


176.71 


65 


204.20 


201.06 


66 


207.34 


226.98 


87 


210.49 


254.47 


63 


213.63 


283.53 


69 


216.77 


814.16 


70 


219.91 


346.36 


71 


223.05 


380.13 


72 


226.19 


415.48 


73 


229.34 


452.39 


74 


232 48 


490.87 


75 


235.62 


530.93 


76 


238.76 


572.56 


77 


241.90 


615.75 


78 


245.04 


660.52 


79 


248.19 


706.86 


80 


251.33 


754.77 


81 


261.47 


804.25 


82 


257.61 


%5.30 


83 


260.75 


907.92 


84 


263.89 


962. If 


85 


267.04 


1017.88 


86 


270.18 


1075.21 


87 


273 32 


1131.11 


88 


276.46 


1194.59 


89 


279.60 


1256.64 


90 


282.74 


1320.25 


91 


285.88 


1385.44 


92 


289.03 


1452.20 


93 


292.17 


1530.53 


94 


295.31 


1590.43 


95 


298.45 


1661.90 


96 


301.59 


1734.94 


97 


304.73 


1809.56 


98 


307.88 


1HK5.74 


99 


311.02 


1963.50 


100 


314.16 



Area. 


Diam. 


Circum. 


2042.82 


101 


817.80 


2128 72 


102 


820.44 


2206.18 


103 


328.58 


2290.22 


104 


826.78 


2375.83 


105 


829.87 


2463.01 


106 


888.01 


2551.76 


107 


336.16 


2642.08 


106 


389.29 


2783.97 


109 


842.48 


2827.43 


110 


346.58 


2922.47 


111 


348.72 


8019.07 


112 


851.86 


3117.25 


118 


3.55.00 


3216.99 


114 


358.14 


3318.31 


115 


361.28 


3421 . 19 


116 


864.42 


3525.65 


117 


867.57 


3631.68 


118 


370.71 


8739.28 


119 


378.86 


8818.45 


120 


876.99 


3959.19 


121 


880.13 


4071.50 


122 


383.27 


4185.39 


128 


386.42 


4300.84 


124 


889.56 


4417.86 


125 


392.70 


4536.46 


126 


395.84 


4656.63 


127 


398.98 


4778.36 


128 


402.12 


4901.67 


129 


405.27 


5026.55 


130 


408.41 


5153.00 


131 


411.55 


5281.02 


132 


414.09 


5410.61 


133 


417.88 


5541.77 


134 


420.97 


5674.50 


135 


424.12 


5806.80 


136 


427.26 


5944.68 


137 


430.40 


6082.12 


138 


433.54 


6221.14 


139 


436.68 


6361.73 


140 


439.82 


6503.88 


141 


442.96 


6617.61 


142 


416.11 


6792 91 


143 


449 25 


6939.78 


144 


4.52.39 


7088.22 


145 


455 53 


7238.23 


146 


458.67 


7389.81 


147 


461.81 


7542.96 


148 


461.96 


7697.69 


149 


468.10 


7a'>3.98 


150 


471 .24 



Area. 

8011.86 

8171.28 

8382.20 

8494.87 

8669.01 

8824.78 

8992.02 

9160.88 

9831.32 

9503.32 

0676.89 

9852.03 

10028.75 

10207.03 

10386.89 

10568.32 

10751.32 

10935.88 

11122.02 

11309.73 

11499.01 

11689.87 

11882.29 

12076.28 

12271.85 

12468.98 

12667.69 

12867.96 

13069.81 

13273.23 

13478 22 

13684.78 

13892.91 

14102.61 

14313 88 

14526.72 

14741 

14957. 

15174.68 

1.5398.80 

15614.50 

16836.77 

16060.61 

16286.02 

16513.00 

16741.55 

16971.67 

1720:i.36 

1743(5.62 

17671.46 



14 
,12 



62 



HfiNSURATION. 



A "quadrant" is a qnafter of a cirde» as C "^^.'^ 

A "tangent" is a straight line which touches the drde witlioiil 
intersecting it, as f g. 

Circumference of a drde = Diameter X 3>i4i6. 

Diameter of a circle = Qrcumference H- 3.1416. 

Area of a drcle = Square of diameter X OL7Q54; or = sqmure of 
circumference X 0.07958; or, = 14 diameter X ii dfctmifereiMe; 
or, = square of radius X 3.1416. 

Examples. — Diameter is 8 feet, what is drcumference? 

8 X 31416 = 25.133 feet. 
Circumference is 28 feet, what is diameter? 

28-7-3.1416 = 8.91 feet. 
Diameter is 8 feet, what is area? 
8 X 8 X 0.7854 = 50.265 square feet 
Circumference is 28 feet, what is area? 
28 X 28 X 0.07958 = 59-5^5 square feet. 
% diameter is 4 feet, % circumference 12.56, what is area? 
4 X 1-.56 = 50.24 square feet. 
Radius = 4, then 4 X 4 X 3-i4i6 = 50.26 square feet 







"/ 0-^ 



Fig. -^5— To find the Fig. 36-To find 
area of an irregu- the area of a 

lar Polygon. regular Poly- Fig. 37— Circle and Fig. 38 — Trigonometri- 

gon Parts. cal Functions. 

To compute the area of a circle greater than any in the table. 
Divide the dimensions by 2, 3. 4, etc., if practicable, until it is 
reduced to a diameter to be found in the table. Take tabular 
area for this diameter, multiply it by the square of the divisor, 
and the product will be the area required. 

TRIGONOMETRICAL FUNCTIONS. 

If we have a circle of the radius r and we consider this line 
pivoted in O, the center of the circle, while the other end of the 
radius forms the circumference, and at any position of the travel- 
ing radius given by the angle w, we erect a vertical line upon 
/Ae starting^ line Oa through the traveling polnl b oi lV\e taidius. 



i 



MENSURATIOK. 63 

we font) a triangle obc, and the proportion of each two sides of 
it are the trigonometrical functions of angle w, called sine, cosine, 
tangent and cotangent, and written respectively "sin, cos, Ian and 







lanw = 


.i-c .- oc. 


cotw = 


oc : 


be. 


Further ab 


= are, oba 


= sector 








At 45° 
At 90 
Triani 


JIM 

iin 
1e P 


w = cos w, tan w = cot w = 
<C is rightanglcd; therefore, 


r* = 


(be) 


d J = 


iin' 


V!-\-CO^l 


a; Ian w 


^1^ 


and 


cotvi 


If we 


have 


two angles 


w and w 


then 






*w 


t(K. 


±K.') =s 


HWX C 


sw ± 


OS w 


Xsin 



SOLIDS OR BODIES. 

A solid or body is that which has three dimensions: Length, 
breadth and thickness. 

A "prism" is any solid whose two ends arc parallel, similar 
and equal, and whose sides are parallelograms. Prisms are 
triangular, quadrangular, etc., according as the ends are tri- 
angles, quadrangles, etc. (Figs. I-: 




Fip, t-Righl Fig, J-Oblique 
Priim Prism 



Fin- 3— RiHiil I-'iit. I— Oblique Fig. }— RiKht 

'ptisni.'" Prism,*' Prtim.' 

whose sides are perpendicular to its 



A "right" prism is c 
ends. (Figs. i. 3. 5. 8, 10.) 

An "oblique" prism is one whose sides are not perpendicular to 
its ends. (Figs, 2, 4. 6, 7, 9-) 

When all the sides of the figures which form the ends are 
equal, and the angles included between those sides are also 
equal, the prism is said to be "regular" (Figs, i, 2, 3, 4,7.^,1. ^'^"^' 
"iregalar" (Figs. 5. 6). 



64 



MENSURATION. 



A "parallelopiped*' is any solid contained within six 
of which are parallelograms, and those of each c^posite pair, f«r* 
allel to each other. Paralielopipeds are types of prisms (Figk 
7-10). 






/ A 




y • /I 




/ * /I 




At /i 




~~I 1 i II 




A 1 ' 11 


/ 1 


III* It 


i i 


/A I U 


M ^■— —■•—-•■-— *-••• 


"f 1 ^— — -»-y 


1 / 


/ / ' // 


1 • 


11' if 


1 * 


11* 1/ 




' V ¥ 



FiH- 6— Obliouo 
Prism. 



Fij{«. 7. 8 and 9— Par.ilIelopiped». 



A **cut>c'* is a right, rectangular prism, or a parallelopiped. 
having ail its sides equal squares, and all its angles right angles 
(Fig. 10). 

A ''cylinder" is any solid whose ends are parallel, similar and 
equal curved figures, and whose sections, parallel to the ends, are 
everywhere sirr.ilar and eijual to the ends (Figs. 11-13). 



) 








K un.! 
L\i;:ilt r. 



K'.Iiptir.ii 





K< I'.iid 



Fi»{. i4->Rifiht 

Trt.inicular 

Pvr.iiiiid. 



A "right" cylinder is one whose ends are perpendicular to its 
sides (Fig>. II. 12): when otherwise, it is "oblique" (Fig. 13). 
The nio>t common form is the "right circular" cylinder, whose 
ends are circles (Fig. 11). Another f-^rm frequently used is the 
"right ellipiical" cylinder, whose ends are ellipses (Fig. 12). 

The altitude, or height, of a cylinder is the perpendicular dis- 
tance between the ends. 

A "p>Taniid" is any solid which has for its base a plane figure 
of any number of sides^ and for its sides vV^wt uXaii^ts m^t^m^ 



MENSURATION. 



65 



in onrpoint called ^'vertex" (Figs. 14-17). They are triangular, 
qvsdrangular, rectangular, etc., according as the basis is a 
triangle, quadrangle, rectangle, etc. When the base js a regular 
figure, the pyramid is said to be "regular" (Figs. 14 and 16), 




.L. 







Fip. X5— Oblique Fig. i6— Quad- Fiff. 17-Pen- Fig. 18— Right Fig. 19- Oblique 
Triangular raugular tagonal Circular Circular 

Pyramid. Pyramid. Pyramid. Cone. Cone. 

Otherwise "irregular" (Figs. 15 and 17.) The "altitude" or 
"height" of a pyramid is the perpendicular distance from vertex 
to base (Fig. 15). 

A "cone" is a solid, of which the base is a curved figure, most 
commonly a circle, from which the surface tapers uniformly to 
a point called "vertex" (Figs. 18 and 19). The "altitude" or 

b 






Fig. 20— Frustum 
of a Cone. 



Fig. 21 Frustum 
of a Pyramid. 



d 

Fig. 22— Ellipse. 



"height" of a cone is the perpendicular distance from vertex to 
base (Fig. 19). Any section of a cone parallel to the base gives 
a figure similar to the base, but smaller. 

A section of a cone or cylinder when cut obliquely by a plane 
passing through the curved surface, or "mantle," without inter- 
secting the base, is called an ellipse (Fig. 22") \ o, tt.TA.«\ ^ «i^^^^ 
lod; a c, long diameter or axis; b d, sboxl ^\^meltT ox ^-^x^. 
5 



66 ICSHSUKATION. 

To and the area of an Mpu, mnltiplr the ptodnct qfflhMMl- 
axes by 3*1416; or, tmiltiply the product of iti axes bf a9€|s4^*v 

Example.'-'Thit long axis is 12 feet, the short axis 8 feet, what iB**'^ 
the area? 

6X4X3.1416 = 75,3984 tq. ft.; or, 12 X8Xa7«54 = 75-3004 
sq. ft. 

To find the circumference of an ellipse, approxiiiiatetf* D 
d being the two axes, use the fdlowing fdmnda: 



Circumference =3. I4i6u/ — ^ — 



The "frustum" of a cone or of a pyramid (also c^M a 
truncated cone or pyramid) is that part which remains after 
cutting o£F the upper part by a plane parallel to the base (Fvs. 
20 and 21). 

A "sphere" is a solid in which every point of the surface is at 
an equal distance from a point called the center. It is gen e filed 
by the revolution of a circle around its diameter. The surfooe of 
a sphere is = 12.5664 r* = 3.1416 diameter' = 0.3183 circnmfcr- 
ence" = diameter X circumference. The volume of a sphere is 
4.1888 r* = 0.5236 diameter* = 0.01689 circumference* = % 
diameter X s^rea of surface. 

MENSURATION OF SURFACES. 

The unit of measure for surface is the "square foot." 
To find the surface of a right prism, ascertain the areas of 
both ends and all sides, and add them together. 

Areas of ends + areas of sides. 

Example. — The side of the end of a square prism (a rectangular 
box or bin) is 6 feet, length 15 feet. What is the surface? 
6 X 6 = 36 = area of one end. X -2 = 72 = area of both ends; 
6 X 15 = 90 = area of one side, X 4 = 360 = area of four sides; 

72 -\- 360 = 432 square feet. 

To find the surface of a cube (a box of equal length, width 
and height), ascertain area of square forming its sides, and mol- 
tiply by 6. 

Area of end X 6. 

Example. — Side of square is 4 feet. What is the surface of the 
cnbe? 

4 X 4 ^ t6 = area of square; 16 X 6 = ^ vvaax^ iw*.. 



MENSURATION. 6y 

To.fmd the surface of a cylinder, multiply the circumference 
of die end by the height, and add the areas of both ends. 

Height X circumference + 2 X area of end. 
Example, — Diameter of round cylinder is 18 inches, the height 
72 inches. Find the surface. 

18 X 31416 = 56.54 = circumference ; 56.54 X72=:^ 4070.88 ; 
Area of end is i8* X 0.7854 = 254.472 X 2 = 508.94 = areas of 
both ends. 

4070.88 + 508.94 = 4579.82 square inches. 

When internal surface only is to be computed, omit adding 
areas of top end, or both ends, as the case may be. 

What is the height in an upright cylinder (round tank) is 
the length in a horizontal cylinder (storage vat). 

To find the surface of a. right pyramid, multiply the perimeter 
of the base by the slant height, measured along the slanting sur- 
face (that is, from the vertex to a point midway between two 
successive corners of the base), divide the product by two, and 
add to the quotient the area of the base. 

(Perimeter of base X slant height) -r- 2 + area of base. 

Example, — In a quadrangular pyramid a side is 8 feet, slant 
height 24 feet. What is the surface? 

8 X 4 = 32 = perimeter of base ; (32 X 24) -f- 2 = 768 = area of 
sides. 

8 X 8 = 64 = area of base ; 768 + 64 = 832 square feet. 

To find the surface of a frustum of a pyramid, add the perime- 
ters of both ends, multiply the sum by the slant height (that 
is. from a point midway between two successive corners of 
the base and a point midway between the two corresponding 
corners of the top), divide the product by 2, and add the areas 
of both ends. 

[(Perimeter of base + perimeter of top) X slant height] -4-2-1- 

area of base -|- area of top. 

Example. — In a frustum of a quadrangular pyramid the side of 
the base is 8 feet, of the top 6 feet, slant height 20 feet. What is 
the surface? 

8X4 = 32; 6X4 = 24; 32-1-24 = 56 = sum of perimeters ; 

56X20= ii20-i-2 = 560 = area of sides ; 

8 X 8 = 64, area of base ; 6 X 6 = 36 = ^xz\ oi Vc>v\ 

s6o + 64 + 36 = 660 square ieftX.* 




68 « MENSURATION. 

To find the surface of a right coue, nmltsply the 
of the base by the slant height (thit is, from the 
circumference of the baae), divide Ibe prodnct by a, and adi 
the area of the base. 

(Circumference of base X shmt height) -S- a + area of faaa^ 

Example,— Tht diameter of the base is 5 feet, die slant heigbt'15 
feet. What is the surface? 

5X31416= 15.708 = circumference of base;' iS7dBXi5 = 

235-62-r-2= II7.81; 

5' X 0.7854 = 19.63 = area oi base; 117.81 + 19.63 = 137445 

square feet. 

To And the surface of a frustum of a cone, add the drcnm- 
ferences of the two ends, multiply the sum by the slant beii^ 
(that is, from a point in the circumference of the base to a 
corresponding point in the circumference of the top, the line 
so drawn to He in a plane perpendicular to the base), divide the 
product by 2, and add the areas of the two ends. 
[ (Circumf. of base + circumf. of top) X slant height] -f- 3 -{- area 

of base -|- area of top. 

Example. — The diameter of the base of a frustum of a cone is 10 
feet, of the top 8 feet, slant height 12 feet. What is the surface? 

10 X 31416 = 31.416 = circumference of base ; 

8 X 3.1416= 25.1 ji = circumference of top; 

(31.416 + 25.132) X 10 = 565.48 -r- 2 = 282.74; 

10" X 0.7854 = 78.54 = area of base. 

8" X 0.7854 = 50.265 = area of top. 

282.74 + 78.54 + 50.263 = 4". 545 square feet. 

MENSURATION OF VOLUMES. 

The unit of measure of capacity is the cubic foot. 

To find the volume of a pristn or parallclopiped, multiply the 
length by the breadth and the depth, or, the area of the base hf 
the height (length). 

Length X breadth X depth. 

Example. — The three dimensions of a straight box arc : Length 
6 ft., breadth 2 ft., depth 4 ft. What is the volume? 

6 X 2 X 4 = 48 cubic ft. 

To Hnd the volume of a cube. This applies to boxes, bins, etc, 
where length, breadth and height are equ«il. 

The volume is the cube of the dimension ; that is, multiply the 
dimension twice by itself. 



MENSURATION. * 69 

Bxompt€,—The side of a cube is 24 inches. What is the volume ? 
^ itffoT 24 X 24 X 24 = 13824 cu. in., or 13824 -^ 1728 = 8 cu. ft. 

To find "the sise of a box or bin to accommodate a required 
capacity. 

First, reduce busheb to cubic feet; then, if a bin of equal 
length, width and height (that is, a cube) is wanted, extract the 
cube root of the number of cubic feet. The result is the inside 
dimension of the box. 

Example, — Required capacity, 500 bu., dimensions of bin to be 
equal. 

500 bu. = 625 cu. ft ; ^'625 = 855 = 8 ft. 6i in. 
If the bin is to be square, but not a cube, one of the dimensions 
must be given. 
£;raif»^/e.-^Required capacity, 500 bu. ; depth, 6 ft. 3 in. 

500 bu = 625 cU. ft. ; 625 -T- 6 25= loo; \/ioo = »o The length 
and width of the bin is 10 feet 

Example, — Required capacity, 500 bu. ; side. 10 ft. 
500 bu. = 625 cu. ft. ; 625 :io X 10 = 6.25 = 6 ft. 3 in. 
If the bin is to be simply rectangular, but neither cubic nor 
square, two Of the dimensions must be given. 

Example. — Required capacity, 500 bu. ; length, 12 ft. ; depth, 6 ft. 

500 bu. = 625 cu. ft. ; 625 :i2 X 6 = 8.68 = 8 ft. 8% in. 

To find the volume of a pyramid or cone, multiply the area of 
the base by one-third the perpendicular height. 

Area of base X % height. 

Example, — ^The base of a rectangular pyramid is 3 feet by 4 feet, 
the height 6 feet. What is the volume? 

3 X4 = 12; 12 X -= 24. or 3X4 X/)^ 2^ ^^ fj 

3 3 

Example, — The diameter of the base of a cone is 3 feet, height 12 
feet. What is the volume? 

7 068 X 12 
Area of base = 7.068 ; t = 28,272 cu. ft. 

To Und the volume of a cylinder. This is the shape of most 
water tanks, mash tubs, etc. 

Multiply the area of the base or end by the perpendicular 
height (or length, in case of an horizontal cyUudetV 

Area of base X height. 



/O MENSURATION. 

Example. — The diameter of a round cylinder is 3 feet, th cheig l l t 
12 feet. What is the volume? ***- 

Area of circle of 3 feet diameter = 7.06B; 7.06B X 13 = 84^1* 
cubic feet. 

To find the capacity of a cylinder in gattoms, nmhiply area of 
bottom in square inches by length in inches, and dMde by J31. 

Example. — The diameters of an elliptical horizontal cylinder are 
8 feet and 6 feet, the length 12 feet. What is the capacity? 

96 72 

— X — = 48 X 36 = 1728 X 3.1416 = 5426.68 sq. in. 
2 2 

5428.68 X 144 = 781730 cu. in. 
781730 -7- 231 = 3384.1 gal. 



CAPAOTIES OF TANKS, TUBS, CISTERNS, CASKS, BINS, 

The formulae for rectangular prisms or parallelopipcds, cniws. 
pyramids, cones, cylinders, frustums of pyramids or cones, apply 
to all the boxes and vessels of regular geometrical shape wed 
in the brcwer>'. For those of irregnlar shape, approximate wodc- 
ip.g fornuilse are given. 

For calculating capacities, take inside measurements. 

JV or king formula for calculating capacity of a round tank: 

(Diameter in feet) *X depth in feet X S.878 = gallons; (di- 
ameter in feet) *X depth in feet X 0,1865 = barrels of 31% gal. 

Example. — Diameter of tank 6 feet, depth 10 ft 

36 X 10 X 5.878 = 2116.09 gal. 

36 X 10 X 0.1865 = 67.14 barrels of 31% gal. 

To find the volume of a frustum of a pyramid or cone. This 
i> the shape of most tubs, tank's and cisterns used in the chip cel- 
lar, fermenting cellar, etc. 

1. »3 perpendicular height X (area of top 4- area of base + 
|/arca of top X area of base) ) 

2. For conical vessels only (approximate value) : 
/Top diam. -^ bottom diam.>j«^ ^ ^^ y ^^.^^^ 



or. 



Top area -4- bottom area ^^ height 



MENSURATION. 7I 

Example. — The inside measurement of a fermenting tub are: 
Bottbm diameter, 10 feet; top diameter, 9.5 feet; height, 7 feet 
What is the cai>acity? 



I- K X 7 X (78.54 + 70.88 + /78.54 X70.88 = 2.33 X ('49-42 
-f 74.42) = 521 547 cu. ft. 



2. ( ?J±i?) X 3. 14 X 7 = 522.2 cu. ft. 
^ 70.88 + 78.54 X 7 ^ 5„.^7 cu. ft. 



Abridged working formula for calculating the capacity of 
round tanks in barrels of 31 gallons: 

1. Reduce all measurements to inches ; add diameters of bot- 
tom and top, and divide by 2, to obtain mean diameter. Square 
the mean diameter, multiply by o.oooii, and the product by the 
height. 

Example. — Bottom diameter, 10 feet; top diameter, 9.5 feet; 
height, 7 feet. 

I20-Hi4_^j^. 1 1 7« =13689X0.00011 = 1.505X84=126 42bbl. 

2 

2. Reduce all measurements to feet; find mean diameter as 
above. Square the mean diameter, multiply by 0.19, and the 
product by the height. 

Example. — Same dimensions as above. 

10+9.5 _ ^^g . g y5«__. Q5,o6 X o 19 = 18.06 X 7= 126.42 bbl. 

2 

Manufacturers of tanks commonly calculate the capacities of 
tanks in the following way, the taper of the tanks being so slight 
— about % inch to the rising foot — that the difference between 
the height of the vessel and the length of the side is ignored. 
Square the mean diameter of the tank in inches, multiply by 
the length of the stave in inches and the product by 0.0034 1 the re- 
sult is the capacity in gallons. To obtain the length of the stave for 
this purpose, take off 2 inches from the actual extreme length, 
then take off 5 inches each for top and bottom for 2-inch lumber, 
and 6 inches each for 3-inch lumber. 

(Mean diameter)* X stave X 0.0034 = ga\.', s\.vit ■=- ^K.V>aa^ 
]eogrtb-'2 In, —2X5 (or 2X6) in. 




/a imsmuumxii. 

EsampU.^NLtmn diameltr u lt» Ml kagfli of Htve 
inch Imnber. Find the captci^. 

Length of stave i6 feet, lew 2 hadba, ten aXS.indMKsIS fed 
Hence, 

144 *X 180 Xoloc^= 13960431 gaLs= 40913(9 beer temit. 

r/fifl<il StaUs Meosuremeui of cisiems amd tmUts, The Abote 
agrees substantially with the rale ghren to gaspers of tfie Uaittd 
States internal revenue service for ose where the huide mctti- 
uremcnts of a cistern cannot be taken, as foOows: *TdDe the 
outside circumference of the cistern, half way b c t w e e u iht bol- 
torn and top; divide this by 3.1416 (or mu l tiply by 7 and ttflde 
by 22), and you have the mean diameter on the outside; dedlKt 
from this twice the thickness of the staves* and yoa have iIm 
mean inside diameter. Multiply this sum hf itadf and by the 
height and the product by 00034. The product is the capacity ol 
the cistern in gallons." 

To find the capacity of a cask (approximately) : 

1. Reduce all measurements to inches. Square the mean 
diameter, multiply by length, and the product by 0.0034. The 
mean diameter is % the sum of the head and bung diameters, or, 
according to some authorities, the sum of hk of the head diameter 
and % of the bung diameter. The result is the capacity in gallons. 

(Mean diameter)* X length X 0.0034. 

Example. — Bung diameter 24 inches, head diameter 16 inches, 
length 36 inches. 

_ ?4-i-i6_ 
2 

2. Reduce all measurements to inches. 
/ »eaddiam.4-bungd»a-ii. X«^ ^ ^^ ^ j^^^^^ T^j^j^ ^.^^ ^^^ ^. 

pacity in cubic inches. 

Exam/tU. I — —Z\ X SM X 36 = 11304 cu. in. 

United States \fcasurement of Casks. The regulations of the 

United States internal revenue office classify casks into three 

rar/et/es, the distinctions being based on iVve cutn^lVmx^ ol \5da 



Mean diameter = — = 20 ; 20 X 20 X 36 X o 0034= 4S.96gal. 

2 



MENSURATION. 73 

Staves at the quarter hoops, that is, midway between the bung 
an(f chimb. Following are the rules: 

Variety i (least curvature). — Multiply difference between 
head diameter and bung diameter by 0.55, and add to product 
the head diameter. 

Variety 2 (medium curvature). — Same, with decimal 0.63. 

Variety 3 (greatest curvature). — Same, with decimal 0.70. 
This will give the mean diameter. 

Then multiply the square of the mean diameter, in inches, by 
0.0034 ^nd by length in inches. The product is the capacity in 
gallons. Thus, for the dimensions 24. 16, 36, the capacities for 
the different varieties are (i) 50.94. (2) 54- 18- (3) 57- 1- 

The familiar fact that casks seldom come up to their nominal 
capacity is due in part to a slight inward curvature of the heads, 
for which no allowance is anywhere provided. 

"Ullage" is the amount of liquor in a cask when not full. 

To find the ullage of a cask: 

1. For a lying cask: Divide the number of wet or dry inches 
by the bung diameter in inches; if the quotient is less than 0.5, 
deduct from it one-fourth part of what it wants of 0.5 ; if it ex- 
ceeds 0.5, add to it one- fourth of the excess over 0.5 ; multiply the 
remainder or sum by the contents of the whole cask in gallons. 
The product is the quantity of liquor in the cask in gallons, 
when the dividend is wet inches, or the empty space if dry 
inches. 

2. For a standing cask: Divide the number of wet or dry 
inches by the length of the cask in inches. If the quotient ex- 
ceeds 0.5, add to it one-tenth of the excess above 0.5; if less 
than 0.5, substract from it one-tenth of what it wants of 0.5; 
multiply the sum or the remainder by the contents of the whole 
cask in gallons. The product is the quantity of liquor in the 
cask, if the dividend is wet inches, or the empty space if dry 
inches. 

To find the volume of a combined square box and pyramid—' 
that is, the capacity of a bin with hopper and vessels of similar 
shape. This working formula is close enough for practical 
purposes, although not mathematically true, as it makes no al- 
lowance for the slight inaccuracy resulting from the fact that 
the inverted pyramid is not perfect, but T^\\\e.T ^ \t\\'?X\vccs., >^cv^ 
vertex being cut off by the trap at the \>o\lom. 



CAPAcmes OP < 



i^rr 




Uli.1 




"dh: 




Hisr 








TT 




In Ubls 










Id 


Bblt. 


ID 


Bbli. 


In 


Mk. 


Jo. 












Id 












"»~'~ 






0.7» 






150.6 


ta.Hi 


180 .S 


"isM 


tl9.t 




MS 1 






OM 






lU. 


».0I 














Pl.R 


1 0£ 


ISIS 


19.« 




Ktl 






sii!» 


sbIst 




i.«i 






IM. 








m. 


u!i 


111. 


W.11 


«: 








les 




!«:» 


x'n 


IMS 


43.1 


11) .ft 


H.tS 


la.i 




aa. 






1091 


lU. 


n.Hi 






til. 


W.M 






w^ 


15 


la.B 


w.m 


ISIS 


31 01 


IBSiS 


m!si 


m.ft 


».» 


«s 


s:si 




l.S 




a). a 




1M. 


M9t 


tl«. 


• J7 


SI. 


&.W 








St.N 


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IM.S 










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K. , 


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la. 


tD.9l 




IB. 




ai! 


nin 


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R..i. 


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la.t 


at. 73 




lA.t 


4s's 


■u.t 


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W. : 








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(a.iu 


tH. 










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n'-a 


lU.S tt.l4 


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w. 








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w. , 


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w. 


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lae.s, sam 


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les M.« 






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SiAl 


im.S' ».ii 


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liM.. 


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49. S3 


2S4! 


stios 


:!■. 






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IMS 


49 79 




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it«. 




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l«.ii 




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107. .1 si.ii; 




Min 


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1i»i. 31 M 




S1.S9 




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IS' 








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IW.S 3; ST 




M.M 




80. Tl 


7B.S 




M. 


k.a 


IN. 


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81.01 


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170:-, w,* 






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surs 


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iw's 


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71.44 


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MENSURATION. 



75 



Bstmple, — In a bin with hopper the box is 5 ft. long, 5 ft. wide, 
4' ft. 9 in. deep. The hopper (pyramid) is a ft 6 in. deep. Wlmt 
is the capacity? 

Vol. of box = 5 X 5 X 475 = "875 cu. ft. 

5 X 5 X 3.50 
Vol. of pyramid = = 62.50 cu. ft. 

3 

Capacity of bin and hopper = 181.25 cu. ft. = 146.16 bu. 

To find the volume of a combined round cylinder and cone 
that is, the capacity of a sleep tank with hopper and similar ves- 
sels (approximate formula). 

Add the volumes of the cylinder and of the cone. 

6 
_J , ^ 

6. 





Fig. 23— S<]uare Box with Pyramid. 
(Bin with Hopper.) 



Fig. 34— Round Cylinder with Cone 
(Steep Tank with Hopper.) 



Example. — In a steep tank, the tank proper (cylinder) measures 
6 ft. diameter and 4 ft. depth, the hopper (inverted cone) 2 ft. 
depth. What is the capacity? 

Vol. of cylinder = 6* X 0.7854 = 28.2744 X 4 = 1 13.0976 cu. ft. 
Vol. of cone = 6* X 0.7854 X % = 18.8496 cu. ft. 

* 

Capacity of steep tank and hopper = 131.9372 cu. ft. 

= 106.4 bu. 

The brew-kettle is a vessel of wholly irreg^ar shape, from a 
geometrical point of view. Its shape varies according to the 
requirements of the brewery, sometimes being broader and more 
shallow, and again deeper and more slender. The measurements 
given in the subjoined table are not intended to give the net 
contents of kettles, but the net brewing capacity, according to 
the methods customary among copptTSTiv\V!d%, NiVCvcJcw "ax^. "s^tossrSv. 
eotirely empirical Thus, for a ico-YjatteV VoXCifc, ^5o» \*3JCw» 



76 UENSUKATIOK. ^ 

diameter (B) ia 8 feet 6 indwt, Oe Iai|«M diameter (Ai^T*^ 
feet 6 inchea. This give* a mcu diameter (rf g feet 6 indm. 
The heiglit of the shell (D) ii 6 feet TnatJnc thg TCMd ISn a 




nc. It-Oral Cuk. 



cylinder of the mean diameter of 9 feet 6 inchet, the c^Mci^ is 
(9' 6')' X 07854 X 6 = -PS-ag coWc feet = ioa.73 barrda of 31 
gallons. The bottom below B is not fipired at all, altowance being 
made for boiling down. Out of a copper of this size some brew- 





ers will tarn out 1 15 barrels, some 1 10, some only 100. Architects 
and coppersmiths generally specify kettles large enough to allow 
for all methods of brewing. 

It is possible to get approximate figures on the contents of 
a Icetlle by talcing inside measurements at A and B and the height 
" ^od ffgnriag as above; then adding thereto the coiAtiAi dl ftit 



MENSURATION. 



77 



bottpfil calculated as a spherical segment, according to this for- 
mula: Square the radius (or % diameter) of circle B, multiply 
by 3; to the product add the square of the height (C) of the 
segment; multiply this sum by the height (C), and this last 
product by 0.5236. The formula accordingly for the whole kettle 
would be, for inside measurements: 

(^^)'X 0.78:4 X D +[(4-)* X3 + C«] X C X o.5»36. 

There is no way of calculating the capacity of a kettle, or of 
any other vessel, for that matter, with mathematical accuracy. 
The only strictly accurate test is to fill the vessel with water and 
measure its contents by a meter. 

Customary dimensions and capacities of kettles, fermenting 
and stock tubs, round and oval casks: 

ROUND CASKS. 



Barrels. 


A 


K 


C 






Ft. In. 


Ft. In. 


Ft. In. 




90 


6 


6 6 


6 




40 


6 2 


7 


6 2 




60 


7 


7 10 


7 




60 


7 6 


8 2 


7 « 




70 


7 10 


8 6 


7 10 




80 


8 2 


9 


8 2 




90 


8 6 


9 3 


8 6 




100 


9 


9 7 


9 




no 


9 4 


9 11 


9 4 




120 


9 6 


10 3 


9 6 




130 


9 6 


10 7 


9 6 




150 


9 8 


11 


10 8 




170 


10 


11 6 


10 




200 


11 


13 


11 





OVAL CASKS 



Barrels. 


A 


B 


C 


D 




Ft. In. 


Ft In. 


Ft. In. 




Ft. In. 


.'K) 


6 H 


8 


6 8 




6 8 


101) 


8 2 


9 2 


8 2 




8 2 


1(« 


7 rt 


10 6 


9 3 




9 3 


125 


8 8 


9 8 


8 8 




8 8 


150 


9 2 


10 4 


9 3 




9 8 


170 


9 8 


10 7 


9 8 




9 8 


175 


10 6 


11 


9 1 




9 1 


186 


10 « 


12 


10 




10 


200 


10 2 


11 4 


10 2 




10 2 


250 


11 


13 4 


11 4 


\ 


\V \ 


312 

/ 


10 6 


14 




Vi. ^ 



8o WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. ~ 

The tiandaid in common commerd^ use in ihe UDilM.5txte 
is the "avoirduiiois" or "commercial" pound, which confaint 
7,000 grains snd is pracdcally idcnlical with the Brilish avoit- 
dnpois ponod, which is the weighl of 37,7013 cubic inches o( 
distilled water in air at 39.2* F. wiUi a baronieier ol 3c inches. 

While the pound is ihe iheoretical standard, the pnctical anil 
is the grain, which is equal in Troy, apoihecaries' and avoirdu- 
pois or commeccial weight. 

WEASunes of capacity. 

The measuTCs o! capacity in use in the United Stales hare 
no exact equivalent in the measures of any other cotintry. Wlule 
many names arc derived from the British, and, in some easu, 
are identical wilh the same, their values, as a mie, are qutlc 
differem. 

The units of capacity are the "gallon" for liquids and dte 
"bushel" for dry measure. 

The "standard liquid gallon" of the Untied States contains 
231 cubic inches and is equal to 8.3389 pounds avoirdupoiB tA 
pure water at 39,2' F. at a barometer of 30 inches. The "half 
peck" or "dry gallon" contains 268.8 cubic inches. The "iio- 
perial gallon" of Great Britain contains 277.274 cubic incbes, 
being the volume occupied by 10 pounds of water weighed in 
air at 62° P. and 30 inches barometric presEure, and is evial 
to about 1,2 United States liquid gallons. 

The "standard struck bushel" of the United States contahis 
3150.42 cubic inches (the old British Winchester struck bushel), 
or 1.2445 cubic feet, or 77.6274 pounds avoirdupois of pure water 
at 39.2° F. It is a cylindrical measure i8t4 inches in diameter 
and 8 inches deep. 

A "heaped bushel," which is like the foregoing, wilh a heaped 
tone not less than 6 inches high, is equal to iVi struck bushels. 

The "imperial bushel" of Great Britain contains 2216.192 cdImc 
inches, or 1,3837 cubic feel. 

The United Slates "standard barrel" contains 3iVj gallons. 

The United States "beer barrel," according to the Internal 
Revenue laws of the United States, contains 31 gallons even. 
This should be used to measure water tanks, coppers, coolen; 
rtr„ 3s well as chip casks, fermenting tubs, etc. 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 8l 

. -^ METRIC SYSTEM. 

The metric system is compulsory in France, Germany, Austria 
Hungary, Belgium, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Norway, Sweden. 
Switzerland, Servia, Roumania, Mexico, Brazil, Peru, Venezuela 
and the Argentine Republic. It is legalized but not com- 
pulsory in the United States (act of 1866), Great Britain, Den-* 
mark and Japan. In the United States, however, and in Great 
Britain, both custom and the greater convenience of com 
putation — aside from notation — in the duodecimal over the deci- 
mal system have prevailed to maintain the old customary stand- 
ards in common use. The Federal government has furnished 
exact metric standards to the several states. The metric sj^s- 
tem is used extensively in scientific work, as it requires no 
adaptation of different national standards, and thus facilitates 
the mutual exchange of scientific research in different countries 

The metric unit is the meter, which was intended to be the 

ten-millionth part (77-— -—- ) of the earth's quadrant, i. e., of 

that part of a meridian from cither pole to the equator. After 
this length was obtained and a set of standards prepared and 
deposited in the archives of France, it was discovered that errors 
were made in the calculations. Nevertheless, the standards were 
left undisturbed. 

The metric measures of surface and capiicity are the squares 
and cubes of the meter, its decimal fractions or multiples. 

The metric unit of weight is the gram, being the weight of a 
cubic centimeter of pure water at 39.2* F. 

By convention among the leading nations of the world an 
international bureau of weights and measures has been created, 
with its seat near Paris, which has prepared two ingots of pure 
platinum-iridium. From one of these a number of standard 
kilograms have been made, and from the other a number of 
standard meter bars, both derived from the standards in the 
French archives. Certain of these copies were preserved as 
international standards, and others were distributed among 
the contributory governments. Those sent to the United States 
arc in the possession of the Coast and Geodetic Survey. These 
copies of the international prototype mcltt ^xvd VWo^x-axcv Vi\^ 
the basts of official metrology in the United S\.^V.^%. 
e 



82 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 



Table of contributors to the International Bnreau of IVitgkf^^d 

Measures, 



Countries. 



Popala- 
tlon. 



Ar^ntine Con- 
. federation. 

Austria 

HuHKary i 

Itelgium 

France ! 

Germany i 

Italy I 

Norway 

Peru 

Portugal 

Roumanla 



2,000.C00 

30.13n.383 

15.5Q8.!i7S 

5.835.45.2 

lt«)8.803 

45.191.173 

28,'(».«30 

1.900,000 

3,009.945 

5.400.000 

5.000,000 



Metric sys- 
tem. 



ObLlntor>- 

Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Da 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 



Coontrlet. 



Serrlm 

Spain 

Swltserland 

Venezuela. ..... 

Great BriUln 
and Ireland... 

9 W OQen ..aa*. •• 

Turkey 

United States... 

Denmark 

Japan 

Russia 



Popala- 
tlon. 



1.600.000 obiigRtonr. 

Si.4Ga.46B 

t.ai,787 
1.781, IM 



86.112.096 
4.577,781 
S2.084.000 
50,000.000 
1.080,625 
87.011.001 
9S.I44.4M 



Metric aya- 



Do. 
Do. 



Permlaslre 

Da 

Da 

Do. 
Non-metric 

Da 

Da 



NoTB.— The amount of eacb coantrf*s contribution to the malntenaiiee of 
the International Bureau has been determined by the population as given 
above and by the rating Indicated by obligatory, i>ennlsslve, and non-metric. 
The figures do not show the present |K>puratlon. 

The relation of the South and Central American states to the 
metric system is shown in the following table: 



Argentine Re|».. 

Bolivlii 

Bni/11 

Chile 

Colnmbiu 

L'o^tii Kioa 

Ei'iiatlnr 

Giiati'ni:r.;t 

llavti 



Popula- 
ilon. _ 

3..K>il.0iV 
•i.StW.OOH 



Remarks. 



Ci 11 1 ana: 

Ilri'l-li 

Kr.'jn'h . . . . 

iJii^fli , 

H'Mnl!:ni'< 

>I«'xiio 



NU-ar.i::ij:i 
Para-tia\ . 



INtm 

SaUaiior 

San l)4)niirii:o. 

('ni:siiny 

W'tif^iit-.n 






fiiRt 

-.Ml*'. 



UNI 
(■II 

li.m 



lIlMl 



(MX) 



Metrli* <y>i«'m o»»lijraiory : the law of 1887 pre- 

M'rit»e>"|H.*naltle'* for :hen>e of any other. 
Coin and cu-ioni-hi>U'ie welirhtN metric; old Cas- 

tlllan wfiirhts and measure** in common uite. 
Metrio \V'.tem obllL'aiory : ohl wei^rhts and meas- 

\\xy< \\-^y\\ In the Interior. 
Morrlc xyNtcm leiral slnct^ IWH. 
Mi.'irlo -^x.-ivm obiiiratorx. 
Mftrii- ^yNtvm obliinitory »; I noe Antrust. 1885. but 

lfj:aUzvil '.ince 1858. 
M-!.-io -vsioni obliinitory. 
Mc'.ric sUti'm usctl In oolnaiie and In land meas- 

■irv. uititT \vt'iL'ht'« ami nn-asnres in common 

ll-.!-. 

Mi-irii' (.'oinairo. uld Frenoh wei^'ht sand measures 

'.II '.'.M'. 

Hriii<h system. 

MvTrio ^y^tt.'ni. 

.Mr-trio >\ -.itin. 

MrtrltToinau'f.o'Jirrw i^- mt-tr:)* <> ^.tem not In use. 

.M«^irl«- -y-.tfin If-'a-i/.i'il anil oMi'-'iitorx in all gor- 

ernrn«'ni :r;iii'«:i«'; ion^. i}\y\ wnirnt"' and meas- 

II rr-. in U'io. 

M».trio -.y-.ti in l»--'a!I/fd. ^ir. oM \xt'iirlit«i and meas- 

II rt'"' iri M-e. 
Mr'.ric «.\'.;«ni o'»;ii.';i*«ir\ . 



<Hil Irnii.'h WfiuhtN arnl ni«.a'»::ro- ;n n<e. 
Mi-rric «.y'.*.^'n\ \fU'Al'./.**l. Mv'.rl«- o )inairo. 
.\h.'t rio s"v ^'.rm obi\uu\OTy . 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 83 

As tKe equivalent of the meter in British and United States 
measure the United States Coast Survey adopts as the length of 
the meter at 62** R, the value of 39.370432 inches, = 3.2808666 
feet, = 1.0936222 yards, as determined in 1866 at the British 
Ordnance Survey. The lawful equivalent established by Con- 
gress is 39.37 inches, = 3.28083 feet, = i. 09361 1 yards. 

The legal weight of a gram in the United States is 15.432 
grains. 

In addition to the standards mentioned there is current a 
variety of customary measures of different denominations and 
irregular values, which are given under the several heads in the 
succeeding pages. 

UNITED STATES CUSTOMARY MEASURES AND 

WEIGHTS. 

MEASURES OF LENGTH (EXTENSION). 



12 inches (in.) = i foot, ft. 

3 feet = I yard, yd. 

5% yards or __ j i rod, rd. 
16% feet i pole, or perch. 

40 rods = I furlong, furl. 

8 furlongs = i mile, mi. 
72 points = I inch. 

6 points = I line. 
12 lines = I inch. 



mi. furl. rd. yd. ft. in. 
I =8=320= 1 760=5280=63360 
1= 40= 220= 660= 7920 
1= 5%=i5%= 198 
1= 3= 36 
i== 12 
3 barley-corns, or sizes = i in. 
1,000 mils =: I inch. 
3 inches = i palm. 
9 inches = I span. 



4 inches = i hand. 

8 spans, or 6 feet, or 2 yards = i fathom. 

120 fathoms = 720 feet = i cable's length. 

6080.27 feet = 1.1516 statute miles = i geographical or nautical 

mile (knot). 

3 nautical mi. = i league. 

60 nautical mi. / _. deirrec -^ ^^ititudc on a meridian, or 
(69.09 Stat, mi.) C — ^ " » "/ longitude on the equator. 

360 degrees = circumference of the earth at the equator. 

Fathoms and cables are used for measuring rope; points and 

lines for pendulums. 

surveyors' linear measure. 



7.92 inches = i link, 1. 
25 links = I rod, rd. 

/;/: r^^* ^^ ^ ^r^A^ ' I Gunter's 
66feet.or4rods=,-^,,^j„^ ch. 

80 chains = i mile, mi. 



mi. 


ch. 




rd. 


I = 


z 80 


c= 


320 




I 


■ 


4 



1. in. 

- 8000 = 63360 

\ = T«^ 



WEIGHTS AND 









INCHES nf twaiiALs 


OF A TOOI 




V 


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fM. 


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H 


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§ 


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SURFACE OR SQUARE MEASURE. 

144 squares inches (sq. in.) = i square foot. sq. ft. 
y square feet — I square yard. sq. yd. = i.»)6 square inchc*. 
40 sruarc {loki, or rods — 1 rood. 

joJu sQuare yards, or 272^ square feel =: i square rod. or perch. 
J?, rrf, P. 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 



8^ 



4 rp^s, or lo sq. chains, i6o square rods, or 4840 sq. yards, or 

43*560 sq. feet = I Acre, A. 
640 acres = i square mile, sq. mi. 

sq. mi. A. sq. rd. sq yd. sq. ft. sq. in. 

I = 640 = 102,400 = 3,097,600 .r= 27,878,400 = 4,014,489,600 
100 square feet = i square (Arch, and Build, measure). 

CIRCULAR MEASURE. 



60 seconds, " = i minute, ' 
60 minutes, ' = i degree, ' 



90 degrees. ' = i quadrant. 
360 degrees, ' = circumference. 



A circular inch is the area of a circle i inch in diameter = 0.7854 
square inch; i square inch = 1.2732 circular inches. 

LAND MEASURE (SURVEYORS* SQUARE MEASURE). 

625 square links (sq. 1.) = i pole, P. 

16 poles = I square chain, sq. ch. 

10 square chains = i acre, A. 
640 acres = i square mile, sq. mi., or section. 
160 acres = i quarter section. 

36 square miles (6 mi. square) = i township, Tp. 
I township = 36 square miles = 23,040 acres. 

MEASURES OF CAPACITY OR VOLUME. 

CUBIC OR SOLID MEASURES. 

1728 cubic in. = i cubic ft., cu. ft. cu. yd. cu. ft. cu. in. 
27 cubic ft. = I cubic yd., cu. yd. i = 27 = 46.656 

LIQUID MEASURE. 

gal. qt. pt gi. 

4 gills (gi.) =1 pint, pt. i = 4 = 8 = 32 

2 pints = I quart, qt. 1 = 2 = 8 

4 quarts = i gallon, gal. 1 = 4 

Cu. ft. = 62.5 pounds (lb.) of water. Gallon (gal.) = 231 
cu. in. =:= 8.34 lbs. water. 

To reduce cubic inches to gallons, divide by 231 ; cu. in. ~ 231 
= gal. 

To reduce gallons to cubic inches, multiply by 231 ; gal. X ^31 
= cu. in. 

To reduce gallons to cubic feet, divide \jv *JA^- "^^ \^^>a^^^ 
cubic feet to gallons, multiply by 7.4I8. 



86 



WEIGHTS AMD 1UASUBB& 

uiiiiiD stAns GAumn ui cimc rr. 



OaDOiis. 


Coble Ik 


Ol... 


ciMBn. 


<»-. 


— ^5: 




.184 
J87 
.401 
.885 
.688 

.808 

.986 

1.089 

ijm 

L887 


M68 

• IMMi 

ayBOB 

4J0B0 

fj900 
7^008 
fjOOO 

MyS 


181681 

48UM8 
884.781 
80a468 

«i5.78« 
1,008.4«4. 
1,808.188 


f-fflffi 
4,flOij088 

7,680.608 
8j808j068 
8Lj000u608 


68UILf 
BK7«1 
688^60U 

88Mnji 

88i.1«» 


10 


m—f-rm 




1 . - 





CUBIC FSET Ur UMIBED STAHS GALLOH& 




Cubic Ft 


OaikMM. 


OMcWt, 


QMIOML 


OttbtoFk 


OflHOMU* 


0.3 
0.8 
0.4 
0.5 


0.75 
1.50 
8.81 
8.99 

8.74 


80 

60 
90 
80 
90 


•74.0 
4«L8 
888.6 
568.4 


8.068 
8^868 

tojm 
aojooo 

WfiOO 


«5u 

74gM3 
14BJ8I6L4 
a8l^41&i 


0.6 
0.7 
0.8 
0.9 
1 


4.49 
5.S4 
5.96 
6.78 
7.48 


lOp 
900 
800 
400 
500 


748.0 
1,496.1 
8.844J8 
8,902.8 
3,740.8 


40.600 
60,000 
60,600 
70,000 
80,000 


896iJ888j8 
874J086J 
448^J 
fl88jB8l8 

866,4418 


8 
8 
4 
6 
6 


14.96 
8il.44 

S9.92 
37.40 
44.88 


600 
.TOO 
800 
•800 
.000 


4.486.8 
5.8S6.4 
5.964.4 
6,7».5 
7,480.5 


90,600 
100,000 
800,000 
800,000 
400,000 


678.8«lT 

748,6818 

1,496,168l8 

8.844,]56.T 


7 

8 

9 

10 

80 


58.56 
50.81 
67.83 
74.80 
119.6 


8.000 
3,000 
4,000 

5,000 
6,000 


14,961.0 
22.441.6 
89.»».1 
87,400.6 
44,883.1 


600,000 

600.000 
700,000 
800,000 
900,000 


8,740JB8i( 
4.46ejlM 
5,886,8688 
5,984.418.t 
6,78;!,467a 


80 
40 


2»4.4 
899.8 


7,000 


52,368.6 


ljOOO.000 


7,480,518.0 



Beer barrel (bbl.) contains 31 gal. = 4.14 cu. ft. = 7,161 cn 11 

To reduce cubic feet to beer barrels, divide by 4.14; cu. ft - 
4.14 = beer bbl. 

To reduce beer barrels to cubic feet, multiply by 4.14; bc4 
bbl. X 4- 14 = cu. ft. 

Cubic foot = 0.24 beer bbl.; cubic inch = 0.00014 beer bbl. 

Barrels and hogsheads are fixed measures only for the article 
on which an Internal Revenue tax is levied, as beer, whisky, eb 
For ordinary commercial purposes they are not fixed measures. 
A hogrsbead of beer is two barrels, or \\o\ \.o t^^c^t^ (i-x^ ^S!i^^ac 



i 



, WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 87 

The-United States beer barrel, under the Internal Revenue law, 
a^ compared with other measures, is as follows: 



Beer Barrels. 


Bushels. 


Cubic Feet. 


Gallon<*. 


Cubic Inches. 


1. 

0328 
0.2413 
0.0823 


3.33 

1. 

0.804 

0.1074 


4.144 
1.244 
1. 
0.1387 


31. 
0.809 
7.47« 
1. 


7161. 
2150.4 
1728. 
231. 



FOR aSTERNS, TANKS, RESERVOIRS, ETC. 



31% gal. = I barrel, bbl. 
63 gal. = I hogshead, hhd. 



hhd. bbl. gal. qt. pt. 

I r= 2 = 63 = 252 r= 504 

I = 3iMr = 126 = 252 

For hot water as for cold, barrel of 31 gal. = 7161 cu. in. = 
4.14 cu. ft. ; I cu. ft. = 0.24 bbl. The contraction of volume of 
water or wort in cooling from boiling to greatest density is 4.5 
per cent. To find the volume that boiling hot water or wort will 
occupy when so cooled, multiply the volume of the hot fluid by 
95% and divide by 100, or multiply by 0.955. 

United States standard barrel contains 31% gal. = 4.21 cu. ft. 
(in practice often figfured roughly at 4.% cu. ft.). 

To reduce cubic feet to United States standard barrels, divide 
by 4.21 (roughly 4.25) ; cu. ft. -^ 4.21 = standard bbl. 

To reduce United States standard barrels to cubic feet; multiply 
by 4.21 (roughly 425) ; standard bbl. X 421 = cu. ft. 

apothecaries' fluid measure. 

60 minims, or drops = i fluid drachm. 

8 fluid drachms = i fluid ounce. 
16 fluid ounces = i pint. 

8 pints = I gallon. 

To reduce United States liquid measures to British, of the same 
denomination, divide by 1.2; or to reduce British to United States, 
multiply by 1.2. The British Imperial gallon contains 277.274 
cubic inches, or is equal to 1.2 United States gallon. 



MISCELLANEOUS FLUID MEASURES. 



Tierce = 42 gals. 
Butt of sherry — 108 gals. 
Pipe of port =115 gals. 
Pipe of Teneriffe = 100 gals. 
Butt of Malaga = 105 gals. 
Puncheon of Scotch whisky = 
iio-Jjo gzh. 



Puncheon of brandy : 

gals. 
Puncheon of rum = 

gals. 
Hogshead of brandy 

gals. 
HogsVxead ol d?ii^ -=■ 



: 110-120 

lOO-lIO 

= 55-60 



88 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. ^^ 



•. 



A hogshead is ^, k qnsrter M, an octaYe % of a pipe, ^ytt or 

puncheon. "^ . 

DRY MEASURE. 

United States bushel (bu.) = 2150.42 cu. in = 1.2445 en. ft. 
= 77.6274 pounds avoirdupois of pure water at 39.2* F. ; i en. ft 
= 0.80356 struck bushel. 

To reduce cubic feet to bushds, divide by 1*24 ; cu. ft -h i*.24 ac 
bu. For practical purposes subtract from cubic feet one-fifth of 
their number to obtain bushels ; cu. f t — % cu. ft. = bu. 

To reduce bushels to cubic feet, multiply by 1.24; bo. X I*^ 
= cu. ft. For practical purposes add to the number of bnshds 
one-fourth of their number to obtain cubic feet; bu. + K bo. 
— cu. ft. 

The half-peck or dry gallon contains 268.8 cubic inches. 



2 pints (pt.) = I quart, qt 
8 quarts = i peck, pk. 
4 pecks = I bushel, bu. 



bu. pk. qt pt cn.hL 
I = 4 = 32 =r 64 = 215042 
I = 8 = 16 = 537-6 
1=2= 67.2 

A heaped bushel contains 2747.715 cubic inches. 

The dry flour barrel = 3.75 cu. ft. = 3 struck bushels. The 
dry barrel is not a fixed measure, however, and barrels vary con- 
siderably in size. 

The imperial bushel of Great Britain contains 2216.192 cu. in., or 
1.2837 cu. ft. 

To reduce United States drj' measures to British, of the same 
denomination, divide by 1.032; to reduce British into United 
States, multiply by 1.032. 

COMPARATIVE TABT.E OF MEASURES OF CAP.VCITV. 



rii. In. Cm. In. , On. In. Cu. lo. 
in One tn (»nc in Ono 1 In One 

Gallon. Qiiarl. Pint. GIH. 



L1<iutd measure Zil S7; •>; 7^, 

Dry mvasiire -JrtS^ OT^ »:<.{ 8 J 



SHIPPING MEASURE. 

100 cu. ft. = I register ton. 

U. S. shipping ton = 32.143 U. S. bu. = 31.16 Imper. bu. = 40 
cu. It 



^ WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 8y 

Brit)0h'^8hipping ton = 3375 U. S. bu. = 32719 Imper. bu. = 42 

, - cu. ft. 

' WOOD MEASURE. 

In measuring wood, a pile of wood cut 4 ft. long, piled 4 ft. 
high and 8 feet on the ground, is called a cord. 

16 cubic feet = i cord foot, cd. ft. 
8 cord f^et, or 128 cubic feet = i cord, cd. 

In board measure, boards arc assumed to be one inch in thick- 
ness. To obtain the number of feet board measure (B. M.) of a 
board, or piece of square timber, multiply length in feet, breadth 
in feet and thickness in inches, 

I board ft. = i ft. long, i ft. wide, i inch thick. 
12 board ft. = i cu. ft. 

Board feet -h 12 = cu. ft. 
Cu. ft. X 12 = board ft. 

To find surface in square feet, all dimensions being in feet, mul- 
tiply length by breadth. When either dimension is in inches, 
multiply as above, and divide the product by 12. When all di- 
menions are in inches, multiply as above and divide by 144. 

To find volume of square cut timber, all dimensions being in 
feet, multiply length, breadth and depth, the result will be the 
volume in cubic feet. When one dimension is in inches, multiply 
as above, and divide by 12. When two dimensions are in inches, 
multiply as above and divide by 144. When all three dimensions 
are in inches, multiply as above and divide by 1728. 

To find the volume of round timber. — When dimensions are 
in feet, multiply the mean girth by the diameter, divide by 4, and 
multiply by the length. The result gives the cubic feet. When 
the length is in feet, girth and diameter in inches, proceed as 
above, and divide the product by 144. When all dimensions are in 
inches, proceed as in the first case, and divide the product by 
1728. 

STONE AND MASONRY MEASURE. 

Masonry and stone are measured by the cubic foot and by the 
perch, or, superficially, by the square foot or square yard. A 
perch is 16% ft. long, 1V2 ft. wide, i ft. high, and contains 24.75 
cu. ft. In m^uring a stone wall a perch is often figured at 22 
cu. ft. of stone. 275 being allowed for mortar, and in some ol 
the New England states a perch \s caWed iWi c>\. \\. ^t.^v^**.- 



go WEIGHTS AND MBASUBKS. \ 

tions are measured bgr the adMc ystd; z en. yd. it caMl^joed 
Brickwork is figured by the thousand of bridn» or in enbir^|t 

MEASURES OF WEIGHT. 

AvontpuFois OB ooMimoAL wncax. 

This is the measure used in all ordinary bosfaieas tra mafllm i ^ 

and is understood to be taken for the standard, mless otfaerwiM 

specified. 

i6 drams = i ounce (oz.) = 457.5 gruns» gr. 
16 ounces = 1 pound (lb.) = 7QCX> graina. 
28 pounds = I quarter, qr. 
4 quarters =: I hundredweight, cwt = zia UMb 
20 hundredweights = i ton of 2240 lbs., or long ton. 
2000 pounds = I net, or short ton. 
2204.6 pounds = I metric ton. 

I stone = 14 pounds; i quintal = 100 ponnds. 

The long, or gross ton, hundredweight and quarter were form- 
erly in common use, but now are used almost exclusively by the 
United States custom houses, and in freighting coal and selling 

it by wholesale. 

TROY WEIGUT. 



24 grains (gr.) = i penny- 
weight, pwt., or dwt. 
20 pennyweights = i ounce, oz. 
12 ounces = i pound, lb. 



lb. oz. pwt. gr. 

I = 12 = 240 = 5760 

I = 20 = 480 

I = 24 



Troy weight is used for gold and silver. 

A **carat'' is used by jewelers in weighing precious stones. In 
the United States it is = 3.2 grains = 0.205 gram. In London it 
is = 3.17 grains, in Paris = 3.18 grains, which is subdivided into 
4 "jewelers' grains." 

The term "carat*' is also used to designate the fineness of gold, 
pure gold being 24 carat, and alloyed gold, according to the ratio 
of gold and alloy, 22. 20, 16, etc., carat. 

apothecaries' weight. 

20 grains (gr.) = i scruple, sc. or ». 

3 scruples = i dram, dr. or 3 = 60 grains. 

8 drams = i ounce, oz. or 3 = 480 grains. 
12 ounces = i pound, lb. or lb. = 5760 grains. 
Ib = 3i2=:596 = 3288 = gr. 5760^ 

The pound, ounce and grain of apothecaries' weight are the 
s^jTie as those of Troy weight, the ounce beiu^ d\iiE«^ivtly divided. 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 



91 



.v* 



MISCELLANEOUS WEIGHTS. 

/^*!rhe following weights are in general use, cither by virtue of 
custom or of law : 



32 lbs. of oats = I bu. 

48 lbs. of barley = i bu. 

56 lbs. of rye = i bu. 

56 lbs. of ind. corn = i bu. 

so lbs. of ind. meal = i bu. 

60 lbs. of wheat = i bu. 



100 lbs. of meal or flour = i sack. 

100 lbs. of grain or flour = i cental. 

100 lbs. of dry 6sh = i quintal. 

100 lbs. of nails = i cask. 

196 lbs. of flour = I barrel. 

200 lbs. of beef or pork = i barrel. 



COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT WEIGHTS. 

In computing weights g^ven in different measures (Avoirdupois, 
Troy and Apothecaries') in any of the other measures, reduce all 
to grains, the grain being the same in the three standards. 

Troy. Avoirdupois. Apothecaries'. 

I pound = 5760 grains = 7000 grains = 5760 grains. 
I ounce •= 480 grains = 437.5 g^ins r= 480 grains. 
17s pounds = 144 pounds = 175 pounds. 

COAL MEASURE. 

Anthracite cu. ft. = 1.75 broken. 
Anthracite 50-55 lbs. per cu. ft. 
Anthracite 41-45 cu. ft. = i ton broken. 
Bituminous 70-78 lbs. = heaped bushel. 
Bituminous 40-50 lbs. = cu. ft. 
Charcoal ^hardwood) 18.5 lbs. = cu. ft. 
Charcoal (pinewood) 18 lbs. = cu. ft. 

WEIGHT OF HORSES. 

Weight of horses ranges from 800 to 1,200 lbs. 

THE METRIC SYSTEM. 

The metric system employs the decimal notation, being based 
upon decimal calculation entirely. The primary unit is the- 
meter for the measure of length. Derivative units are : "Are" for 
surface, "liter" for capacity, "gram" for weight. Denominations 
of decimal fractional parts, or decimal multiples of the units are 
formed by prefixing Greek numerals for the higher denominations, 
as dekameter r= 10 meters, hektometcr =: 100 meters, kilometer 
=1 1,000 meters, myriameter = 10,000 meters ; or Latin numerals 
for the lower denominations, as decimeter =0.1 meter^ cet\ticcvt.t^t 
= o.oj nwtcr, millimeter = o.ooi meter. 



92 



WEIGHTS AND MEASUSES. 



ELEMENTS OT THE ItrmC STSIKII. 



V 




Len^ta. 


Surface. 


Capacity. 


Weight. 


Notation. 




Hektare 
Dekare 


Rtlollter 

Hektoliter 

Dekaliter 


Matrlc Ton 

QalnUl 

MTrlagraaa 

KIlogTain 

Hectogram 

Dekagram 




Myrlameter 
Kilometer 
Hektomcter 
Dekameter 


1000000. 

100000. 

1OO0O. 

1000. 

100. 

10. 


Meter. 


Are. 


Liter. 


Oram. 


1. 


Decimeter 
Cent 'meter 
Millimeter 
MicromKllmeter 


Centlare 


Deciliter 
OentI liter 
MllUilier 


Decigram 

Centigram 

miUgmm 


0.1 
0.01 
0.001 
O.OOOOOI 



MEASURES OP LENGTH. 

I Millimeter, nim. = i,ooo microtnillimcters. 

I Centimeter, cm. = lO millimeters. 

I Decimeter, dm. = lO centimeters. 

I Meter, m. = lo decimeters. 

I Dekameter, Dm. = lo meters. 

I Hektomcter. hm. = lo dekameters. 

I Kilometer, km. = lO hektometers. 

I Myriametcr, Mm. = lO kilometers. 

1356 mm. may be written 135.6 cm. or 13.56 dm. or 1.356 m. of 
0.1356 Dm. 

The micromillimeter is vsed in microscopical measures. 
The millimeter is used in mechanical and scientific measures. 
The meter is used in measuring short distances. 
The kilometer is used in measuring long distances (roads, etc). 

MEASURES OF SURFACE. 

The units of square measure are squares, the sides of which 

are equal to a unit of long measure. 

I sq. mm. 

I sq. cm. = 100 sq. millimeters. 

I sq. dm. = 100 sq. centimeters. 

I sq. m., or I ccntare. ca. = lOO sq. decimeters. 

I sq. Dm., or are. — 100 sq. meters. 

I aq. hm., or i hektare, ha. = 100 sq. dekameters. 

I sq. km. = 100 sq. hektoir.cters. 

MEASURES OF VOLUME. 

The units are cubes, the edges of which are equal to a unit of 
/o/7^ measure. 



J WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 93 

I ctr. centimeter, c. cm. or cc. =: looo cu. millimeters, c. mm. 
I'cu. decimeter, c. dm. = looo cu. centimeters. 
'' I cu. meter, c. m. = icxx) cu. decimeters. 

I cubic decimeter liquid or dry measure = i liter, 1. 

WOOD MEASURE. 

I cubic meter or stere = lO decisteres = lOOO cu. decimeters = 
0.2759 cord, or 35.3165 cu. feet. 
I dekastere = 10 steres = 2.759 cords. 

MEASURES OF CAPACITY. 

The unit of capacity is the liter, for liquid and dry measure, 
being equal to a cubic decimeter of water, which at maximum 
density will counterpoise the standard kilogram in vacuum. 

The hektoliter is the unit in measuring large quantities of 

grain, fruits, liquids (beer), etc. 

I Centiliter, cl. = 10 milliliters. 

I Deciliter, dl. =: 10 centiliters. 

I Liter, 1. = 10 deciliters. 

I Dekaliter, Dl. = 10 liters. 

I Hektoliter, hi. = 100 liters. 

I Kiloliter, kl., or stere = 1000 liters. 

I Myrialiter, Ml. = loooo liters. 

MEASURES OF WEIGHT. 

I Milligram, mg. 

I Centigram, eg. = 10 milligrams. 

I Decigram, dg. = 10 centigrams. 

I Gram, g. = 10 decigrams. 

I Dekagram, Dg. = 10 grams. 

I Hektogram, hg. = 10 dekagrams. 

I Kilogram, kg. = 10 hektograms. 

I Myriagram, Mg. = 10 kilograms. 

I Quintal or meter hundredweight, Q. = 10 myriagranis or 

100 kilos. 
I Tonncau or metric ton or millier = 10 Quintals or 1000 

kilos. 

The kilo is the common commercial weight in countries using 
the metric system, and is the weight of a liter (cu. dm.) of water 
at greatest density. 

The ton is used for weighing very heavy articles and is the 
weight of a cubic meter of water. 

CONVERTING METRIC TO COMMON MEASURE. AND 

VICE VERSA. 

To change the metric to the common system^ x^'^^^'t \.V\^ nsnr.\.\Vl 
number to the Jenoinination of the pT\uc\p^\ >\m\. o\ ^^ Vi^^\ 



94 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 




then maldply by the equivalent in tlie oomnKm qritem 
the product to the required denomination. 

Example. — ^4.6 km., how many feet? 
4.6 km. X 1000 = 4600 m. 

39-37 in. X 4600 =: 181102 inches = iSoSj feet 
To change the cotnmon to the metric system, reduce the given 
quantity to the denomination in which the equivalent of the prin- 
cipal unit of the metric table is expressed; then divide by thu 
equivalent and reduce the quotient to the required denomination. 

Example. — In 12 lbs. 6 oz. Troy, how many kilograms? 

12 lbs. 6 oz. = ia.5 lbs. 
12.5 lbs. X 5760 grains = 72000 graina. 
72000 grains -4- 15.432 grains Tr. = 46(^5-^ grams. 
4665.63 grams -r- looo = 4.6^563 Kg, 

APPROXIMATE EQUIVALENTS OF COMMON AND 
METRIC MEASURES (SUFFICIENT FOR ORDI- 
NARY PRACTICAL PURPOSES). 

LONG MEASURE. 



1 meter = 3.280833 feet = 3 

feet 3% inches. 
1 1 meters = 12 yards. 
I decimeter = 4 inches. 
I centimeter = full % inch. 
I millimeter =: ^^ inch. 



I kilometer = 0.625 mile, j 

I mile =1.6 kilometers. ' 

I pole or perch = 5 meters. \ 
I chain = 20 meters. j 

1 furlong = 200 meters. I 

5 furlongs = i kilometer. 
I foot = 3 decimeters = 30 
centimeters. 

To convert meters into inches, multiply by 40. 

To convert inches into meters, divide by 40. 

To convert meters (or fractions) into yards, add i\ part or 

0.090^ of the number of meters. 

SQUARE ME.\SURE. 

I square inch = 6.5 square i acre = 1.16 per cent over 

ccnt:ny:ters. 4.000 square meters. 

I square meter = 10.75 square i square mile = 259 hectares, 

feet. ' 

MEASURES OF VOLUME. 

I gallon = 3.85 liters. 

I liter - 0.26 gallons = 1.06 liquid quart = 2.11 pints. 
I ciibic foot 1= J8.3 liters. 
I cubic meter r= 1.33 cubic yards. 
/ cnb/c yard = 0.7$ cubic meter. 



WEIGHTS AKD MEASURES. 



95 



f kik>liter of water = 2204 ll>s. 
JL hectoliter = 2.8 bushels = 26.4 gallons = 1.17 beer barrel 
= 1.19 standard barrel. 



MEASURES OF WEIGHT. 



I ton = 1. 016 kilo^ms. 
I gram = 15.5 grams. 
I kilogram = 2.2 lb. avoir- 
dupois. 



1,000 kilograms (i metric ton) 
= I English ton, less 1.5 per 
cent. 



ALPHABETICAL COMPARATIVE TABLES OF COMMON 

AND METRIC MEASURES. 



LONG MEASURE. 



Measures. 


Feet. 


Inches. 


Miles. 


Meters. 


Kilo- 
meters. 


Centimeter 


0.03S280 


0.3987 




0.01 
20.117 

0.1 
10. 

1.8288 

0.3048 
201.16 

0.1016 
100. 

0.0U54 
1«00. 
4827.9 

0.002116 
* 0.2032 

1. 
1609. 

0.001 
10000. 

5.0290 

0.2286 

0.9144 




Chain 




0201 


Decimeter 


0.32808 
S2.808S3 
6. 
1. 
660. 

0.3383 
838.0833 
0.0833 
3280.833 
18241. 


3.fl37 
8»8.7 
72. 
12. 

rm. 

4. 






Dekameter 






Fathom 






Foot 






Furlone 


0.125 
0.0621 


20116 


Hand 




Hekiometer 


1 


Inch 


1. 




Kilometer 


0.6213 
3.46 


\ 


League 




4 8279 


Line 


0.0633 
8. 

39.37 
63860. 

0.U9937 




Link 


0.666 
8.28083 
5280. 

0.00328 






Meter 


0.00062 
1. 


01 


Mile, Statute .... 
Millimeter 


1.6098 


Myriameter 


6.21:8 


10 


Perch, Pole, Rod . . 


16.5 
0.75 
3. 


198. 

9. 

36. 


005 


Span 


6.60O6 




Yard 


0.0009 



SQUARE MEASURES. 



Measures. 



Sq. Centimeter. 
Sq.Dekara't'r.Arc 
Sq. Decimeter... 

Sq. Foot 

Sq. Kilometer 

8q.M't'r{Centlare) 

Sq.Mile 

Sq. Millimeter 

Sq. Bod 

Sq. Yard 

Acre 

Dekare 

Hektare 

8qa»re Inch 



Sq. In. 



Sq. Feet. I Sq. Yds. 



0.155 

15.5" 
144. 



1550. 

0.'66i,5.*» 
1296." 



0.00107641 
1.07&110I 
0.10764101 
I. 
0.3861 sq. ml. 
I0.7W101 



119.601 

* o.iii 



Acres. 



0.0347 



1.19601 
3097600 



/ /. 



0.00001076 

272.225 30.25 

9. 1. 

43560. 4840. 

I 107tM 1 ] 1196.01 

1 107641. 1 IIVWO.W 
/ 0.007 



247. 
610.' 



0.00635 
0002 
1. 

2471 
^.VIW 



Sq. Meters. 

0.0001 
100. 
0.01 
0.0929 
1000000. 
1. 

6'66()c6i 

25.393 
0.8361 
4016.86 

loot). 



96 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 



CUBIC MEASURES (iCEASUSES OP VOLUICS). 



s- 



^. 



Measures. 


Cubic Feet« Incbcs, or 
Yard». 


Metric. 


Cubic centimeter 

Cubic decimeter 

Cubic foot 

Cubic inch 


0.061035 cu in. 
61 .OSSA cu. In. or 

O.OKtS cu. ft. 
1738. cu. in. 

1. cu in. 
SS.t\M cu. It. or 

1 .30«) cu. yd. 

0.00610 cu. in. 
27. en. ft. 


1 . c. em. 

1. cdm. 
».SI61 e.dm. 
16.S886 ccm. 


Cubic meter, or Stere 




Cubic millimeter 


1 . cm. 
1- c mm. 


Cubic yard 


7^tS9 c. m. 



EQUIVALENTS OF LIQUID MEASURES IN COMMON AND METRIC 

URES, AND CUBIC FEET OR INCHES. 



Measures. 



liarrel. lieer. i*. S 

llarrel Standard. U. S. 
Ilarrel. Iteer. liritlsii . 

Centiliter 

Dekaliter 



IK'cllittr 

Firkin, ISrlil-h 

Fluid Dracijm. I'.S.... 

Fluid Oimoe. l". S 

Gallon. Staiulurd. r s. 
Gallon. Imi»orial It it 
Isli *) 



\J ft a 1 • \ a <^ >•■■ •••■■• ••■• •• 

Gin, Hritlsli 

Hi'litolilor 

Hog>head. U. S 

Hou'-^lit^ail. liritNh 

KlUlvrkln. Ilritish 

KiloUttT. :-oubu' nietff 

Lltt-r 

Milliliter. -<Mil«io «*«'mi- 

mottT 

IMnt.r.S 

IMnt. ItrltiNli 

l*l|»e. I', s. «»u!;> 

IMpe. Itrliish (Huti ) 

l'un('h«'t»n. r. S 

l*i;nrh«'on. IJritish 

(^Miart.r.S 

Quart, llritisii 

TIerco. l. S 

TkTO*'. nriii>h 

Tun. r. N 

T»i,i. Hrliish 



r. S. Meas- 
ure. 


Cu. In. o 


rFL 
cu. ft. 


' Krlti»h 
1 Measures. 


Lltan. 


M. 


pal 


4.144 


S.8100 


Kml. 


1I7.S40 


3I.R 


■ « 


4.311 


• k 


• • 


S6 2I3 


• « 


ngian 


43.31 ISS 


• * 


5.776 


k • 


•■ 


96. 


• • 


18SJM64 


O.onfi7 


Ml. 


0.610::»4 


*• 


IQ. 


0.0880 


qt. 


aoi 


ic.vr 


• • 


0.SS31.56 


«• 


ft. 


2,2008 


Kal. 


la 


or 2. WIT 


eal. 














o.nw: 


.|!. 


6 10eM 


• • 


In. 


■ 0.8808 


qt. 


0.1 


lu.Hr> 


g:il. 


1 444 


»» 


ft. 


tt. 


P«'. 


4a80 


0.1)1)39 


qt. 


0.2256 


• t 


in. 


0.00825 


qt. 


aOO909 


•i.ftJlJo 


t » 


I.AM7 


« • 


•• 


0.1X3608 


ft t 


o.€eg67 


1. 


cal. 


•231. 


• * 


•t 


0.833 


pal 


37851 


1.AW2 


m « 


277.274 


ii 


•. 


1. 


•• 


4.MS 






277.463 


• • 


•* 






4.5465 






(new 


) 








(new) 


0.1 -.ES 


«|!. 


7.2187.S 


CIK 


in. 


0.1041 


qt. 


0.II8B 


O.I.V'l 


• * 


8.661?* 


•• 


% « 


0.125 


• • 


14S 


r».4i?.« 


pal. 


3..S3156 


• • 


ft. 


22.008 


pal. 


too 


63. 


• ■ 


H 4-215 


•• 


• ■ 


.V2.4^ 


k » 


238.473 


64.1^173 


ii&\. 


8.6647 


• • 


• • 


54. 


■ « 


245.34S 


ci.Avs: 


■• 


'2.}ii<i<-2 


■ • 


• • 


18. 


h« 


81.78 


•Jt>4.i:v» 


• • 


:ii.3i56 




* t 


•220.09 


«l 


looa 


l.a->rt7 


q^ 


♦)i.i>-i34 


* ■ 


in. 


t»8*M« 


qt. 


1. 


o.(nnifir 


■ 1 . 

• 


n.<v,u>isi 


»« 


»» 


0.0nlh8 


%• 


0.001 


•'.=> 


" 


•> ^Ih 


tt 


• « 


0.4163 


fti 


a4731 


•i.f'UO-i 


•• 


3t6iS«>-2 


% • 


i* 


U.5 


1 


0.S699 


126. 


L-al. 


16 JM37.1 


• I 


ft. 


I04.vrr2 


pal. 


476.M7 


ievM«4rt 


•• 


17 32\^4 


* • 


■ • 


uv. 


k ft 


4*V7 


Si. 


•■ 


11. L*--".) 


» * 




tW.t^ 


1 • 


3I7.96& 


luVfiltS 


•• 


iT.ifii^i 


" 


• • 


108. 


«• 


4<^K7 


1. 


«it 


.ST. 7.=-^ 


■• 


in. 


S«I 


ft ft 


(>.M6t 


1 2»X<« 




«* 3IS.S 


•• 


• • 


I. 


ft • 


1 1856 


4J. 


»:al. 


.V6114.'. 


» • 


ft. 


8-4.W 


t « 


I58.fl6 


13.2115 


*i 


f>.776f> 


•• 


•• 


:«. 


•■ 


163.506 


2f»J. 


* • 


3;i «6!<73 


'• 


* • 


2lH».l»4 


•• 


953 806 


•jw.irro 


' ' 


M '^88 


' ■ 


■ ■ 


216. 


1 < 


UM1.414 



•/Jin;>erial (;:illon of 1824 Since 18\)n. i imp. Gallon 
-4.54^^718 Utvr: / iiter -0.2107 Imp. ual. 



277 463 cubic inches. 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 



97 



EQUIVALENTS OF ONE CUBIC FOOT IN COMMON AND MRKIC 
^ MEASUKE8. 



Measures. 



Barrel, U. S.. Standard, 81.5 gals ... 

Barrel. U. S.. Beer, 81 gals 

Bushel, struck, U. S., tlRO.42 cu. In 

Bushel, Brltlsb, 2218.19 cu. In 

Gallon, U. S., liquid, 231 cu. in...., 

Gallon, U. 8., dry ^.., 

Gallon, British, 277.274 cu. in 

Inches, cubic 

Liter , 

Peck, U.S.. 

Peck, British 

Pints, U. S., liquid 

Pints, U. S.,dry 

Pints, British 

quarts, U. S., liquid 

[uarts, U. S., dry 

[uarts. British , 

^ard.cubic 



1 Cubic Foot = 



0.28748 
0.94181 
0.808664 
0.779018 
7 48068 
6.42861 
6.28810 
1728. 
88 8161 
8.81486 
8.11606 
69.84416 
61.48800 
49.86684 
89.98806 
86.71406 
84.93848 
0.087087 



EQUIVALENTS OF DRY MEASURES IN COMMON AND METRIC MEASURES 

AND CUBIC FEET OR INCHES. 



Measures. 


U. S. Measure. 


Cubic Inches or 
Feet. 


British Measure. 


Liters. 


Bushel, U.S., Win. 

Bshl, Brit., Imp... 

Centiliter 
Coomb. British.. 
Dekaliter 


1. bu. 
1.031516 •• 

0.018162 dry pint 

4.126064 bu. 

9.081 dry qt. 

0.18162 dry pint 

1 . RSl. 

1.031516 " 

2.83783 bu 
28.3783 •' 

0.9081 dry qt. 

1 peck 

1.031516 *• 

1. pint 

1. qt. 

8.252128 bu. 
41 2606 


2150.420 cu.ln. 
1.2445 " ft. 
2218.192 •' in. 
1.2837 " ft. 
0.610251" in. 
5 1347 " ft. 
610 254 - in. 
6.10254 •* " 
268.8025 •• " 
277.2788 " " 
3.531.56 " ft. 
35.3156 " " 
61.02{>1 ** in. 
.537.6050 " *• 
5.54.548. •• " 
33.600:1 •' " 
67.2006 •• •* 


0.9091 

1. 

01761 
4. 

8.818 
0.1767 
0.9691 
1. 

2 7511 
27.511 
0.8813 
0.9691 

1. 

0.9691 
9691 


bu. 

it 

dry pint 
bu. 

dry q». 
dry pint 

gal. 

It 

bu. 

It 

qt. 

peck 
It 

pint. 

bu. 
.1 


86 2868 

86.3480 

011 
145.3920 
10. 


Deciliter 

Gallon, U. S . 
Gallon, British*.. 
Hektollter . 
KiloliterCcu. m.). 
Liter 


1 

4.4046 
4.5435 
100. 
1000. 
1. 


Peck, U. S 

Peck, British 

Pint 


8 8008 
9.0&I0 
0.5506 


Quart 


1 1010 


<; uarter, British.. 
Wey. British 


10.2694 " ft. 8. 
51 3170 " " 40. 


290.781 
14.53 92 



* See Note Liquid MesHure. 



98 



WRIGHTS AND MSASUSBS. 

MEASURES OF WEIGHT. 



s. 



EQUIVALENTS OF AVOHVUIOCS AND MCIUC WKIGHfS. 



Measures. 



OeDtrigram 

DckA^imm 

Deelgnmi 

Dimm. U. 8. and Brit. Avoir 

Dram, U. S. and Brit. A|K>th.... 
Grain. D. S. and Brit 

Oram 

Hektogram 

Hundredweight, ('. S 

Hundredweight. Brit 

Kilogram 

Illliier. or Tonne 

Milligram 

Myriagram I 

Ounce. Avoir.. V. S. and Brit I 

Ounce. Troy and A}K>th.. U. S-l 

and Brit 

Pennyweight. Trov, I'. S. and 

Brit 

Pound. U. S. and Brit. Avoir....*. 



Avoirdupois. 



Pound, r. s.and Brit. Troj and 

Apoth • 

Quarter. U. S 

Quarter. Brli 

Quintal. l'.S.ana Brit 

Quintal. French 

Scruple. U. S and Brit 

Stone. Brl! 

Ton, U. S. and llrli.. long 

Ton. r. s.. >iiort 

Tonneau. Kronch 



0. 
IM. 

60. 
1. 



\ 



15 

0. 

t.KT4 
100. 
IK. 

S.SMtt 
S9M.6e 

0.0IM3 
SS.Oftt 
437.5 



Sr»tns 

graina 

gmlas 

grains 

grains 

irrmln 

grains 

oi. 

OS. 

lbs. 
lbs. 
Iba. 
Iba. 



fS. 



Ins 



grains 



180. 000 grains 



24. 

k 1. 
• TOW. 
I 0.8S!M 
l.'iTOO. 

25. 

•28. 
100. 
221). 4«2 

AV 

14. 

2e44>. 

2*4. ft2 



grains 

\b. 

grains 

llis. 

grains 

lb$. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

ll»s. 

gra!n<i 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lbs. 

lb«i. 



Oramsor Kgs 



0.01 «. 

10. 8. 

0.1 s. 

1.7718 s. 

t.HB s. 

0.0618 s- 

1. K. 

ioo. 

45.800 

60.908 
1000. 
1000. 
0.001 

10. 



1.1 
45S.OO<0 
0.4586 
373.9074 
U.373S 
11.34 
12.7 
45.86 
100. 
1.896 
6»04 
1016 1164 
9(17.2 
1(W. 






81.1085 M- 



8- 

I. 

kg- 
lE8- 



GUI 

rini 

Quurt 

Gallon 

Wine Uarrt .:<!•, yal 
BetT Karr.:. «l u'aN.. 



LIQUID MEASURE. 



I'll bit' I no he.-*. 



.•Jl><T.=»cu 



57. 

TIrtl. 






,"> 



in. 



l*ounds ATdlr. 

0.26m875 lbs. 

1.1M195 
2.0KW 
8.33R6 
2rt2.57I4 






DRY MEASURE. 

Dry gal. - 1. 16365 liquid gal. Liter = 0.26417 U. S. gal. 
= 2.202 lbs. water at 62° = 0.28377 bu. 



IMnl 

Quart 

Gallon 

Pfck 

Bushvl. :s truck. 



t"«M:o liiohf>. 



rounds .Vvoir. 

1.21234 

2 42468 

9 t^?2 

19 *rr44 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 



99 



WEIGHT OF WAfER. 

(Approximately.) 
Standard temperature 62** F. ; i cu. ft. water = 62.5 lbs. avoir. 

CONVERSION TABLES. 
Common to Metric Measure. 

LINEAR. 

Fractions of an inch to millimeters. 

I inch = 25.4 (25.399541) mm. 

A = 1.587 mm. 
% = 3- 175 mm. 
4.762 mm. 



6 = 

ft = 



6.350 mm. 
7.937 mm. 



% = 9.525 mm. 
J- = 1 1. 112 mm. 



12.700 mm. 
A = 14.287 mm. 

% = is.r 



= 17.462 mm. 

= 19.050 mm. 

}I = 20.637 mm. 

% = 22.225 mm. 

}g = 23.812 mm. 



[5.875 mm. 

To obtain centimeters, move decimal point one place to the left. 
For higher metric meastires, move decimal point accordingly. 





Inches to 
Millimeters. 


Feet to Meters. 


Yards to Meters. 


Miles to Kilo- 
meters. 


1 =- 


25.4001 


0.304801 


0.914402 


1.60985 


2 = 


bo.mn 


0.609601 


1.828F04 


3 21869 


8 = 


76.2002 


914402 


2 743205 


4.82804 


4 = 


101.6002 


1.219202 


3.657607 


6.437.% 


b = 


127.0003 


1 .i>24003 


4.572009 


8.04674 


6 =< 


152.4003 


1. 828004 


5.4K6411 


9.65608 


7 = 


177.8004 


2.133604 


6.400K13 


11.26543 


8 == 


203.2004 


2.438405 


7.315216 


12.87478 


9» 


228.6005 


2.74:1205 


8.229616 


14.18412 



To obtain other metric measures, move decimal point accord- 
ingly, thus: I foot = 0.304801 meters = 3.04801 decimeters 
= 30.4801 centimeters = 304.801 millimeters, or i foot = 0.304801 
meters = 0.0304801 decameters = 0.00304801 hectometers 
= 0.000304801 kilometers. 

SQUARE. 





Square Inches 


Square Feet 


S<|uarc Yards 


Acres to 
Hectares. 




to S<nmre 


to Square 


to S<iuare 




Centimeters. 


Decimeters. 


Meters. 


I s 


6.452 


9.290 


0.836 


0.4017 


2- 


12.903 


18.581 


1.672 


0.8091 


8» 


19.855 


27.871 


2.508 


1.2141 


4» 


25.807 


37.161 


3.344 


1.6187 


5=- 


32.258 


46.4.52 


4.181 


2.0rZM 


6» 


38.710 


.55.742 


5.017 


2.4281 


7 = 


45.161 


65 0X> 


5 853 


2.8328 


8=< 


51.613 


74 323 


(\.6!H.<a 




9- J 


5H.l>m 


8:{.613 


\ T ^y^ 



100 



WBIGHT8 AMD HBASUU8. 





Cubic Inches 


OaMe Vael 


Coble Yuds 


Bosheist^^ 




to Cable 


to Cable 


to Coble 


HeetoUten. 




Centimeters. 


HeCem. 


Helen. 




1 =■ 


Ifl.387 


O.OMl 


9.166 


9'a889 


s ^ 


Se.774 


•.flMBB 


1.189 


o.itm 


3 aa 


49.161 


O.OMK 


8.961 


1.66618 


4 ^ 


6&.549 


0.11367 


3.666 


1.66886 


5 ^ 


81.986 


9.14188 


3.883 


1. 18168 


6aa 


9B.ta 


0.16680 


4.687 


8.1M68 


7 cs> 


114.710 


0.16866 


6.66t 


8*48888 


8-i 


131.097 


9.S68M 


9.116 


S.8I8M 


9b 


147.484 


0.65MK 


9.681 


3.1TIM 









« 




Plotd Drsms to 
Ullllllten or Cu- 
bic Centlmeten. 


Fluid Oances to 
UUllllters 


Qoeruto 
latere. 


OOloBS to 
Utefo. 


1=. 


370 


9.67 


0.94686 


3.166tt 


%zs 


7.39 


69.15 


1.86813 


Tjioor 


3^— 


11.09 


88.n 


3.88806 


11.3B866 


A *s 


14.79 


118.89 


3.TBR43 


1S.MI74 


^b^s 


18.48 


147. K7 


4.78180 


16.68711 


wSS 


22.18 , 


177.14 


5.07816 


23.71361 


4 SZ 


26 88 1 


507.02 


60S4A2 


36.4880< 


8= 


2» .S7 


2:«.'i9 


7.67068 


30.883:8 


9= 


xi.a? 


266 16 


8.51734 


34.06891 



I 

1= 

2= 

3=i 
4- 

6=- 

«=: 

8=. 
9= 



WEIGHT. 



Grains to 

12i» .tS>T8 
IM :fi)6H 
2?» I«>7 
%» VM6 
:*8.7««> 
4.W .•W»24 
51H..'W14 
583 190Ci 



.Vvoirdui>ois 

Ounces to 

Grsms. 



28.3495 

.'M.euoi 

85 04S6 
113.30H1 
141.7476 
170. VW2 
198 4467 
226 7962 
2^^ 1457 



Avolrdu|>ols 
Pounds to KUo- 



0.45350 

ai7t9 
1.36iy78 
1.81437 
2.20796 
2.721.T6 
3.17515 
3.62874 

1 (18233 



Troy Ounces 

to 

Grmms. 



31.10818 

02.90066 

93.310M 

124.41383 

165.61740 

80.02066 

17.73437 

248.82786 

279!931SS 



I 



Metric to Common Measure, 

LINEAR. 



Meters to 
Indies. 



Meters to Feet. Meters to Yards. 



1 = 

2 = 

3 = 

4 = 

5 = 

6 = 
• — 

/f - 
9 = 



30 37a) 
7h 740l> 
IIS IliiO 
157.4NX> 
1\16 S5i^» 
2*» 22lXi 
275 iV*H> 



3 2HKJ 

6..V»1»57 

9.M-.5Vi3 

13.12333 

16.4<MI7 

19 6kxX» 

2^:.v^>»« 

26 24667 
29.,=»27SO 



1.09:{iUl 
2.1Kr222 
S.2NHS3 
4 .-174444 
5.I»*»nY»6 
6..V>1667 
7 6reV*7>* 
8.74>»8>*9 



Kilometers to 
Miles*. 

0.02137 
1.24274 
1.86411 
2.48548 
3.10685 
3.72823 
4.34959 
4.\»7«196 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 
SQUARE. 



lOI 





Sqnare Centi- 
meters to Stiuare 
Inches. 


Square Meters to 
Square Feet. 


Square Meters to 
Square Yards. 


Hectares to 
Acres. 


1 = 


1550 


10.764 


1.196 


2.471 


2 = 


0.3100 


21.528 


2.392 


4.942 


3 = 


0.4650 


32.292 


3.588 


7.413 


4 = 


0.6200 


43.055 


4.7H4 


9.884 


6 = 


0.7750 


53.819 


5.980 


12 355 


6 = 


0.9300 


64 583 


7.176 


14.826 


7 = 


1.0660 


75.847 


8.872 


17.297 


8 = 


1.2400 


86.111 


9 568 


19 768 


9 = 


1.3960 


96.875 


10.764 


22.239 



CUBIC 





Cubic CenU- 

meters to Cubic 

iDcties. 


Cubic Deci- 
meters to Cubic 
Inches. 


Cubic Meters to 
Cubic Feet. 


Cubic Meters to 
Cubic Yards. 


1 = 


0.0610 


61.023 


35.314 


1.808 


2 = 


0.1220 


122.047 


T0.629 


2.616 


8 = 


0.1831 


188.070 


105.948 


8 924 


4 = 


0.2441 


244.091 


141.258 


5.232 


5 = 


0.3051 


306.117 


176.572 


6.510 


6 = 


8661 


366.140 


211.887 


7.848 


7 = 


0.4272 


427.164 


247.201 


9.156 


8 = 


0.4882 


488.187 


282.516 


10.464 


9 = 


0.5492 


549 210 


317.880 


11.771 



CAPACITY. 





Milliliters or 


Centiliters 


Liters 


Decaliters 


Hectoliters 




Cubic Centi- 


to Fluid 


to 


to 


to 




meters to 


Ounces. 


Quarts. 


Gallons. 


Bushels. 




Fluid Drams. 










1 = 


0.27 


0.3:)K 


1 (I567 


2.6417 


2.8377 


2 = 


0.54 


0.676 


2 1131 


5.2834 


5.6755 


8 = 


81 


1.014 


3.1700 


7.9251 


8.5132 


4 = 


1.0« 


1 353 


4.2267 


10.5668 


11.3510 


5 = 


1.35 


1.001 


5.2K34 


13.2086 


14.1887 


6 = 


1.62 


2.029 


6.3401 


15.8502 


17.1-265 


7 = 


1.89 


2.367 


7 3ii6H 


18.4919 


19.8642 


8 = 


2.16 


2.705 


8.45:y> 


21 . 1336 


22.7019 


9 = 


2.43 


3 013 


9.5101 


23.7758 


2>.5397 



WEIGHT. 



1 
2 
8 
4 

ft 
6 
7 
9 
9 



Milligrams 
to Grains. 



= / 



0.01.543 
0.030H6 
0.04»«0 
0.06173 
07716 
0.09259 
0.10803 
0. V^46 
I3t*m 



Kilograms 
to Grains. 



Hectograms 

to Ounces 

Avoirdupois. 



15432.36 

30W1-.71 

46297.07 

61 729 43 

77161 .78 

92IS94.14 

10S026.49 

123458.85 

].'««)1 .21 



8.5274 

7.0548 

10.5822 

14.1006 

17.6370 

2i.imi 

3\ .1\«i 



Kilograms 

10 PoundH 

Avoirdunois. 



2.20462 

4.40924 

6.61:{M7 

8.81H49 

02311 

13.22773 



11 



I02 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 





Quintals to 
rounds A v. 


Mlllienor Tonnes 


KHogimmsto 




to Pounds At. 


Ounces Tivy* 


1 = 


^0.40 


saoi.fl 


as.isov 


o _ 

w — 


440 95 


14UII.S 


61.3015 


3 = 


W\ 3d 


WIS 9 


06.460 


4 = 


S81.85 


8H18.5 


128.60BO 


r» = 


itixi.at 


IKttS.l 


lOO.TStr 


rt = 


l.-ttJ.TT 


issn? 


19S.0044 


i — 


l»43.d4 


1M32 4 


Sa.OBfit 


8 = 


IT«i.70 


1707 


S7.90G9 


9 = 


U)H4.16 


19841.6 


»0.3R67 



MISCELLANEOUS, 

I Gunter's chain = 20.1168 meters. 

I sq. statute mile = 259.000 hectares. 

I fathom = 1.829 meters. 

I nautical mile = 1853.25 meters. 

I foot = 0.304801 meter. 

I avoir, pound = 453.5924277 gram. 

15432.35639 grains = i kilogram. 



A CUBIC INCH IS EQUAL TO 

le.rfHtiin milltlittTs: or 1.639663 cent ilhers: or 0.1638663 deciliter: or 0.016SM6 
Wwt: or 10 0.0i^>57>*7 cubic ft. : or to O.KVJP C. s. pill; or 1.9U9KR Bpherical in. 

A CUBIC YARD IS EQUAL TO 



87 cu. ft. or to ii»l.&74 r. S. iraU. 

I66W cu. in. 

0.076I.S:U inyrlii:i!«>r. 

0.7rt4.W4 kllt>li:t.r. or cu. m»^:rr. 

7.6tf».'M iit.HMoUwrs. 

7.2 ili»ur Itarre:*. <»f ri struck bu.>bels. 



i 76.4.>:i4 dei*alitors. 

i 76l..'>34 liters, or cu. dvcimeters. 

7rtlfi.34 decllllors. 

LM.eJ^jtfi r. .'N. husiielb (litruck). 

21.«.>33:« Bri'. bushels. 



POUNDS IN A BUSHEL. 



.\n!«-;r>. 



3J -S :E^! 



* ^ . 2'fi 

> X .- -1-. 




llar:«\ .Si' - - 1^ 4H 4^ 4^ V.' — 4f-. lb |K 4k - t»< 4** 4"^ 46 17 — 16 4!> 48 

Corn vj .-rf^ .v; .v: .v\ :^^ %,\ >; . :^ V v^ :vj - v, .^^ -^ :v\ srt — .16 ^6 56 

I'orii :tn-;ir ... - 7i» -'. i\» _ - .._..— __. — 

t'l-ru Meai - - 4'*.=V' .>> - .V'.vii - - .V- - 

i'nal _ ._ . S.I 711 . _ ____**!> - — 

< >-i :."i VJ ■> - :«- ;ij u'l :«■ v: :u.i ;ki -- :^2 :'►."• .^' '<> :i-J ;i-' 84 ,t: ■ - 3 36 3t 

ro::i'.or«. — '-' - Oil lilt i>'jv»' - twi - - tVMli'rt •<« — rt» - 6<i6O6O60 

Rye .T* v. -.'"•» .vi .VI .V, iv- - y» v v; .=«> - .vi :^; -sij ^r, .v> - .v» 50 ^ 

live Mral - — - - . - .VJ Tiif - _ - - _ .Vi _ _ 

Sill*. - - - - • .\ ."»!' .^I» - — -—.'>«•- - .T«» — — — 

WZ/t-af r^' .V) (V"'" '^1 »'iinV) »** iv« ■>■ r*» »*t> «'*» ''»i v'tv^r^xi^x _ «vmV) 60 

ft'/zf.'/: Untti — — - A' - ji' -jn - -- - "i* - — 



> 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 



103 



WSIGHTS or GRAINS AND OTHER ARTICLES. 

The table on page 102 gives a few of the weights by volume 
fixed by statute in many of the states of the Union. These 
weights are understood in buying and selling in the respective 
states, unless other values are specifically agreed upon. 

COMPOUND UNITS. 

PRESSURES AND WEIGHTS. 



144 lbs. per square foot. 
2.0355 tn. of mercury at 32'' F. 
2.0416 Id. of mercury at 02° F. 
2.809 ft. of water at 82^ F. 
27.71 in. of water at 02* F. 

2116.8 lbs. per square foot. 

33.947 ft. of water at 62* F. 

30 In. of mercury at 62** F. 

29l9S2 in of mercury at 32*' F. 
760 millimeters of mercury at 82* 

0361 lb. i>er square inch. 
5.196 lbs. per square foot. 
0.0736 in. of mercury at 62* F. 

6.2C21 lb<«. per square foot. 
0.086125 lbs. per square Inch. 

( a438 lb. per square incb. 
= •< 62.355 lbs per square foot, 
r 0.888 in. of mercury at 62** F. 

' 0.491b. per square incb. 
I IneH of mercury at (&<> F. (2.64 cm.) = < ^Jls/Jf; ^VaTe?at te^^. 

L 13.58 Ins. Of water at 62^ F. 
1 kilogram per square inch = 317.46 lbs. per square foot. 
1 kilogram per square centimeter = 14.228 lbs. per square inch. 
1 tod per square inch = 157.49 kilograms per square centimeter. 
1 pound per square inch = 0.07031 kg. per sq. cm. 
1 kUogiam per square centimeter ~ 14.228 lbs, per sq. In. 



1 lb. per square inch (453.59 g.) 



1 atmosphere (14.7 lbs., or 6.6679 
per iq. In.) 



1 inch of water at 62° F. 



1 Inch of water at 82? F. 



1 foot of water at 62° F. 



kg. ,1 

[ 

H 



F 



^t^ 



POWER AND WORK. 

'Work/' in a mechanical sense, is the sustained exertion of 
pressure through space. The unit for measuring it is the "foot- 
pound" (ft.-lb.), being a pressure of one pound exerted through 
a space of one foot, or in the metric system, a "kilogframmeter" 
(m. kg.), being a pressure of one kilogram through a space of 

one meter. 

I ft.-lb. = 0.138 m. kg. 

(For explanation of horse-power and heat unit see chapter 

"Power.") 

I horse-power = 1.0139 Cheval-Vapeur (metric hOrse-power) . 

I ft-lb. = 0.13825 kilogrammeter. 

I Cheva}'Vapeur = o.g863 horse-power. 

/ kUogrammeter = y.22^ ft.-lbs. 



104 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. ^ 

I caloric (metric heat-unit) = 3.968 heat-miit (B. T. Uj> ^ 
I heat-unit = 0.252 caloric 

I U. S. mechanical equivalent or i joule (772 ft.-lbs.) = 1061/33 
kilogramroeters. 

I heat-unit per sq. ft = 0.^13 caloric per sq. m. 

I foot per second = 3600 -?- 5280 or 0.6818 inches per hoar. 
I foot per second, minute; etc..= a3047 meter per second. 
I mile per hour = 0.447 meter per second. 
(For measures of temperature see "The Brewer's Chemical 
Laboratory.") 

MEASURES OF TIME. 

60 seconds = i minute. | 365 days = i common year. 

60 minutes = i hour. 366 days = i leap year. 

24 hours = I day. 

In civil computation, i. e., for all the practical purposes of life, 
the day commences at niidniglit and is divided into two portions 
of 12 hours each, from midnight to noon, and from noon to mid- 
night. 

In nautical time and astronomical computation the day begins 
at noon. In nautical time the day is divided into watches of 4 
hours each. In astronomical time the day is counted through the 
24 hours. 

A "solar dav" is measured by the rotation of the earth upon its 
axis with r'-jpect to the sun. 

A "solar year" is the time in which the earth makes one revo- 
Union around the sun. Its average time, or the "mean solar year" 
j^ 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes. 40.7 seconds, or nearly 365% days. 
A "mean lunar month" is 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes. 2 sec- 
oihis and 5.24 thirds. 

By the Julian (or old style) Calendar, mtroduced by Julius 
C'csar. the year was taken as 365 days. 6 hours. To equalize the 
loss of time, one extra day was inserted every fourth year (leap 
year), being plr.ced at the end of February. The slight difference 
between the length of the year assumed in the Julian Calendar 
and the actual length of the year, amounting to 11 minutes, 12 
seconds every year, had accumulated lo ^ v^^^^ ^^ ^^ d^aiYS «t 
tAe time of Pope Gregory XIII, who suvpre^^t^ \o ^^>j^ o>aX ^ 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. IO5 



^ 



ttut, ftSLT 1582, going from October 5 to 15. In the Reformed or 
Gregorian (new style) Calendar, the repetition of thi3 accumu- 
lation of error is prevented by leaving out 3 of the extra days • 
every 400 years, making this omission in the years which are not 
exactly divisible by 400. Thus of the leap years 1700, 1800, 1900, 
2000, only the last is made leap year. This Gregorian Calendar 
was introduced in England in 1752, when 11 days were omitted. 
It is now in force in all Christian countries, except Russia, which 
is 12 days behind the rest in its time. 

LEGAL UNITS OF ELECTRICAL MEASURE. 

In accordance with a resolution adopted by the International 
Electrical Congress, held at' Chicago, in 1893, the Congress of the 
United States has established the following units of electrical 
measure : 

First. The unit of resistance shall be what is known as the 
international "ohm," which is substantially equal to one thousand 
million units of resistance of the centimeter-gram-sccond sys- 
tem of electro-magnetic units, and is represented by the resistance 
offered to an unvarying electric current by a column of mercury 
at the temperature of melting ice fourteen and four thousand five 
hundred and twenty-one ten -thousandths grams in mass, of a 
constant cross-sectional area, and of the length of one hundred 
and six and three-tenths centimeters. 

Second. The unit of current shall be what is known as the 
international "ampere," which is one-tenth of the unit of current 
of the centimeter gram -second system of electro-magnetic units, 
and is the practical equivalent of the unvarying current, which, 
when passed through a solution of nitrate of silver in water in 
accordance with standard specifications, deposits silver at the 
rate of one thousand one hundred and eighteen millionths of a 
gram per second. 

Third. The unit of electro -motive force shall be what is known 
as the international "volt," which is the electro-motive force 
that, steadily applied to a conductor whose resistance is one inter- 
national ohm, will produce a current of an international ampere, 
and is practically equivalent to one thousand fourteen hundred 
and thirty-fourths of the electro-motive ioTce \it\.vi^wv ^^ ^Ov^'^ 
or electrodes of the voltaic cell known as C\atV% c€v\, ^V ^ Ve^- 



I06 WEIGHTS AND MEASUKES. "^ , 

V 

perature of fifteen deip-ees centignule, and prcpmred in the 
tier described in the standard specifications. 

FourtfL The unit of quantity shall be what is known as the 
international "coulomb/' which is the quantity of electricity trans- 
ferred by a current of one international ampere in one seoond. 

Fifth. The unit of capacity shall be what is known as the in- 
ternational "farad," which is the capacity of a condenser charged 
to a potential of one international volt by one intematiooal ogq- 
lomb of electricity. 

Sixth. The unit of work shall be the "joule," which is equal to 
ten million units of work in the centimeter-gram-second sjys- 
tem, and which is practically equivalent to the energy es^ended 
in one second by an international ampere in an international ohm. 

Seventh. The unit of poller shall be the "watt " which is equal 
to ten million units of power in the centimeter-gram-second sys- 
tem, and which is practically equivalent to the work done at the 
rate of one joule per second. 

Eighth. The unit of induction shall be the **henry," which is 
the induction in a circuit when the electro-motive force induced in 
this circuit is one international volt, while the inducing current 
varies at the rate of one ampere per second. 

MONEY. 

UNITED STATES. 

Nominally there are two units of value. 

The gold unit of value is the gold dollar which contains 25.8 
grains of standard gold 0.900 fine. The amount of fine gold in 
the dollar is 23.22 grains, and the remainder ot the weight is an 
alloy of copper. No more $1 gold pieces have been coined since 
the .\ct of September 26. 1890. Gold is now coined in denomina- 
tions of $2.50. $5, $10 and $20, called, respectively, quarter eagles, 
half eagles, eagles and double eagles. 

The silver unit is the standard dollar which contains 412^ 
grains of standard silver 0.900 fine. The amount of fine silver in 
the dollar is 371% grains, and there are 41H grains of copper alloy. 

I eagle = 10 dollars ($) = 100 dimes = i.ooo cents, c. 
I dollar = 10 dimes r^ loo ctTv\«», t. 

I dime = \octT\l%,t, 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 



107 



Sobsidiary coins are: Half dollar = 50 cents, quarter dollar 
= 25 cents ; dime = 10 cents, all in silver. 

Minor coins are: Five cents (nickel) and i cent (copper). 

There remain in circulation small amounts of coins no longer 
coined, and being gradually withdrawn, as : Trade dollar, nomi- 
nally worth 100 cents, but in reality much less ; twenty cents (sil- 
ver) ; half dime (silver) ; three cents (nickel) ; two cents (cop- 
per). 

DENOMINATIONS, WEIGHT AND FINENESS OF THE COINS OF THE 

UNITED STATES. 

GOLD. 



DenomlnatloD. 



One dollar ($1) 

Quarter eagle (12.50) , 
bree dollars ($3)... 

Half eaffle ($5) 

Eagle ($10) 

Doable eav le ($20) . . . 



Fine Gold 


Alloy Con- 


Weight. 


Contained. 


tained.* 


Grains. 


QralDs. 


Grains. 


23.22 

58 "W 


2.58 


25.80 


6 45 


64.50 


69.66 


7.74 


77.40 


116.10 


12.90 


129. (^ 


232.20 


25.80 


258.00 


461.40 


61.60 


516.00 



•The alloy neither adds to nor detracts from the value of the coin. 

SILVER. 



Denomination. 



Standard dollar 
Half dollar 

8 uarter dollar.. 
Ime 



Pine Silver 
Contained. 



Grains. 
871.26 
173.61 
86.806 
84.722 



Alloy Con- 
tained. 



Grains. 
41.26 
19.29 
9.645 
3.858 



Weight. 



Grainn. 

412.50 

192.90 

96.45 

88.58 



MINOR. 



Denomination. 



Five cents*. 
Onecentt... 



Fine Co])per 
Contained. 



Alloy 
Contained. 



Gralnn. 
57.87 
45.60 



Grains. 
19.29 
2.40 



Weight. 

(1 rains. 
77.10 
18. 



•Seventy-ttve per cent copper, 25 per cent nickel. 
tNlnety-flve per cent copper, 5 per cent tin and zinc. 



Troy weights are used, and while metnc Yit*\^X.^ •ax^ Xs^ \v« 
assigned to the half and quarter doUar and dime, \to^ vi€v^\& %^i^ 




I08 WEIGHTS AND MEASIIUa. 

m 

contisue to be employed, 1545a gnioa being ooofldeied 
equivalent of a gram, agreeably to tbe Act of Jtily tB, 18IS6L 

The weight of $1,000 in United States ^old 0(^ it 53*75 tnqr 
otmces, equivalent to 3.68 pomids avoirdttpois. Tbi wijgK of 
$1,000 in standard silver dollars is ^K>>37S troy oonecs, eqidvntat 
to 58.92 pounds avoirdupois, and the weight of $t,ooo in ifibaMHaiy 
silver is 803.75 troy ounces, eqtuvalent to 55.11 pounds vroiidi^ois. 



Gold coins and standard silver dollars, being standard eoini off 
the United States, are n6t ^'redeemable." 

Subsidiary coins and minor coins may be presented, in soms 
or multiples of twenty dollars, to the treasurer of the Uniled 
States or to an assistant treasurer for redemption or exchange faito 
lawful money. 

United States notes are redeemable in "coin," in sums not lesi 
than $50, by the assistant treasurers in New York and San Fran- 
cisco. 

Treasury notes of 1890 are redeemable in "coin," in sums not 
less than $50, by the treasurer and all assistant treasurers of the 
United States. 

National bank notes are redeemable in lawful money of the 
United States by the treasurer, but not by the assistant treasurers. 
They are also redeemable at the bank of issue. In order to pro- 
vide for the redemption of its notes when presented, every national 
bank is required by law to keep on deposit with the treasurer a 
sum equal to 5 per cent of its circulation. 

Gold certificates being receipts for gold coin, are redeemable in 
such coin by the treasurer and all assistant treasurers of the 
United States. 

Silver certificates are receipts for standard silver dollar's de- 
posited, and are redeemable in such dollars only. 

"Coin** obligations of the government are redeemed in gold 
coin when gold is demanded, and in silver when silver is de- 
manded. 

COINS AND PAPER CURRENCY. 

There are ten different kinds of money in circulation in the 
United Ststes, nanjely, gold coins, standard silver dollars, subsidi- 
ary silver, gold certiBcates, silver cerliiicalts, Vit^s>iT>j tvov^.-^ W 

I 



y WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. lOQ 

8ued4t^der the Act of July 14, 1890, United States notes (also 
cilled greenbacks and legal tenders), national bank notes, and 
nickel and bronze coins. These forms of money are all available 
as circulation. While they do not all possess the full legal-tender 
quality, each kind has such attributes as to give it currency. The 
status of each kind is as follows : 

Gold coin is legal tender at its nominal or face value for all 
debts, public and private, when not below the standard weight and 
limit of tolerance prescribed by law ; and when below such stand- 
ard and limit of tolerance it is legal tender in proportion to its 
weight. 

Standard silver dollars are legal tender at their nominal or 
face value in payment of all debts, public and private, without re- 
gard to the amount, except where otherwise expressly stipulated 
in the contract. 

Subsidiary silver is legal tender for amounts not exceeding $10 
in any one payment. 

Treasury notes of the Act of July 14, 1890, are legal tender for 
all debts, public and private, except where otherwise expressly 
stipulated in the contract. 

United States notes are legal tender for all debts, public and pri- 
vate, except duties on imports and interest on the public debt. 

Gold certificates, silver certificates, and national bank notes are 
not legal tender, but both classes of certificates are receivable 
for all public dues, while national bank notes are receivable for 
all public dues except duties on imports, and may be paid out by 
the government for all salaries and other debts and demands 
owing by the United States to individuals, corporations, and asso- 
ciations within the United States, except interest on the public 
debt and in redemption of the national currency. All national 
banks are required by law to receive the notes of other national 
banks at par. 

The minor coins of nickel and copper are legal tender to the ex- 
tent of 25 cents. 

FOREIGN COINS. 

The following values arc given in a circular of January i, 1901, 
by George E. Roberts, director of the United States vv\\w\, 1q>x V:^^- 
eign us compared vv/fh United States corns*. 



WBIGHTS AND HEA80RBS. 



TALDCS or rOBXIGR OQOrak 



i p 



^^ 



AreentliM 
U 

Belgium .. 

BoIItU.... 
Uniil 

\l tmt J<!a. 

Cenlnl Ameii 
Co».*iil» .... 

Ilrlttsb H 
Ouxemiili 



Oown.. 

mtnc. 

Boll Tiki 
UllnU 

tMi;ar.. 

Pno.... 
Tiel. 

, Kting. 
'FucbBii... 
llalkwKn. 

.HODR-konK 



U: ATi*nUBe(H.«l)udKA] 
«Bltne. BIlT«r: p«io knd am 



!! <la.in.su- 

I (ndlfloHni 

Gold^pnaeDI lytleiii-dV Btcmw 

C»(.«ta);tOcrowD>t«Ui«^ '^ 

HGMd^ lOudSOtlUH. auwi't 

^ll>«:bo]Ltl*aokDdtflTl(taM. 
old &,10.anda>ml1rc1s. SUnr: 
M, 1. ■odlmllraU. 



I.MBoald^ t.G.ia>ndiacoloiu IMSIir). 



O'WBsllTFr: i««o ud dIvUloni 

»Uo-d: CMudo (tl.n»). donblooD 

n.eo. androador i(7.m». MU- 



•The 'BrtitJh dullar- has ibe laiiK 
ngliOBn. the 5mfisS«lllen>enti, « 
ia-goM. S-allrer. 



I valueas tb« U«xtcan dollar in 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 



Ill 



^ 


VALUES OF FOREIGN COINS— Continued 


. Country. 


•2 

1 


*s 

p 

t 

a 
o 


(19.13 

«p5 

> 


Coins. 


Cuba 

Denmark 

Ecuador 

Rmrni, 


G. 

G. 
S. 

0. 

G. 
Q. 
G. 
G. 
G. 
G. 
G. 
O. 
0. 

G. 

S. 

G. 

G. 
G. 
8. 

(;. 

G. 
G. 

G. 
G. 
0. 

G. 

G. 

G. 


Peso 

Crown 

Sucre 

Pound (100 
piasters). 

Mark 

Franc 

Mark 

Pound 
sterling. 

Drachma.. 

Gourde.... 

Rupeef.... 

Lira 

Yen 

Dollar 

Dollar 

Florin 

Dollar 

Crown 

Kran 

Sol 


9S0 

0.208 
0.468 

4 M3 

0.103 

0.193 

0.238 

4.866i 

0.193 

905 

0.324 

0.193 

0.498 

1.000 
0.509 

0.402 

1.014 
0268 
0.086 

0.487 
1.080 
0.515 

0.193 
0.268 
193 

044 

1.034 

0.193 


Gold: Doubloon Isabella, centen 
(16 017). Alpbonse (84.823). 811. : peso. 
Gold : 10 and 20 crowns. 
Gold: condor (19.647) and double- 
condor. Sllverrsucre and divisions. 
Gold: pound (100 plasters). 5. 10. 20, 

and 50 plasters. Silver: 1, 2, 5, 10. 

and 20 plasters. 
C^ld: 20 marks (83.859), 10 marks 

ril.VS). 
Gold: 6.10.20, 50, and 100 francs. 

Silver: 6 francs. 
Gold : 5. 10, and 20 marks. 

Gold: sovereign (pound sterling) 

and H sovereign. 
Gold: 5. 10. 20. 50. and 100 drachmas. 


Finland 


Fiaooe 

Gennan Empire. 
Qrett Brluln .... 
Groece 


Haiti 


Silver: 6 drachmas. 
Gold : 1. 2. 6. and 10 Kourdos. Silver* 


India 


gourde and divisions. 

Gold: Sovereign (84.8666). Silver: 
rut>ee and divisions. 

Qolcl: 5. 10. 20. 50. and 100 lire. Sil- 
ver: 5 lire. 

Gold: 5, 10. and 20 yen. Sliver: 10. 
30, and 50 sen. 


Italy 

Janan 


Liberia 


Mexico 

Matherlands .... 

Newfoundland . . 
Norwav 


Gold: dollar (10.983). 2H. 5, 10. and 
20 dollars. Sliver: dollar (or |>eso) 
and divisions. 

Gold: 10 florins. Silver: %, 1, and 
i\i florins. 

Gold: 3 dollars (12 027). 

Uold: 10 and 20 crowns. 


Persia 


Gold: H. 1 and 2 tomans (83.409). Sil- 
ver: M. H, 1. 2, and 5 krans. 

Gold: libra (84.8666). Sliver: sol 
and divisions. 

Gold: 1.2, 5 and 10 mllrels. 


Peru 


Portugal 

Russia 


Hllreis... . 
Ruble 

Peseta 

Crown 

Franc 

Plaster.... 

Peso 

Bolivar.... 


Spain 


Gold: Imperial, 15 rubles (87.718), 
and H Imperial, 7H rubles (88 869). 
Silver: H> H.and 1 ruble. 

Gold: 25)>eKetas. Sliver: 5 pesetas. 

Gold : 10 and 2*1 crowns. 


Sweden 


Switzerland 

Turkey 


Gold : 5, 10. 20, 50, and 100 francs. 

Silver: 5 francs. 
Gold : 25. 50. 100. 250. and 500 plas- 


Uruguay 

Venezuela 


ters. 
Gold: Peso. Silver: Peso and 

divisions. 
Gold : 5. 10, 20, 50. and 100 bolivars. 

Sliver: 5 bolivars. 



•The "British dollar" has the same le^al value as the Mexican dollar iu 
Hongkong, the Straits 8et tieraents. and Labuan. 

ri'he t/ororeipn is the standard coin of lnd\a,b\\l \.\\^iTM\«sfc\^^'^^'^^'^^'^ 
ofmecount, current at 15 to the sovereign 
to— gold, 8—BHver. 




Physics, popularly called "NMural PbiloK^qr.** u dM ■ 
which treats of such changes in bodtei u do aot i 
affect ihe properties of such bodies (new bodie* «re not fi 
A lump of sulphur can be reduced to ■ powder by | 
melted by careful heating, nude electric by nibbing with a ■ 
doth; but, after all. these changes, still remains sulphur, ud 
such changes, therefore, belong to the domain of physjca. But 
if sulphur is ignited it burns with a pale blue flame, emitting a 
sulTocating odor, it disappear:, ami is no longer sulphur (new 
bodies axe formed). Such a change is not a physical change^ bat 
a chemical, and the study of such a <:haiige belongs to the tcieoce 
of chemistry. 

"Matter " is anything that takes up space or ha;: weight. Dif- 
ferent kinds of matter arc, f. i., earth, mcials, animal and 
vegetable substances, water, air and other gases. Air is malter 
because ii has weight and lakes tip space. One cubic foot of 
air wrighs 1.3 oi., whereas one cubic foot i>i water weighs 1000 



r ?7J II 



STATES OF MATTER. 



Matter occurs in three slates, solid, fluid and gnseous. Many 
substances are met with in n.ilure in all three of those statu. 
Water is solid ice below 32' F.. fluid waltr from 32° F. to aia* 
P., above 212° F. water is in the state of a gas and is called 
steam. If the heat is high enough, all substances will take the 
form of a gas. even metals, such as zinc, iron, gold, etc. 

"Solids"' arc bodies that have a strong tendency to keep the 
same shape in all positions. 

''Fluids" are bodies wliose shapes depend on the vessels that 
cttniain them. 



.4 
4 



PHYSICS. 113 



tlGases" are bodies that have a tendency to occupy as large 
"a space as possible, and exert a pressure or tension on the ves- 
sels that contain them. 

"Molecules." The fact that all bodies expand by heat, and 
that they can be changed from solids to fluids and gases, can be 
easily explained, if we suppose that all bodies are composed of 
very small, separate, and movable particles. To these small 
particles the name "molecules" has been given. A molecule is so 
extremely small that the most minute particle of dust floating in 
the air contains millions of molecules. 

FORCES. 

Matter is constantly undergoing changes of different kinds. 
All causes tending to change the condition of rest or motion of 
a body are called "forces," such as gravitation, sound, light, 
heat, magnetism, electricity, etc. 

Force, like matter, is indestructible; both can change form, 
but the total amount of matter and force in the universe is always 
the same. By heat we may change ice to water, water to steam, 
and thus make it invisible, but every molecule of the water is 
present in the steam, and can be gathered and reduced to water 
and ice again by cooling. And an amount of heat equal to that 
which is consumed in bringing about the change of boiling hot 
water to steam is set free again when the steam is condensed to 
water. 

We suppose that the molecules are held together by a certain 
force called "cohesion." This force is strong enough in solid 
bodies to keep the molecules together. In the fluids, cohesion is 
weaker and allows the molecules a freer movement; and in the 
gases, the molecules being far apart, cohesion entirely disappears, 
the scattered molecules moving further and further apart until 
arrested by some other body, on which they then exert a pressure 
called the tension of the gases. 

PROPERTIES OF MATTER. 

"Extension." Matter occupies space; it is measured by its 
length, breadth, and thickness, called the three dimensions. This 
property or quality of matter is expressed by the word extension. 

"Mass and Weight." The amount of matter of a body i^ c^XWd 

its mass. The weight of a body is the measure o\ vVv^ tsXVc'^.Oa^tv 

exercised upon it by the earth. The mass ol a bod^ \^ XJcv^ %^tcv^ 




114 PHYSICS. 

in all positions, the weigiit of a body dq;>ends on its 
from the surface of the earth. 

"Impenetrability." The fact that two bodies cannot be in die 
same place at the same time is expressed by the term impene- 
trability of matter. If an inverted bottle is immersed in water, 
the water cannot rise into the bottle to fill it on acooont of IIm 
presence of air in the bottle. 

"Indestructibility" of matter signifies that matter cannot be 
destroyed The amount of matter in the universe cannot be de- 
creased. 

"Inertia" is the tendency of matter to remain in the same con- 
dition, that is, if at rest, to remain so, and if in motion, to 
continue to move with unchanged speed in the same d ir ec ti on. 

"Elasticity" is the property of matter to resist pressure, polling, 
bending or twisting, and to resume its original form when the 
force ceases to act upon it 

A solid body, like rubber, has elasticity cf volume and form, 
that is, it regains its original form and volume ^hen the force 
ceases to act on it; fluids have perfect elasticity of volume but 
no elasticity of form. 

"Porosity." As all bodies are composed of separate small par- 
ticles, or molecules, they only apparently fill the space they seem 
to occupy. The interstices between the molecules are called 
"pores," and bodies arc said to have porosity. If a tumbler 
is entirely filled with water some alcohol can be poured into the 
water without overflowing the tumbler because the alcohol en- 
ters into the spaces between the molecules of the water. 

"Hardness" of matter is the property of resisting any attempt 
to separate its molecules by splitting it. When one body is able 
to scratch another it is said to be harder than the other. 

The hardness of many bodies is increased by heating the body 
and suddenly cooling it. This process of hardening a hodf is 
called "tempering." 

Some bodies can be made softer by slow cooling after heating 
them to a high temperature. This process is tailed "annealing." 

"Tenacity" is the quality of matter to resist a force tending to 
pull its particles apart from each other. 

"Malleability." Some bodies can be hammered or rolled into 
sheets, and such bodies arc said to possess maLlleability. Iron 
and, to a still greater extent, go\d can be v^oiVt^ voXq n«p| %aut 
sheets. 



PHYSICS. 115 

"Ductility." Some bodies, f. in., glass, iron, platinum, can be 
drawn out into very fine wires, and such bodies are called 
"ductile." 

"Solutions." Solid bodies and gases can be changed to fluid 
form by means of some liquids. A lump of sugar thrown into 
water or alcohol will gradually disappear, the molecules of the 
solid sugar distributing themselves between the molecules of the 
water or alcohol, and the two bodies forming one liquid are 
called a solution. When a solid is changed to a liquid in such 
way, there is generally a fall of temperature. The melting o' 
ice or the addition of salt to water produces cold. Usually a 
liquid will dissolve more of a solid body at a high temperature 
than it will at a lower. 

The quantity of a gas taken up by a fluid varies with the 
temperature and the pressure, and the lower the temperature of 
the fluid and the stronger the pressure, the more gas will the 
fluid take up. 

"Crystallization." When a solution in water of sugar, salt, or 
many other substances, is allowed to dry up slowly, the solid 
bodies in solution often assume a regular shape, a cube, a 
pyramid, etc., and such bodies are called crystals Thus salt 
crystallizes in cubes, alum in pyramids, sugar in prisms. 

"Absorption." A few solid bodies have the power of taking 
up or absorbing gases. Thus charcoal can condense in its pores 
as much as 90 times its own volume of ammonia gas. 

"Diffusion." Some liquids and all gases when brought* into 
mutual contact will penetrate each other and produce a uniform 
mixture. If alcohol, which is lighter than water, is poured on 
top of water, the heavier water will in the course of time rise and 
mix evenly with the alcohol. In the same way carbonic acid, 
which is one-half again as heavy as air, will gradually mix uni- 
formly with the air. This property of matter is called diffusion. 

SPECIFIC GRAVITY 

Denotes the weight of a body as compared with an equal bulk 
or volume of another body adopted as a standard, which is 
reckoned as a unit. In cases of solids or liquids the standard 
body is pure water of 39.2** F. The specific gravity of a sub- 
stance is, therefore, a number explaining how mauy times iKe 
weight of an equal hulk oi water is contamed \tv VV^ -vex^X. c^^ "^^ 



1 16 PHYSICS. 

tulsUiice. One cubic foot of water weighs 62.5 lbs., one- cubic 
fool of iron weighs 487.5 lbs., dividing 4S7.5 by 63.5 gives s. ^ 
qaotient of 7.8, indicating that when equal bulks of iron and water 
kre taken, the iron weight 7.8 limes as much as the water; hence 
the speciHc gravity of iron is 7.8. 

For determination of specific gravity, hydrometer*, saccharo- 
Hieters. picnometers, etc, see "The Breucis' Chemical Labof' 
llory," 

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE. 

Air being a material substance has weight. The surface of the 
earth is the bottom of an ocean of air, and supports the weight 
of the entire atmosphere. Every square inch of the earth's tur- 
face is. therefore, exposed to 3 certain pressure which is equal 
to the weight of the column of air resting on it, and reaching 
from the surface of the earth up to where the air ends. The 
lower strata 01 the air, i. e, those nearest to the ground, ate 
much denser and heavier than the upper ones, as they tre com- 
pressed by the weight of the upper strata. The atmospheric 
pressure is, therefore, less on the lop of a high mountain than it 
is at sea level, since the column of air over the top of the moiM' 
tain is both shorter and less dense. 

At sea level the pressure of the atmosphere is 14-7 **■ P** 
square inch. 

This pressure is exerted on all bodies with equal power in aD 
directions. 

In a bottle filled with air the pressure is e(,ual on the outside 
and on the inside but if the air be withdrawn from the botde 
the outside pressure is no longer balanced by any pressure on 
the inside, and the walls of the bottle will break unless they are 
very strong. 

The surface of an average man's body is about 30 square feet, 
or 3,88o square inches, and the pressure on his body is a8SD X 
14.7 lbs., or 42,366 lbs. 

But this pressure on the outside is counteracted by an equal 
pressure from within. 

If one end of an open tube is dipped into water, and the air 
sucked out at ihe other end, the water will immediately rise into 
the tube, and if the air is drawn out completely the water will 
rise to a height of nearly 34 feet, and no more, because the weight 
of 3 column o! water of such height w'vW \)a\a.nct 'ftit -wtv^i. ^A 
l/te air. 



PHYSICS. 



"7 



The entire atmosphere, therefore, weighs as much as a layer 
of water surrounding the globe to a depth of 34 feet. 

If mercury is used instead of water, the column will be only 
about 30 inches high, because mercury is 13.5 times denser than 
water. 

When the air is partly or entirely removed from a vessel there 
is said to be a partial or complete vacuum in the vessel. 

WEIGHT OF WATER AT SEA LEVEL OR 30" BAROMETER. 



op 


°R. 


Weight 


Weight 






1 Cu. Ft. 


1 BbL 31 Gal. 


32° P. 


0.° R. 


62.417 Lb. 


258.656 


•».2« " 


♦ 3 jjO .1 


62.425 " 


258.689 


50O u 


go .. 


61409 " 


258.623 


60° •• 


12.4" " 


62.367 •' 


268.448 


70° " 


16.9° " 


62.302 •• 


258.180 


goo •' 


21.3° " 


62.218 ♦• 


257.831 


90° " 


25.8° •♦ 


62.119 " 


257.421 


212° •• 


80° •' 


59.7 '• 


247.897 



^GreAtest density. 

BAROMETER. 

A barometer is an instrument used to measure atmospheric 
pressure. 

The mercury-barometer is a glass tube about 36 inches high, the 
upper end of which is exhausted and closed air-tight, while the 
lower end is immersed in a vessel of mercury. The atmospheric 
pressure keeps the tube filled with mercury to a height of about 
30 inches, the remaining 6 inches at the top being a complete 
vactitun. The atmospheric pressure, like the temperature of the 
air, is constantly changing, and these changes are shown by the 
rise or fall of the column of mercury in the glass tube. 

The "aneroid-barometer" is a portable instrument, without 
any liquid. It consists of a metallic box, exhausted of air, the' 
walls of which yield under the varying pressure of the air, their 
movements being transferred to an indicator on a graduated 

scale. 

MOISTURE OF THE AIR. 

The air, when in contact with water, absorbs some of it, and 
vapor of water is, therefore,^ always present in the atmosphere. 
The warmer the air is, the more moisture can it hold. Iw ^ 
tropical climate the air may become almost ssilux^te^^ ^\>^ ^-aX^x 
during the rainy season. But, on the otVver b^nd, vVv^ ^v't cvcv\i^ 



ii8 



PHVSICS. 



hot and siill very dry, if it rests over a surface devoid of waHr, 
for instance, Ihe great desert region of Sahanu 

If warm and moist air is gradually cooled down it finally 
reaches a temperature at which it can no longer hold all the 
moisture, but deposits some of it in liquid form as dew, fog or 
clouds, as the case may be. 




The lenipcraiurc at which this precipitation takes place is called 
the dew point, and indicates the temperature at which the moist- 
ure present would be sufficient to saturate the air com^etely. 
The less moisture the air contains, the further must it be 
cooled down before this precipitation ol *a\eT \.aV^?, ^V^se, i. e^ 
the loner is the dew point. 



PHYSICS. 119 

^ ' HYGROMETER. 

TMre are various methods of finding the amount of moisture 
in the air, and the instruments used for this purpose are called 
hygrometers. 

One is based upon the fact that water will evaporate faster in 
dry air than in moist. This instrument consists of two ther- 
mometers, one of which indicates the actual temperature of the 
air. The bulb of the other thermometer is covered with muslin 
which is kept wet with water; the evaporation produces cold 
and the thermometer soon sinks below the actual temperature of 
the air. When it comes to rest the degree is noted, the differ- 
ence in temperature between the two thermometers is taken, 
and the amount of moisture in the air found from tables made 
up for this purpose. 

This instrument is known as the "wet-bulb hygrometer." 

Another common hygrometer is the "hair hygrometer" in 
which the variations of moisture in the air are indicated by a 
hair, previously freed from oily matter, and which stretches 
when moist and contracts when dry, the movements being trans- 
ferred to an indicator. 

HEAT. 

The molecules of all bodies are in continual motion and this 
motion is what we call "heat." The more rapidly the molecules 
move, the hotter is the body. If the movement of the molecules 
should stop entirely the body would have no heat, it would be 
absolutely cold. Calculations for the gases have led to the con- 
clusion that such a state would be reached at 460 degrees below 
the zero point of a Fahrenheit thermometer. 

When two bodies of different temperatures are brought in con- 
tact, the temperature of the warmer one falls while that of the 
colder one rises, that is, the rapidly moving particles of the 
warmer body cause the particles of the colder body to move more 
rapidly than before, while the movements of its own particles 
arc lessened. This process takes place in a similar way as when 
a fast moving train runs from the rear into one of less speed; 
the slow train is pushed ahead faster, while the speed of the 
other is lessened. 

"Expansion." An immediate result of the increase in speed 
of the molecules, which becomes sensible \n iVvt \oTTi\ <A V^-^/v^ 




120 PHYSKS. 

also an increase in their dktasoe irom cadi other, 

body expands. By ej^aasion the same siass 

si»ce than before, hence displaces more oC the 

matter and becomes specifically lighter. In a tiqnid, whfle beiof 

heated, the warmer parts at the bottom will rise to the sorfiMft. . 

''Sources of Heat" The greatest source of heat is the 
but heat can also be produced by friction, or by 
changes, as illustrated by the ignition of a common maldL 

TRANSFER CK mSTKISOnON Of UEKT. 

Heat moves from one point to another in three wayn: *^m- 
duction/' "radiation" and ''ctrcnlation" (or "convection**). 

"Conducted Heat." If one end of a bar of iron is lield>il| ^ 
fire the temperature will soon rise at the other end of the iNnr. 
The heat of the fire has traveled from layer to layer of thKs^ hik 
without any sensible motion of the iron panicles. 

Heat transmitted in this way is called conducted heat. 

A stick of wood may be burning and held in the hand within 
a short distance of the burning part, whereas a bar of any metal 
under similar circumstances would burn the hand. 

The wood does not conduct the heat so well as do the metals. 

Metals are the best conductors of heat, and of the metals 
silver is the best, then follow copper, gold, tin and iron. The 
next best conductors are stones, dense woods and charcoal, then 
liquids in general and, finally, gases which conduct hardly any 
heat at all. 

"Circulation of Heat." Although liquids and gases are poor 
conductors of heat, they may, nevertheless, be quickly heated, 
if the heat is applied to the bottoms of the vessels containing 
them. This heating, however, is not by conduction, but by cir- 
culation. 

A circulation is set up in the fluid or gas when the portions in 
contact with the bottom of the vessel get heated, become lighter, 
and rise to the surface, carrying the heat with them. 

"Radiation of Heat." There is another and entirely different 
way by which heat is transmitted through certain media, and 
travels with the speed of light, being, in fact, of the same nature 
as light. Such is the transmission of heat from the sun to the 
earth, and from any hot body through the air. In this case the 
heat does not to any extent affect the air through which it 



^ PHYSICS. 121 



i0 



travel%' it passes between the molecules of the air. Heat that 
ivoVes in such manner is said to be radiated. 

If radiated heat strikes a body too solid to allow it to pass 
through, the heat is absorbed and raises the temperature of that 
body. 

The light and heat from the sun pass through the atmosphere 
without warming it, but they heat the earth. From the warm 
earth, the lower strata of air are then heated by conduction and 
circulation. 

EXPANSION OF SOLIDS. 

Nearly all solid bodies expand when heated and contract when 
cooled. The amount of expansion which different solids undergo 
depends on the nature of the solid, and the temperature. When 
heated from 32** F. to 212** F., the expansion in rods of the 
following substances is : 

Firwood 0.000408 ( ) 

Steel not tempered 0.001078 ( ) 

Copper 0.00171 ( ) 

^504/ 

that is, a bar of iron, 927 inches long at 32** F., will be one inch 
longer or 928 inches, when heated to 212** F. 

EXPANSION OF LIQUIDS. 

The expansion of liquids varies greatly with the nature of the 
substances. Between 32** F. and 212° F. water expands 0.045 

( — \ of its original volume, alcohol o.iii f — j. Hence 22 barrels 

of water at 32** F. will fill 23 barrels at 212** F. 

Water forms an exception to the uniformity of progressive 
expansion with rising temperatures. When heated from 32° F. 
to 39.2** F., it contracts instead of expanding, and only after 
reaching the temperature of 39.2° F. does it begin to expand 
when heated. The temperature of 39.2** F. marks its greatest 
density, and from this point on it expands whether It U Vift.^.\.^^ 
or cooled. 




123 PHYSICS. ^ 

EXPANSIDir OP GASES. 

All gases expand nearly alike for an eqoa! increase in tempefll^ 
ture, and the increase in volume is independent of the t e mp e ra - 
ture and pressure of the gas. The amount of expansion for a rise 
in temperature from 32*" F. to 212** F. is 0.566 of the origiiial 
volume. 

CHANCaS OF STATE. 

• 

Many solid bodies when heated are liquified or fused* 
or they melt. To effect the change from sdid to fluid 
a certain amount of heat is required. If one pound of water 
of 32° F. and one pound of water of 174"* F. are mixed, the 
temperature of the mixture will be 103^ F., or half way betweea 
32** F. and 174° F. But if we mix one potmd of ice of 32* F. and 
one pound of water of 174^ F. we will have two pounds of water 
of 32° F. That is, all the heat given off by the warm water has 
been just sufficient to melt the ice without producing any rise in 
temperature. Heat which is absorbed by melting bodies is 
called "latent heat," or heat of fluidity. 

In an exactly similar way heat is absorbed when a fluid is 
changed into a gas. If we place a thermometer in water that 
is being heated, the thermometer will constantly rise until it 
reaches 212* F., at which point it becomes stationary. Any 
further heat added does not raise the temperMure of the boiling . 
water but is entirely consumed in transforming the water into 
steam. 

This heat which is absorbed by the steam is called the "latent 
heat of vaporization." If steam is condensed to water, this ab- 
sorbed heat is set free once more. One pound of steam of 212* 
F., when condensed by being conducted into cold water, gives 
out heat enough to raise 5.4 pounds of water from 32** F. to 
212'' F. 

"Distillation." If a fluid is made to boil and the vapors are 
condensed again, the condensed fluid is said to be distilled. 

The fluid to be distilled is placed in a vessel, called a retort, 
generally made of glass or metal, the vapors arising from the 
boiling fluid pass into a tube, called the worm, which is kept 
cold by running water, and the condensed vapors flow from the 
worm into a suitable receiver. The whole apparatus is called a 
still. If water is treated this way, the condexvstd s^^^^m turns into 



y 



PHYSICS. 



123 



pttC^'Vvater, while the salts and other non-volatile substances re- 
main behind in the retort. 

"Sublimation." A few solid bodies, when heated, boil before 
they melt, and consequently pass directly over from the solid 
to the gaseous state. Such a change is called sublimation. Solid 
carbonic acid for instance is such a body and when lying in the 
open air it passes directly into a gas. 

BOILING POINT OF WATBR. 



Height Above Sea 


Barometrtc 


Boils, Degrees 


Boils, Degrees 


Level. 


Indication. 


P. 


R. 


15.K1 Feet. 


16.79 Inches. 


184«» P. 


67 6" R. 


10.127 '• 


20.39 


193" ' 




71.6" '• 


9 081 ♦• 


21.26 


195« • 




72.4" " 


7,932 " 


22.17 '• 


197» • 




73.3" " 


6,848 " 


23.11 


199« ' 




74 2" •' 


0,804 " 


23.59 


2000 •* 




74 7" •• 


6.225 *♦ 


24.58 


2020 • 




75 6" •• 


4.169 " 


25..W 


204" • 




76.4" " 


8,116 *• 


26.61 •• 


20ft» • 




77 3" •' 


2.063 •• 


27.73 " 


20e» ' 




78.2" " 


1,M9 ** 


28.29 '• 


209« ' 




78.7" " 


1,025 " 


«8.85 


210O ♦ 




T9.1" " 


612 . *• 


29.42 


211* ' 




79.6" *• 


0' •* 


30. 


212» ♦' 


80. " •• 



BOILING POINT OF WATER IN VACUUM. 



Inches Vacuum. 


Inches Barometer. 


Temperature P. 


Temperature R. 


00 


30 


212" 


80 " 


11 


19 


190" 


70 " 


18 


12 


170" 


61 " 


22.5 


7.5 


150" 


52.5" 


25 


5 


186" 


45.7" 


27.5 


2.5 


112" 


35.5" 


28.5 


1.5 


92" 


26.6" 


29 


I 


72" 


17.5" 


29.5 


0.5 


52" 


8.9" 



THERMOMETERS. 

"Measurement of Temperature and Heat." The degree of heat 
is measured by thermometers. The amount of heat is measured 
by the increase in temperature it is capable of producing in a 
certain quantity of water. 

"Thermometers." The warmer a body is, the larger is its 
volume, and an increase in volume indicates a corresponding 
rise in temperature, a contraction of volume indicates a cor- 
rcspondingr fall in temperature. This pTopexV^ \^ >\<^vl^\ V^t 
measuring temperatures. 




124 PHYSICS. 

Mercury or alcohol, enclosed in giau Tessels, are the 
stances commonly used to measure the expansion produced hy 
heat Such instruments are called thermometers. 

For description and testing of thermometers, see "The Brew- 
ers' Chemical Laboratory." 

HEAT UNITS. 

"Measurement of Heat, Heat Units.** The amount of heat that 
will raise the temperature of one pound of water from 32** F. to 
33** F. is called a heat unit, a therm, or a calory. To raises for 
instance, the temperature of 5 pounds of water by 10* F. tikes 
5 X 10 or 50 heat units. 

"DiiTercnt Heat Units." Instead of taking for a unit the heat 
that can raise one pound of water by one degree Fahrenheit, a 
heat unit may be calculated upon a cubic foot of water, a barrel 
of water, or any quantity that may be convenient, and instead of 
Fahrenheit degrees, Reaumur or Celsius (Centigrade) may be 
used. 

"For Calculations in the Brewer>'" it is often convenient to 
take as a heat unit the quantity of heat that will raise one barrel 
of water one degree Reaumur. As a barrel of water weighs 258.5 
pounds and i' R, = 2.25** F., this heat unit is 258.5 X 2^5 or 
581.6 times larger than the ordinary heat unit. To raise ten 
barrels of water from o' R. to 8o* R., will take 10 X 80 or 800 
such heat units, and if 10 barrels of water are cooled from 80* 1\- 
to o** R.. they give off 800 heat units. 

As before stated, it requires as much heat to melt one pound 
of ice as to heat one pound of water from 32 to 174** F. To 
raise the temperature of one pound of water f-'om 32** F. to 174* 
F. or by 174 — 32 = 142 degrees takes i X 142 heat units, that is, 
the "latent heat of melting ice" is 142 heat units. 

Similarly, it takes as much heat to change one pound of water 
of 212° F. to one pound of steam of 212** F., as to raise 5.37 
pounds of water from 32** F. to 212° P.. or 5.37 X (212 — 32), or 
S'37 X 180, or 972 heat units. The "latent heat of vaporization," 
therefore is 966 heat units. 

SPECIFIC HEAT. 

Equal weights of different substances require different 
amounts of heat to raise them to a given temperature. 
Water regwres more heat than any other body, solid or 
/fu/d, and is, therefore, used as a unit. TYve ^feviit v\v;vv tx\i\t^^^s 



y 



PHYSICS. 



"5 



hoiC'^u*:^ heat is required to raise the temperature of a certain 
weight of a. body one degree as compared with that required to 
raise the temperalure of an equal weight of water by one degree, 
is called the specific heat of the substance. The specific heat of 
barley malt, for instance, is 0.4, that is it takes only four-tenths 
of the heat which will raise the temperature of a certain weight 
of water one degree, to raise the temperature of an equal weight 
of malt one degree. To heat ten pounds of water from 40' F. 
to 100° F. takes 10 X 60, or 600, heat units; to heat 10 lbs, of malt 
from 40' F. to 100' F. takes only 10 X 60 X 0-4. c 240, heat units. 







LIGHT. 

Light is a form of energy which produces the effect of vision. 
Light, as well as sound, is transmitted through bodies in undula- 
tions or little waves. It is not in the molecules of a body, how- 
ever, that light produces this wave-like movement in passing 
through such body, but in a substance which fills the spaces be- 
tween the molecules as well as the space 'jetween the heavenly 
bodies. This substance is called ether, and is of excessive fine- 
ness, filling the whole universe and allowing the molecules <if 
bodies to move in it with perfect freedom. 

Light moves in this ether with a velocity o( 186,000 miles per 
second. 

A "ray of light" is a line along which light is moving. 

A "beam of light" is a bundle of rays. Light moves in straight 
lines as long as the medium in which it moves is homogeneous, 
or of uniform density. If light enters into another medium of 
smaller or greater density, the ray oi ligViV \s Ae^e:'Ac4, 'V^ 'w^ 
longer travels in the same direction. 




126 PHYSICS. 

If a straight stick is dipped partly into water, that 
stick which is in the water will appear not to be in a continiKNii 
straight line with the part above the water; the stick appears to 
be broken. This is called refraction. 

If a beam of light, coming through the air, faUs open tlie sar- 
face of another medium, for instance, glass or water, on|y part 
of the light will enter the glass or water, another part of the 
light being "reflected" back into the air. 

The reflected ray of light forms an equal angle with tlie reflect- 
ing surface as the ray of light falling on the swiace. 



A piece of glass with one or both surfaces cnnred is 
called a lens. The ordinary or double-convex lens, is thicker in 
the middle than at the edges, and both surfaces are spherkaL If 
such a lens is held in the sunlight, all the rays foiling on its sur- 
face and passing through the glass, are broken or refracted and 
brought together in one point on the opposite side of the lens. 

*' Focus." If a piece of paper is held behind the lens and near 
to it, a circle of light smaller than the lens will become visible 
on the paper. If the paper is gradually moved further from the 
lens, the circle of light will grow smaller until it forms almost 
a point. This point is called the focus of the lens, and the dis- 
tance from this point to the lens is called the focal length of the 
lens. The more curved the surfaces of the lens are, the nearer 
lies the focus to the lens. If another lens is held behind the first 
and parallel with it so that the sunlight passes through both 
lenses it will be seen that the focus is brought nearer to the lenses. 

"Spherical Aberration." The rays that pass through a lens as 
described above do not all meet strictly in a point. The rays 
that fall on the lens near the edge are less acutely reflected and 
have their focus further from the lens than the rays that pass 
through the lens near the center. If the paper is held at the 
point where the central rays meet, the rays passing through near 
the edge will form a circle of light around this point. 

"Diaphragms." To avoid this the rays near the edge are cut 
off by placing behind the lens a piece of blackened metml, 
with an opening in the center. Such a screen which only allows 
the central rays to pass through the lens is called a diaphragm. 

"Images." If an object, for instance a burning candle, is held 
in front of a lens, at a distance a \\U\e ^e^V^i vV^tv ^t V»ca&. 



PHYSICS. 



127 



length, and a piece of paper is placed on the other side of the 
lens and moved to and from the lens, an inverted and magnified 
image of the candle will appear, and in a certain position this 
image will be sharply defined. The rays of light which are 
emitted from a single point of a burning candle^ for instance, 
from the top of the flame^ and fall on the lens, are all collected 
in one point behind the lens and there form an image of the 
corresponding point of the candle. Similarly, all points of the 
flame have their images in corresponding places behind the 
lens, and all these images jointly form an image of the whole 
flame. 

MICROSCOPE. 

"Magnifying Glasses." If a lens of the type above described 
is held between the eye and a small object, at a shorter distance 
from the object than the focal length, the image is larger than 
the object, but not inverted. Such a lens is called a simple 
microscope, or a magnifying glass. 

"Compound Microscope." If we place the object as in the 
first instance, that is, a little further from the lens than the focal 
length, and thus produce an inverted and enlarged image of the 
object, and then view this imjige through another lens, as in the 
second instance, the enlarged * image is magnified once more, 
producing a doubly enlarged and inverted image. A combina- 
tion of two or more lenses in such a way is called a compound 
microscope. 



COMPARATIVE ABSORBING OR RADIATING, AND REFLECTING 

PROPERTIES OF SOME SOLIDS. 



Substance. 



Water 

Marble 

Glass 

Ice 

Iron, cast, polished 

Mercury 

Iron, wrought, polished. .. 

Zinc 

Steel, pollshnd , 

Tin 

Brass, dead polished 

Brass, bright polished 

Copper, hammered 

OoJJ 

Silver, polished 



Absorbing or radi- 


Reflecting power, 


ating power, pro- 


proportion 


portion percent. 


per cent. 


100 





98 Co 98 


7 to 2 


90 


10 


85 


15 


25 


76 


23 


77 


28 


77 


19 


81 


17 


83 


15 


85 


11 


89 


7 


«^ 


7 


\ Sk% 


!S 


\ '** 


1 ^ 


\ ^^f^ 



128 PHYSICS. \ 

ELECTRICITY. '^^^ 

Electricity is the name giveu to the common cause of a large 
variety of phenomena, including apparent attractions and repul- 
sions of matter, heat, luminous and magnetic effects, chemical 
decomposition, etc. Its nature is not well understood, there 
being no agreement whether it is a force or a fluid. Bodies that 
possess the power of producing electrical effects are said to be 
electrified, or in a state of electrification. 

"Conductors" are substances through which electricity can 
pass easily. Such are metals, charcoal, acids, water, etc. 

"Insulators" or "Non-Conductors" are bodies that offer great 
resistance to the passing of electricity. Such are: Silk, India 
rubber, porcelain, glass, sealing wax, vulcanite. 

"Statical Electrification" or "Electricity Developed by Fric- 
tion." Electricity can be produced by chemical action and by 
mechanical means. Electrification produced by rubbing glass 
with silk is called positive; that developed by rubbing sealing 
wax with flannel is called negative. The frictional electric ma- 
chine consists of a circular plate of glass turning upon an axis 
between two cushions covered with amalgam. The friction be- 
tween the glass plate and the amalgam produces electricity. 

An insulated conductor, armed with points, discharges the 
plate as it turns, and thus becomes charged with electricity. 

ELECTRIC CURRENT. 

When two solid conductors are dipped into a fluid that 
acts unequally upon them, one of the conductors becomes 
charged with positive electricity, the other with negative. 
Thus pieces of zinc and carbon put into diluted sulphuric 
acid generate electrical force. The zinc is attacked by the 
acid and becomes negative, the carbon remains unaltered 
in the acid and becomes positive. If a metallic communication is 
made between the two plates, the clccricity is discharged. But 
as soon as the discharge has taken place, the two plates are 
immediately charged once more, and as this charging and dis- 
charging goes on without interruption the result is an electric 
current. 

"Positive" and "Negative" Plates. That plate which is most 
powerfully affected by the liquid is caWed \V\e po%\V*\\^ \vVvvl^\ the 
p/^fe that remains unaltered is caUcd lV\e t\egaX\vt ^\^\^. 






PHYSICS. 129 

"The Circuit." If the plates are united outside of the liquid 
by a metallic wire, this wire, the two plates and the fluid, that is, 
the path of the current, is called the circuit. 

The "Positive Pole" is the free end of the wire connected with 
the negative plate. 

The "Negative Pole" is the free end of the wire attached to the 
positive plate. 

When the two poles are joined, the circuit is said to be 
closed," when they are separated the circuit is "broken." 
Voltaic Cell." The plates, liquid and vessel constitute a vol- 
taic cell. 

"Voltaic Battery." Several cells joined form a voltaic battery. 

The longer and finer the wire that connects the plates the 
greater is the "resistance" to the electric current. 

MEASURES OF ELECTRiaTY. 

An "ohm" is the unit of resistance and is equal to the resist- 
ance of a column of mercury one square millimeter in cross- 
section and 106.3 centimeters long at 32** F. 

A "volt" is the unit of electrical pressure, or electro-motive 
force, which is that force which compels electricity to move 
through a conductor in spite of its resistance. 

An "ampere" is the unit of current strength or rate of flow 
through the conductor and consists of the current flowing m a 
unit of time (second) through a wire having a unit resistance 
(ohm) and between the two ends of which a unit difference of 
electrical pressure (volt) is maintained. (See also "Weights and 
Measures" and "Transmissioti of Power.") 

MAGNETISM. 

A "Magnet" is a body that has the power of attracting iron and 
steel and when freely suspended points north and south. The 
ends of a magnet are called the "poles." The force which causes 
such action is called magnetism. 

"Electro-Magnet." If an electric current is sent through coils 
of wire wound around a soft iron bar such bar is magnetized, and 
is then called an electro-magnet. If a magnet is moved toward 
a closed coil of wire, an electric current is produced in the coiU 
and if the magnet is moved away irom iVva coW ^ c:>yc\^T\V c>K 
opposite direction is produced. 





It 



130 PHYSEG&. ''\ 

A "Magneto-Electric Machine'' utiiizet thii principle Cflf-Jlie 
purpose of inducing electric currents in wire coils by changing ^ 
the relative positions of the wire coils and the magnets, alter- 
nately increasing and decreasing the distance. 

Tlie "Direct-Current Dynamo" is a device for generating an 
electric current It consists of three principal parts: An 
armature,'* made of coils of wire; an electro-magnet; and a 
commutator" for giving the same direction to the alternating 
currents. The armature is a soft iron ring or cylinder carrying 
coils of insulated copper wire and arranged to rotate rapidly 
about the magnet. The soft iron in the coil increases the 
strength of the electric current 

SOUND. 

Sound is that form of motion which affects the auditory nerve. 
It is produced by a succession of rapid vibrations in any elastic 
substance, solid, fluid or gaseous. These vibrations can be 
plainly seen in the strings of a piano or harp. Solid bodies and 
liquids conduct sound better than gases. Sound cannot be trans- 
mitted through a vacuum. Air is the principal carrier of sound; 
the velocity of sound through air is 1.090 feet per second. 

Sound can be reflected and refracted in very much the same 
way as light. An "echo" is produced by sound waves reflected 
back to their source. 

In the open air sound scatters in all directions, and its intensity 
diminishes rapidly with the distance. If by some means the 
vibrations are made to move in one direction or confined within 
a narrow space, the sound can be heard farther. (Speaking tubes 
and speaking trumpets.) 

TELEPHONE. 

The telephone is an instrument for transmitting sound over 
a lonjjf distance. The sound vibrations produced when a person 
speaks into the mouthpiece of the instrument cause a thin iron 
plate to vibrate, thereby producing electric currents in an electro- 
magnet. These electric currents are sent by a metallic wire to 
a distant place, and received in a similar instrument, causing the 
iron plate to vibrate in exactly the same manner as the first. 

These vibrations are imparted to the air and thus reproduce the 
<ound. 



PHYSICS. 



131 



PHONOGRAPH. 

The phonograph or talking machine consists in its main fea- 
ture of a revolving mandrel, covered with a wax cylinder and 
driven by a clock-work or electric motor. 

Upon this wax cylinder is placed a moveable recorder, consist- 
ing of a housing containing a thin glass diaphragm. To this 
diaphragm is attached a sharp chisel-shaped peg or pin on one 
side, where it rests upon the cylinder, and a horn or sound re- 
ceiver to the other side of the housing. As a sound of greater or 
lesser intensity enters this hofn it causes the diaphragm to 
vibrate with corresponding intensity and to cut indentations into 
the surface of the wax cylinder. By replacing the recorder with 
a reproducer (which is similar to it in construction, except that 
the cutting pin is replaced by a rounded blunt pin), the diaphragm, 
as its pin sinks into the depressions of different depths in the 
wax, is caused to vibrate in the same manner as did the dia- 
phragm of the recorder, thereby reproducing the original sound. 



riECHANICS. 



Mechanics treat of the movements of bodies, their causes uA 
effects. ♦ 

"Motion" is a change of position. 

VELOCITY. 



ii^ 



'Velocity" is rate of motion. Velocity is either ''miiform** or 
"variable." The velocity of a body at any instant is the distance 
it would pass over in the next unit of time without any influenee 
from outside. 

The distance traversed in a given time by a body moving with 
uniform velocity is equal to the velocity multiplied by the number 
of time units. For instance, if a train moves with a speed of 40 
miles an hour, the distance traversed in three hours is equal to 
3 X 40, or 120 miles, that is, distance =: 3 X 40 = 120. 

If we call the distance /, the velocity v, and the time (expressed 
in the units of time) /, we have I =: v t. From this formtila it 
follows that 

J' = _ and t :r= — 
t V 

that is, velocity is equal to distance divided by the time, and 
the time is equal to distance divided by the velocity. If the train 
moves 120 miles in four hours, the velocity is equal to *J**, or 
30 miles per hour; and if the train moves 120 miles at a velocity 
of 40 miles per hour, the time needed to traverse the distance is 
Vo®, or three hours. 

If two of the three quantities, distance, time and velocity, are 
given, the third can always be found. 

ACCELERATION. 

Acceleration is the change of velocity per unit of time and 
may be either "positive" or "negative." If the velocity increases, 
pcceleration is positive ; if the velocity dimVxvxsVi^s, \V \^ xvt%:aXAN^ 



MECHANICS. 133 



it . 



'Accelerated Movement." If a body has a uniformly acceler- 
ated movement and starts from rest, the velocity, after a certain 
time, is equal to the acceleration multiplied by the time. If, f. i., 
a body begins to move, and its speed increases seven feet per 
second, the velocity will, after three seconds, be 3 X 7 or 21 feet 
Representing the acceleration by a, the time by /, and the velocity 

v = at. 
The distance traversed is equal to one-half of the acceleration 
multiplied by the square of the time, or, calling the distance 1, 

/ = %(!/». 

GRAVITATION. 

The best known example of a uniformly accelerated motion is 
the motion of a freely falling body. A body dropped from a 
place above the surface of the earth falls in a straight line and in 
the direction of the center of the earth. 

When we speak of the "weight" of a body we mean that force 
by which the earth attracts the body, and this force constitutes 
"gravity," or the "attraction of gravitation." 

A heavy body and a light body, falling freely, will fall to the 
ground in the same time, if they both are dropped from the 
same height. In a vacuum, where the resistance of the air is 
removed, a feather and a stone will fall with equal velocity. If 
a body starts from rest and falls freely, it will, at the end of 
the first second, have a speed of 32.16 feet, that is, the acceleration 
in this case is 32.16 feet. This quantity is generally denoted by 
the letter g. It is different in different parts of the earth. At 
the equator g is 32.09 feet, at the pole 32.25 feet. Accordingly 
the Tclodty of a freely falling body 

V = g t, 
that is, at the end of two seconds the velocity is 2 X 32.16, or 2 g, 
after three seconds 3 X 32.16, or 3 g, etc. 

The space traversed 

s = Vige, 
Hence in the first second the space is % ^ X i' = % X 32.16 = 
16.08 feet ; at the end of two seconds it is % ^ X 2*, after three sec- 
onds % g 3*, etc. The space traversed is equal to 16.08 feet mul- 
tiplied by the square of the number of seconds. 

Example i. — How many feet does a bodv, ^\.2LX\\tv\^ \^ovcv \^'^\. 
drop in five seconds? 



134 MECHANICS. ^ 

Solutum.—^ = 16.08 X ^ = I&OB X ^ =: 4U feet 
Example ^.— How much time would a 6dliiif body, ttftftmc 
from rest, reqtiire to drop one mile? 

Solution.— I mile = 5.280 feet ; x = % ^ <•; 5,j8o = xdoB X f- 

/.= 528o^ 3 
16.08 

/ = 1/328 = 18 seconds 
LAWS OF MOTION. 



t*^ 



'Force" is that which changes, or tends to change, the state 
of rest or motion of a hody. A given force produces the same 
effect, whether the body on which it acts is in motion or at rest; 
whether it is acted on by that force alone or by other forces at 
the same time. 





Fig. I— Representation of Forces. Fi^. 2— Composition of Motioa. 

In treating of forces, there are three things to be considered: 

The "point of application/' or the point at which the force acts. 

The "direction." or the line along which it tends to move the 
point of application. 

The "magnitude" of a force when compared with a given stand- 
ard. 

REPRESENTATION OF FORCES. 

A force may be represented by a straight line, one end of which 
determines the point of application, the direction of the line in- 
dicating the direction of the force, and the length of the line de- 
termining the magnitude of the force. 

COMPOSITION OF MOTION. 

A motion may be the resultant of two or more component mo- 
tions. 
ly/ie/j two motions have the same d\rec\\ot\, vVit m^%:cy\\.xsA«. oi 



MECHANICS. 135 

the resultant motion is the sum of the magnitudes of the com- 
ponents, and the direction will be unchanged. 

When two motions have opposite directions, the magnitude of 
the resultant motion will be the difference of the magnitudes of 
the components, and the direction will be that of the gn'eater 
component. 

When two component motions have different directions, the 
resultant motion is represented in magnitude and direction by 
the diagonal of the parallelogram constructed over the two com- 
ponent motions, as sides of the parallelogram. Thus let the 
two forces be represented by the two lines AB and AC, Draw 
BD and CD to complete the parallelogram. The diagonal AD 
then represents the direction and magnitude of the resultant mo- 
tion. 

MOMENTUM. 

If a force acts upon a body the result of this action depends 
upon the mass of the body and its velocity. The product of the 
mass and the velocity is called momentum. 

MEASUREMENT OF FORCES. 

In order to compare forces we must have a unit of force by 
which they can be measured. There are two kinds of units of 
force. 

I. The "gravity unit," which is the weight of any standard unit 
of mass, as f. i., the pound. 

A The "absolute unit," which is the force that acting for a unit 
of time upon a unit of mass will produce a unit of acceleration. 
Such a unit is, f. i., the foot-pound-second unit of force which, 
acting on one pound of matter for one second, will produce an 
acceleration of one foot per second. It is called a "poundal.* 



>» 



WORK AND ENERGY. 

When a force causes motion of a body through space, it is 
said to <Io "work" on that body. 

"Foot-pound." The unit of work is the amount of work re- 
quired to raise one pound one foot against the force of gravity, 
and is called a foot-pound. Three pounds raised 10 feet, or 10 
pounds raised three feet, represent 30 foot-pounds. Where the 
metric system is used the unit of work is the meter-kilogram. 

''Horse-power" is the power to do 550 foot-pounds of ^o^V. 
per second, or 33,000 foot-pounds per m\t\u\.e. 



136 mcHAincs. "^^v 



''Energy'' is the power of aoing woik. A MSag 
ning water, etc, have energy. It is m e tsur ed in foot- po — B % 
the same as work. 

SIMPLE ttACHINES. 

A machine is an instrument for the transference of energy* 
The ''power" of a machims is the force that acts tQKMi one put 

of a machine. p(^v^tA. uT^fyfi tvU^i A^ ^ idC^ ^^t<4i' 
The "weight" is the force exerted by anomer i«rt of fSt 
chine upon some external resistance. 

All machines waste more or less of the energy exerted in over- 
coming resistances of friction, air, etc. The "effideney'* of a 
machine is the ratio ^Jhe useful work done by the machine to 
the total work done Sir the machine. 

"Friction" is the resistance that a moving body meets from tiie 
surface on which it moves. Friction may be rolling or sli<fiig. 
(Sec "Elements of Machinery.") 

THE MECHANICS OF LIQUIDS. 

Liquids are practically incompressiUe, even very heavy pres- 
sure fails to reduce their volume to any appreciable extent Th^ 
are also perfectly elastic, that is, when the pressure ceases, they 
regain their former volume fully. 

If a liquid is inclosed in a vessel and a pressure is exerted 
upon a part of its surface, that pressure is transmitted in all direc- 
tions, and acts with equal force upon any part of the total sur- 
face equal in extent to the part on which the pressure is originally 
exerted. 

This law finds an application in the "hydraulic press," which 
consists of two cylinders of unequal diameters, communicating 
with each other and filled with water. A pressure downward on 
the water in the narrow cylinder produces a pressure upward 
in the wide cylinder, as many times greater as the sectional area 
of the narrow cylinder is contained in that of the wide cylinder. 
(See page 149.) 

If a liquid is contained in a vessel, the pressure on the bottom 
is independent of the shape of the vessel, and depends only on the 
depth of the liquid and the area of the bottom. If, f. i., two ves- 
sels filled with water have equal height and bottom, and one has 
the shape of straight cylinder, the other that of a cone, the pres- 



MECHANICS. 137 

sure on the bottom is equal, although the cylinder contains three 
times as much water as the cone-shaped vessel. 

ARCHIMEDES' PRINCIPLE. 

If a substance is immersed in water, or any other liquid, it dis- 
places its own volume of water. At the same time the apparent 
weight of the body in the liquid is less than it§ true weight in 
air. This is generally spoken of as a "loss of weight." This 
"loss of weight'* is equal to the weight of the displaced fluid, a 
truth discovered by Archimedes. A cubic foot of stone weighs 
about 169 lbs., a cubic foot of water 62.5. If the stone is sus- 
pended in water, it weighs only 106.5 lbs., or 169 — 62.5, its weight 
in air less the weight of one cubic foot of water. 

If a body floats in a liquid it sinks until the displaced liquid 
weighs as much as the floating body. 

BREWERY HYDRAULICS. 

. With respect to the occurrence of hydraulic force in the brew- 
ery a few propositions may be laid down to indicate the principles 
to be considered. The calculations are, in most cases, too com- 
plicated for the brewer to perform in the course of his work, 
and may be left to the architect, engineer, tank manufacturer, 
coppersmith, refrigerator man and others who supply vessels and 
pipes. 

The "normal pressure" on the "base of a vessel" filled with 
water is equal to the weight of a cylinder of water whose base 
is the base of the vessel, and whose height is the depth of water. 
This applies to other liquids as well. 

The "normal pressure" on the "interior surface" of a vessel 
filled with water is greater than the weight of the water, for the 
w^ght acts only vertically, while the normal pressures are ex- 
erted in all directions. 

If an orifice is opened in the bottom or side of a vessel, the 
"theoretical velocity" of flow at the orifice is the same as that ac- 
quired by a body falling freely in a vacuum through a height 
equal to the head of water on the orifice. This theoretical 
velocity is found in feet per second by multiplying the square root 
of the head or vertical depth in feet by the constant number 8.03, 
or multiplying the head itself in feet by 64.4 and taking the square 
root of the product. In practice, the figures 8 and 64 arc near 
enou^gh. 



138 MECHANICS. 

The "theoretical" as well as the "actual discharge," or the 
tity in cubic feet flowing out per second, is equal to the product of 
the velocity (theoretical or actual, respectively) in feet per second, 
and the area of the opening in square feet 

These theoretical laws apply to all fluids, whaterer tlidr tpf 
cific gravity. 

In flowing out*through an orifice, the jet of water is contracted, 
forming the so-called "contracted vein." Hence, in calculating, 
velocity and discharge hy the above rule, the result must be 
multiplied by the "coeflicient of discharge," representing this con- 
traction, which has been determined in many cases approximately 
by experiment. In emptjring a tank, the head decreases as the 
level of the liquid falls. The form of the orifice also should be 
considered, a "standard orifice," whose edges are straight, causing 
a greater contraction of the jet and reducing the theoretic out- 
flow. For this reason rotmded edges are often used. 

TIME OF DISCHARGE OF PRISMATIC VESSEL. 

A formula for calculating the theoretic time of discharge of 
a prismatic vessel (cylindrical or square tank, etc.) through an 
orifice while the vessel receives no fresh inflow of liquid, is as 
follows : 

a ^/2g 
i is the time of discharge in seconds, H the head on the orifice 
at a given instant in feet, h the head t seconds later, A the area 
of the uniform or mean cross-section of the vessel in square feet, 
a the area of the orifice in square feet. To compute the actual 
time requires the multiplication of the result by the coefiicient of 
discharge, making the calculation much more complicated. 
Roughly, however, a standard orifice, that is, one with a straight 
edge, gives about 61 per cent, of the theoretic discharge. By the 
attachment of a tube outside, this may be increased to 82 per 
cent, such a tube creating a partial vacuum near the orifice and 
increasing the outflow. The result should therefore be multiplied 
by 0.61, or 0.82, if a pipe is attached, for a standard orifice, or by 
the coefficient of discharge for other orifices. For practical pur- 
poses in the brewery the formula is sufficient, as the standard 
edge is generally employed. 

The question will most frequently occur in the form of re- 
quiring the time it will take for a vessel to empty itself by running 



MECHANICS. 139 

out through an orifice in the side near the bottom. In that case 
the above formula can be used, h being omitted inasmuch as the 
head at the end of the period, that is, when the vessel is empty, 
is = o. The formula would then be for the time required to 
empty a vessel : 

a ^2g 
g being the constant value 32.16 for the acceleration of a freely 
falling body. 

It should be borne in mind that the velocity of the outflow 
depends on the head, not on the surface or volume of fluid. 
A tall, slender tank, therefore, will run dry quicker than a shallow 
one of equal capacity. Where a steady flow is of greater im- 
portance than great velocity, as may often be the case with beer 
to avoid foaming, a shallow vessel may be preferable. The capac- 
ity or contents of a tank in barrels and the size of outlet are 
not alone to be considered in calculating the time of discharge. 

It is also to be remembered that the above formula gfives the 
"theoretical" time. To get the "actual" time, take 61 per cent of 
the theoretical, where the discharge is free into the air, or 82 
per cent where it is through a pipe of even bore with the ori- 
fice. 

TIME FOR EMPTYING A TANK. 

The practical working formula for the time required to empty 
a tank will be : 

t = 7:=- X 0.82 

a y 2g 

Example. — The fluid in an upright cylindrical tank stands 5 feet 
high, and has 8 feet diameter. How long will it take to run off 
through a standard tap hole of 1.5 inch diameter, opening into a 
straight, horizontal pipe of suitable width? 

Solution. A —{\Y X 3.1416; // = 5: 

«= (-^)'X 0.7854; g— yl.\i^. 

2X5" 2656 X 2.237 
^ "-" "7)01227X8.02 ~ = "^5 seconds. 

Taking 82 per cent of this number for the actual as against 
the theoretical value for emptying through a pipe, gives 278.^1^ 
seconds, or 



140 HBCHAMIC8. ^ 

itimvfr.— 46 miniites 04 seoonds. 

These are values for vdodty and discharge where the fiitid 
flows out into the open air. Where the diadiarge is under water, 
the velocity and discharge are ahottt 0.D13 less. 

njOW OP FIRS. 

In a pipe the discharge is reduced from varions causes, tiie 
principal ones heing friction, contractions or sodden enlarge- 
ments, sharp curves, etc In a general way, it may he said tiiat: 

1. The loss in friction is proportional to the length of the 
pipe; 

2. It increases nearly as the square of the velocity. 

3. It decreases as the diameter of the pipe increases. 

4. It increases with the roughness of the interior sur&ce. 

5. It is independent of the pressure of the water. 

To compute the diameter of a straight, horisontal pipe of uni' 
form size for a given discharge and length, an ^proximate for- 
mula may he given, which may be used in calculating the size of 
pipe required to discharge a vessel in a certain time. 

The larger the bore of the pipe, the less the loss by friction. 

d is the required diameter; m is 0.93 where the pipe projects 
inward, 0.49 for a standard (straight edge) orifice and no inward 
projecting pipe, and o for a perfect rounded orifice and no pro- 
jecting pipe; / is the friction factor for which a rough mean 
value often used is 0.02 ; / is the length of the pipe in feet ; q is 
the discharge from the vessel in cubic feet per second; h is the 
head of liquid in the vessel to be discharged, in feet. 

Practical working formulas are g^ven in connection with the 
next following table. 

This table gives the head of fluid consumed by friction in pipes 
one yard long and from i — ^ inches in diameter ; it thus indicates 
the head of water required to produce a given flow per minute. 
Various rules enable us to use this table for the purpose of cal- 
culating lengths and diameters of pipes, discharge in gallons, 
and head in feet for given quantities. 



BEAD OF WATER AND FLOW OF PIPES. 



1^- 



I »1 I i I 8t 



OU38B 

o!:>i67a 






14^ MECHANICS. ^ 

To Hud the head of Hmd for a given diameter and length of 
pipe and discharge in gallons per minute: Find, in above table, 
head for length of one yard opposite discharge in gallons ; multi- 
ply by pven length in yards. • 

Example, — Find head necessary to deliver lOO gallons per min- 
ute by a pipe 3 in. diameter and* 200 yards long. 

Solution. — 0.169 X 200 = 33.8 feet head. 

To find the diameter of a pipe for a given head, length of pipe, 
and discharge, divide head in feet by length of pipe in yards and 
find in the table opposite the figure for the discharge, the ntunber 
nearest the quotient; take the diameter from the head of the 
column in which such number stands. 

Example. — What diameter should a pipe have to deliver lOO 
gallons a minute through a pipe 200 yards long under a head 
of 34 feet? 

Solution. — 34:200 = 0.17; 
number nearest this quotient opposite 100 gallons discharge is 
0.169; diameter at head of column in which this number stands is 
3, which is the required diameter. 

To find the discharge in gallons for a given head, length of 
pipe and diameter of same: Divide head of fluid in feet by length 
in yards; find the nearest number in the table under the given 
diameter and read off the number of gallons in the first column 
of the table. 

Example. — How many gallons of water will a 3-inch pipe of 
200 yards under a head of 34 feet deliver per minute ? 

Solution. — 34 : 200 = 0.17. 
nearest number under diameter 3 inches is 0.169; corresponding 
numl)er in first colunm. 100, \\ hicli is the required number of gallons. 

To find the length of pipe for a gitfcn head, discharge, and 
diameter of pipe, divide the given head by the head for one yard 
as given in the table for the given diameter and discharge; the 
quotient is the required length. 

Example. — How long should a 3-inch pipe be to deliver 100 
gallons a minute under a head of 34 feet? 

Solution. — 34 : 0.169 = ^01, 
which is the required length. 

APPR0XIM.\TE FLOW OF PIPES. 

A simple way to calculate the approximate discharge of a pipe 
is by means of Prony's formula. MuU\p\y v\\e Vv^^a^ \tv \w<lV^^ 



MECHANICS. 



143 



by the diameter of the pipe in inches, and divide by the length 

hXd 
of the pipe in inches g " Then find the number nearest the 

quotient thus obtained in the first column of the subjoined table, 
and the required discharge will appear in gallons per minute 
opposite this figure under the diameter of the pipe. 

APPROXIMATE FLOW OF PIPES (pRONY's FORMULA). 





Velocity In feet 
per second. 






Diameter of the IM|>e, in Inches. 


6 




Hxd 

L 


1 


1H 


2 


2'/i 


3 


3H 


4 


6 








Gallons Disci 


barged 


l»er Mi 


nute. 






O.OOOU&MOS 


0.025 


0.0611 


0.1150 


0.2045 0.3196 


0.4602 


0.826 


0.818 


1.278 


1.841 


0.00006137 


0.06 


0.1022 


0.2301 


0.4091 0.6892 


0.9004 


1.252 


1.686 


2.566 


8.682 


0.00000108 


0.075 


0.1534 


0.3460 


0.6IS6 0.9588 


1.381 


1.878 


2.464 


3.834 


6.523 


0.0001341 


aioo 


0.2045 


0.4602 


0.8182 1.278 


1.841 


2.604 


3.278 


6.113 


7.388 


0.0001886 


0125 


0.2556 


0.5750 


1.023 1.598 


2.301 


3.130 


4.090 


6.300 


9.206 


0.00023M 


0.15 


0.3057 


0.6900 


1.227 


1.917 


2.761 


3.756 


4.906 


7.668 


11.06 


0.0009016 


0.175 


0.3578 


0.8053 


1.432 


2.237 


3.221 


4.882 


6.728 


8.947 


12.81 


0.C0Q0702 


0.2 


0.4090 


0.9204 


1.636 2.567 


3.682 


6.006 


6 646 


10.23 


14.73 


0.C004452 


0225 


0.4601 


1.085 


1.841 1 2.876 


4.142 


5.684 


7.863 


11 60 


16.67 


0.0006006 


0.25 


0.5M2 


1.150 


2.045 


3.196 


4.602 


6.260 


8.160 


12.78 


18.41 


0.0006M0 


0.:75 


0.5624 


1.2(V'> 


2.250 


3.515 


5 06: 


6 886 


9.000 


14.06 


20.26 


o.oooroeo 


0.3 


0.6135 


1.881 


2.454 


8.836 


5. 52 J 


7.612 


9.819 


16.34 


22.00 


0.0008067 


0.3^5 


O-OW** 


1.496 


2.659 


4.1M 


5.962 


8.138 


10.&4 


16.62 


28 98 


0.0000154 


0.35 


0.7157 


1.611 


2.864 J 


4.474 


6.443 


8.764 


11.46 


17.89 


2S.77 


0.0010286 


0.375 


0.7669 


1.726 


3.068 


4.794 


6.903 


9.890 


12.27 


19.17 


27.61 


0.0011480 


0.4 


0.8180 


1.841 


3.273 I 5.113 


7.363 


10.02 


13.09 


20.45 


20.46 


0.001874 


0.425 


0.8601 


1.966 


3.477 


5.433 


7.823 '10.64 


18.91 


21.78 


81.29 


0.001406 


0.45 


0.9302 


2.071 


3.682 


5.757 


8.2ft4 11.27 


14.78 


28.01 


88.18 


0.001M5 


0.473 


0.9713 


2.186 


3.886 


6.077 


8.744 111.89 


15.55 


24.29 


84.97 


0.001600 


0.5 


l.OK^ 


2.301 


4.091 


6.392 


9.204 12.62 


16.87 


25.57 


86.82 


o.ooe 


0.55 


1.125 


2.531 


4.500 1 7.031 


10.12 


13.77 


18.00 


28.12 


40.50 


O.O0S88 


O.fl 


1.227 


2.761 


4.909 


7.670 


11.04 


15.02 


19.64 


80.68 


44.18 


0.000603 


0.65 


1.329 


2.991 


5.818 


8.30W 


11.96 


16.28 


21.27 


38.28 


47.86 


O.OOS079 


0.7 


1.431 


3.221 


5.727 


8.948 


12.88 


17.58 


22.91 


85.79 


51.54 


0.008490 


0.75 


1.533 


3.450 


6.136 1 0.588 


13.81 


18.78 


24.64 


88.34 


56.28 


0.008926 


08 


1.636 


3.682 


6.544 ,10.23 


14.73 '20.03 


26.18 


40.90 


58.90 


0.004888 


O.Kt 


1.738 


3.612 


6.954 10.86 


15.65 21.29 


27.82 


43.46 


62.60 


0.004876 


0.9 


l.Wl 


4.142 


7.363 11.51 


16.57 22. .53 


29.46 


46.02 


«J.27 


0.006088 


1.0 


2.045 


4.602 


8.182 12.78 


18.41 ,25.04 


82.73 


61.13 


73.63 


0.00648 


1.05 


2.147 


4.832 


8.591 13.42 


19.33 126.29 


84.87 


53.69 


77.31 


0.00706 


1.1 


2.24i» 


5.062 


9.000 il4.06 


20.25 27.54 


86.00 


56.24 


80.99 


0.007091 


1.15 


2.351 


5.292 


9.4(»9 ,14.70 


21.15 28.80 


37.64 


58.80 


84.67 


0.006838 


1.2 


' 2.454 


5.522 


9.818 1I5.34 


22.09 30.05 


30.28 


61.36 


88.86 


0.009 


1.25 


2.55(5 


5.753 


10.23 ,15.96 


23.01 131.30 


40.91 


63.91 


92.04 



UPWARD OR DOWNWARD FLOW OF PIPES. 

The formulas given are for horizontal pipes or hose. Where 

there is a difference in height between iht ^ovciV. ol «wVrs ^V ^^ 

pipe and the point of discharge, the iotttv\^«L xtrMitv* >icA. ^asci^, 



144 MECHANICS. 

bnt the value of the head will be different The head for a hoHr 
zontal pipe is the height of the anr&oe of the liquid above the 
pcnnt of entry into the pipe, which point is on a level with the 
point of discharge. 

Where the pipe falls or rises from the point of entry to the 
point of discharge or nozzle the head on. the fluid is different 
The head is always equal to the vertical difference between the 
surface of the fluid and the point of dischaive. Where a pipe 
falls, after leaving the pCMnt of entry, the head will increase; 
where it rises, the head will diminish. 

Thus, where a fluid is run from a tank on one floor to a ves- 
sel on a floor below, the total head is the difference in altitude 
between the stirface of the fluid in the upper tank and the point 
of discharge ii\ the lower, so that the head is largely increased 
over that of an horizontal pipe or hose. Where, on the other 
hand, the fluid is discharged at a point higher than the point of 
entry into the pipe, the head will be diminished as against that 
of an horizontal pipe. 

Example i. — What will be the discharge of a 3-inch pipe 
carrying a fluid from a tank in which it stands 8 feet high, and 
being emptied into a vessel 8 feet high, standing on a floor 20 
feet below the first tank, both tanks standing on the respective 
floors without feet or other supports' raising them above the level 
floors. The first tank stands at one end of the floor, the sec- 
ond at the opposite end of the one below, giving the pipe a 
length of 210 feet. The fluid in the si'pply tank is kept at a 
uniform height by a constant inflow of fresh fluid. 

Solution. — Assuming the water to be delivered at the tc^ of 
the lower vessel, the head of the fluid will be the height of the 
upper tank (8 ft.) plus difference in altitude of floors, .^ess height 
of lower vessel (20 — 8 ft.). 

8 + 20 — 8 = 20 ft. 

Reduce length of pipe in feet to yards: 210:3 = 70- Inserting 
these values according to above rule for finding the discharge in 
gallons for a given head, length of pipe and diameter, gives 
20:70 = 0.29: nearest number in table under diameter 3 inches 
0.286; corresponding number in first column 130. 

Answer. — Required discharge in gallons per minute = 130. 

The capacity of the tank to be filled being known, this affords 
a simple means of computing the time that will be required to 
W it from the supply tank. 



I 

I 



MECHANICS. 145 

RULES FOR LAYING PfPES OR HOSK. 

The shorter the pipe, the greater the discharge; hence unnec- 
essary length of pipe is to be avoided where time is of any 
moment 

Angles and curves are to be avoided for the same reason, as 
they materially interfere with the flow of fluid through pipes. 
Hence the hose, where such is used, should be of just the requi- 
site length to avoid a waste of time or pressure. In the case 
of wort or beer this is all the more important since the viscosity 
of the material augments the friction in the pipe. 

Sharp angles are to be avoided entirely in pipes and hose, as 
well as contractions and enlargements- of bore. Where curves 
or elbows cannot be avoided they should be well rounded and 
of large radius. In that case they offer so little resistance to the 
fluid that no account need be taken of them in computing time 
of discharge. By radius is meant the radius of the arc formed 
by the axis or central line of the bend. This should not be less 
than five times the diameter of the pipe. 

Where the respective values can be ascertained, the following 
formulae can be used : 

/ == value given in table, next below, for each diameter. 

h 

h = height of column of water in feet — ^ p 

/ = pessurc in lbs per square inch. 

V = velocity in feet per second. 

/ = lertgth- of pipe in feet. 

Q = number of cubic feet discharged per minute. 

G = number of gallons discharged per minute. 

/ 
ar rr "T =n co-efficient of inclination. 



I To find G; given d, ?i, I 



G=^X7-5 
Vx 

To find Q/ given d, /t. i 

t 

To find ify given /, h, Q 

^ ^= ^ V.^, find value for d opposvle t \tv \aXA«^ 



146 



MECHANICS. 



To find h; given /, Q^ d 



"-'-{hr 



To find // given /. (>, ^ 



f= r4-. 



(^) 



To find v; given C» ^ 



_ 10 (? 
rf"ir 



To find IV given /, d, h 



V = 41.6 



yAi2 d 



To fin'i x; given (>, c^, / 



DISCHABGR OF WATKB IN PU*K8. 



Dlam. 



Ft. 



t 

Tub. 

No. 



I 



11 



Diam. i Tub. ', Diam. 

' No. , 



Id. 




Ft. 


In 


1 


4.71 


' 


9 


1.25, 


8.48 




10 


1.5 i 


13.0S 




11 


1.75 


19.15 






t 


28.00 




1 


2.5; 


46.67 




2 


3 ' 


Tt.h 


1 


3 


3.5 


106.14 




4 


4 


151.02 




5 


4.5 : 


194. H4 




6 


5 


263.87 




7 


6 


4in.!V4 




8 


< 


6J2.3e 




9 


8 


854.99 




10 



!'Ft. In. 
1147.6 1 11 



1493.5h 2 

' 2366 ! 2 

2876.7 2 

3I'3.3 2 

; 4115.9 2 

48?6 9, 2 

I 5638.5. 2 

6-93 1: 2 

I 7453 ' 2 

8449 2 

95<4 2 

10722 3 



1 
2 
3 
4 

5 
6 
7 

8 

9 

10 

11 



t 

Tub. 

No. 



Ft. 
119S3! 3 
13828- 8 
14758, 3 
16278- j 8 
m89 3 
19A9ej 3 
21390, 3 
28f«2' 3 
«K70^i 3 
17368" 3 
S9M7 
31f:34 
34228 
36725 




Diam. 



In 

1 

2 

3 
4 

5 
6 
7 

8 

9 
10 
11 

3 
6 



5 
5 



3»329i 4 
42040! 5 
44863 
47794 
5083^ 5 
539951 6 
57265, 
60648'- 7 
641561, 7 
6778i 8 
715261 > 8 
7h3ft2 9 
877301. ft 
1012071 10 



In. 
9 

3 
6 
9 



6 6 



t 

Tub. 

Kg. 



1156M 
18170S 
148791 
167189 
186786 
207754 
263781 
306437 



126481 
49f276 

I 572508 
655369 
:4F0C'8 



THE MECHANICS OF GASES. 

Elastic Force of Gases. — Gases are in the highest degree elastic. 

The volume of a gas depends upon the pressure exerted upon it. 

If the pressure is increased two, three or four times, the volume 

decreases at the same rate, that is, the gas that under a certain 

pressure occupies one cubic foot will, when the pressure in- 

creases lour times, occupy one-fourth of one cubic foot. As 

soon as the pressure is released the gas vi\\\ Teswcvt vVv^ oxl^tial 

ya/ume. 



MECHANICS. 



147 



Again, a volume of air, or another gas, which, under ordinary 
circumstances, fills one cubic foot, can be made to expand to any 
volume by the release of the pressure upon it. 

PUMPS, 

On these principles is based the construction of the "air-pump," 
which h an instrument for removing a gag from a closed vessel. 




-pump consists essentially of a metallic cylinder, in which 
1 tightly -fining piston. The bottom of the cylinder wvro.- 
.viih file vessel to be exhausted, m»4 \\4a a, ■s'!\sc c(%«i- 
iog upwBrd A siinilar valve is fitted Vo \,V\t ?\«.oti. HI't*:^ "^Is 



148 MECHANICS. 

piston 18 raised from the bottom of the cylinder, the air ia the 
vessel to be exhausted expands and fills the ▼acnom formed un- 
der the piston. When the piston descends, the valve in the bot- 
tom of the cylinder doses, and the air in the cylinder escapes 
through the valve in the piston. In this manner a cylinder full 
of air is removed at every stroke of the pnmpt. 

The "condensing pump" is an instrument similar to the air- 
pump, but which is used for compressing a gas into a closed 
vesseL 

The "lift pump*' or "suction pump" raises water with the hdp 
of atmospheric pressure. It consists of a cylinder, piston, two 
valves and a suction pipe. When the piston is raised the atnioa- 
pheric pressure forces the water through the suction pipe into 
the vacuum formed under the ascending piston. 

The water can theoretically be lifted only as high as the atmos- 
pheric pressure is able to lift it, that is, 34 feet. The practical 
limit by suction is, in fact, 28 feet. 

The "force pump" is used for lifting water to a higher level 
than can be done with the suction pump. Atmospheric pressure 
fills the cylinder, and steam or some other power is used to 
force the water from the cylinder through the discharge pipes. 
(See "Power.^) 

The "siphon" is a bent tube with unequal arms used to trans- 
fer liquids from one level over an elevation to a lower level. 
It is set in action by filling it with the liquid, dipping the shoner 
arm in the liquid, while the longer arm is brought to a lower 
level. When the ends are opened the flow will continue as long 
as the end of the longer arm is lower than the level of the liquid 
in the vesseL 

Atmospheric pressure keeps the siphon filled, the surplus 

weight of the column of liquid in the longer arm makes the liquid 
run out of the tube. 

THERMODYNAMICS. 

Thermodynamics treat on the relation between heat and work. 

Heat can be changed into motion, and motion into heat. The 
mechanical effect of steam is a well-known illustration of th<; 
conversion of heat into motion, and the heat produced by fric- 
tion, by hammering of metals and by condensation of gases shows 
c/ear/y that motion can be changed into heat. 
-^ siycn quantity of heat can always be changed VuVo ^ dftfewvV*. 




(From Afuej;«r-l'oiitllcls ei,y-.\ 



150 MECHANICS. 

amount of work, and a certain amount of work can prodttoe a 
corresponding quantity of heat (See also "Power.") 

The ''mechanical equivalent of heat*' is the numerical rdation 
between work units and heat units. 

A "heat unit" is the amount of heat that will raise the tempera- 
ture of one pound of water one Fahrenheit degree. It is equiva- 
lent to 778 foot-pounds , or can lift 778 pounds one foot. 

The ''heat equivalent of chemical union" has a relation to the 
fuel values of substances. When a pound of carbon bums com- 
pletely to carbonic acid, it yields heat enough to raise S,o6o lbs. 
of w^ater one centigrade degree, or 1.8 Fahrenheit degrees. 

The "steam engine" is a device for transforming heat into 
mechanical energy. The heat of the burning coal is taken up by 
the water in the boiler. When the boiling temperature is reaciied 
all additional heat changes the water into steam, giving the 
steam a tension, or pressure. 

Tiic temperature at which the water boils depends on the 
pressure resting on the water. If the pressure is four atmos- 
pheres, nearly 60 lbs. per sq. in (45 lbs. gauge), the water boils at a 
temperature of 293** F. The steam issuing from such a boiler 
has. therefore, a temperature of 293** F., and a pressure of 60 
pounds per square inch. This "live steam" enters the cylinder 
and pushes the piston ahead, causing a "stroke." If the cylinder 
has a diameter of 8 inches, the area of the piston is 50 square 
inches, and the total pressure on the piston is 50 X 60. or 3,000 
pounds, being 60 pounds per square inch. Toward the end of 
the stroke the steam in the cylinder may be cut off from the 
steam in the engine, in which case the pressure of the cut-off 
steam decreases as the steam expands. At the end of the stroke 
a valve-rod. moved by an eccentric, shifts a slide-valve into such 
a position that the expanded or exhaust steam can escape into the 
open air. while fresh, live steam is admitted from the boiler to. 
the other face of the piston, pressing it back again. 

The greater part of the heat-energy produced by the burning 
of the fuel goes to waste, the steam engine utilizing less than 
15 per cent of the heat. (See "Steam Engines.") 



ELEMENTS OF flACHINERY. 



LEVER. 



The lever is a solid body, commonly a bar, which is supposed to 
be not flexible. It has a fulcrum, or fixed axis, and at least two 
forces acting upon itself. It is employed to lift weights. 

The force which resists the motion of the lever is the load 
L. The force which wants to move the lever is called simply 
•*thc force," F. 

For general calculations the weight of the lever itself is neg- 
lected, and the lever considered a straight, not flexible line, which 
is called a mathematical lever. 

When force and load are exerted in the same direction, the lever 
is a straight lever. 

When force and load are exerted in directions at an angle with 
each other, the lever is an angle lever. 

When the fulcrum is located between the two attacking points 
of load and force, the lever is a two-armed lever. 

When the fulcrum is situated to one side of the attacking points 
of both load and force, the lever is a one-armed lever. 

All levers arc in equilibrium when load and force are in inverse 
proportion to their respective lever lengths; or, the products of 
lever lengths and respective forces must be equal. 

When the force and load act vertically upon the lever, the actual 
length of the lever arms is the length to be used in calculation. 
When, however, the direction is not vertical, it is the projection of 
the actual lever upon a line representing the lever vertical* to the 
direction of the forces that must be used for calculation. 

TWO- ARM LEVER. 

In Fig. I a f and a I are the actual lever lengths, while a f and 
a r are the lever lengths to be used for caLlcvil^lvcv^ n^vr. ^cs^^\ ^-f.- 



IS2 



ELEMENTS OP MACHINERY. 



erted bgr force and UmuL The wajs wliicli the re^eetife Itvcr 
have made are ff and It and these most he ooosidered wfioitfM 
work performed is to be ralmlated, The pro d octa of the forces 
and their projected levers most be eqnal just as in the case of 
the actual levers. 

We assume that the Jevcr lengths are drawn in foet, and tiie 
forces in lines representing pounds. 

arrfolcnnn; /^ the point where the fofce F attadcs; I = 
the point where the load L attadcs; and f, f, F, T snbseqoent 
positions of / and L 

We have in Fig. i 

and 

The power exerted by the force at f is = Fxr^ 

l^theloadat/ rzLxTa. 
In the case of a two-armed lever, the force and load have the 
same direction. . 



/W-— -^ 








Two-Ann Lever. 



One-Arm Lever. 



The force exerted against the fulcrum is the algebraic stmi of 
load and force. Algebraic sum means the values with the sign 
attached, indicating their direction, viz.: + and — . If force 
and load have the same direction^ the force exerted upon the ful- 
crum is = F + L. If the force and load have the opposite 
direction, then the pressure exerted upon the fulcrum is L — 
F, and is exerted in the direction of the larger of the two forces, 
in this case the load. 

ONE-ARM LEVER. 

In Fig. 2 we have a one-arm lever, and calling the upward 
motion "-f-" and the downward motion " — *\ we find 

LXal = FXaf 
and 

LXar-PXar 



ELEMENTS OF MACHINERY. 153 

' The: §ower. which can bjB exerted by each force at f and / re- 
spectively, at 

f = + PXQr 
and at 

The pressure exerted upon the fulcrum = L — F and negative. 

ANGLE LEVER. 

Fig'. 3 shows an angle lever. 
Again 

FXaf=zLXQl 
and 

The powers exerted at / and I, are 

FXar ' 
and 

LXar 

but not in the same direction. 

The pressure upon the fulcrum in a vertical direction is = L, 

and in an horizontal direction = F. 





Angle Lever. 



Force Diagram. 



. When the forces do not act either vertically or horizontally, then 
they must be resolved into their • vertical and horizontal com- 
ponents, or the so-called force diagram formed, as shown in 

Fig. 4. 
Force F acts in an angle, and must, therefore, be resolved. 

Draw through the point at which the force attacks (f) one hori- 
zontal and one vertical line, and complete the rectangle by mak- 
ing force / the diagonal. Then, F* is the horizontal component of 
F, and represented by the length of line a f, F' is the vertical 
component of force F and represented by line f c. 

These values are found graphically as just shown. When line 
il) represents the number of pounds of the force F, in the same 
-scale the line a/ represents the number of pounds of F^, and f c 
the number pf pounds of i^. 



154 



ELfiMBNTS OF MACHIHBKY. 



To calcolate F* and F what PwaA^kt umfit ef diJIN|ioii are 

given, remember that "^ 

fc=zPXcosw. 
further that 

F'ssF' + F* 

Having found the components it is only necessary to find the 

proper lever lengths in order to know the power exerted at / aad f 

horizontally, as well as vertically. 

We have exerted on point / the power zszfxfr horizontally. 

on point / the power =zF XT^ vertically. 

on point / die power r= L* X i^ T horizontally. 

on point I die power =:L' X ^ vertically. 

The pressure upon the fiUcmm is 

verticallyr=F +U 
and 

horizontally =iF' + V 




/7yff 




Calculating Force on Lever. 

The power exerted by levers in Figs. 5 and 6 can now be cal- 
culated according to the directions given when calculating the 
same for Fig. 4. We only add the pressure upon the fulcrum in 
Figs. 5 and 6. 



In Fig. 5 



In Fig. 6 



pressure = + (L' — F ) vertically. 

L" — F" horizontally. 



the pressure = — (L' + F' ) vertically. 

= L'* — F" horizontally. 

If more than two forces are exerted, we have always to con- 
sider the algebraic sum of the same, which must be = o to give 
egnilibrium. Fig. 7 shows such lever where the power exerted by 
Me forces on one side on their rcspecllve levers must be 



ELEMENTS OF MACHINERY. I55 

(-F-) . ar+ i+F) . ar+ (+F) . af = 
(+/.-) . ar + i-U) . al'+i-L) . at 

and the pressure on the fulcrum 

(- F-) + (+ F') + (+ JJ) + (+ L-) + {- L') + C- L) 

SNATCH BLOCK. 

The snatch block (Fig. 8) is used to change the direction of the 
force, and not to increase the load for a given force. The load 
and force must be the same. 

If ^ a and I a represent F and L, which are equal, then the re- 
sulting pressure (S) exerted upon the pin of the fork holding the 




pulley, and finally upon the hook to which the fork is attached, is 
to F as ihc distance connecting the two points where the rope 
touches the pulley, to (he radius of the pulley, or 

S : F = bc : r. 
S is represented ij the itae a s, which also gives the direction of 
the force 5", which is the amount of pounds o£ pressure exerted 
against the hook carrying the snatch block. 

If the ropes arc parallel, that is 10 say, the direction of force 
and load parallel, then 

b c = sr 



SINGLE LOOSE BLOCK. 

A single loose block (Fig, g) is used to increase the load which 
a certain force can lift, the lime of lifting being proportionately in- 
creased. The rope is fastened at one end to a solid hook, and 
at the other end the force is applied, the pviWc-j \^ l«t Vo tWMt 
on the rope and carries the load by a lork wWcVv ^woW <ftft ijN&t-j . 




The force exerted at Oe luak to wfIA the fope It tHttuei 
equals tbe force exerted at the odn- cad df tte rOpe. ^ 

The load S which can be lifted hr « eertiln force P Im, at^B^ ""^^ 
S:P=be:r 
M before. If the rope enda are puaDel, 

S '.P=:»r:r 
and 

WHEEL (ROPE) AND HOISTIHG DRUM. 
A wheel and boiating drum ii ■hown in Fif. la 
R = radini of wheel ; r = ndins of dnun; 

or the load which can be lifted by a certaoi force P 
R 

L = P— 





Single L. 



and the total pressure on both supports when both arc exerted 
in the same plane = .J. 

Construct force diagram s f a 1; then S ■= a s, the force exerted 
against the supports and one-half of the pressure for each bearing. 
Or _____ 

5' = L' + P: or5 = Vi.' + f. 
THE INCLINED PLANE. 

Fig. II shows an inclined plane. A t>ody L is lying on an in- 
clined plane, and a force F Is to be exerted in the direction of the 
incline lo hold L in place. Make 



then 



be 



-XL 



ELEMENTS OF UACHINERY. 



157 



F9rce vertical against plane 

S = cos wXL, 
The force is directed in horizontal direction (Fig. 12). 
Draw the force diagram, resolving L into two components, one 
vertical to the plane and the other horizontal, mawe si := P, 





Inclined Plane. 
Force in direction of plane. 



Inclined Plane. 
Force in horizontal direction. 



and si" = /' / = 5" = the vertical force of the load on the plane. 

Then S :L = ac : ab or S = — XL, 

ac 

be 

F :L = bc :baoTF = — XL, 

ha 
or F = tan w X L. 

THE WEDGE. 

In a wedge (Fig. 13) the load is exerted vertically to the taper- 
ing side of the wedge. 

F \L'=:icb :ac. 





Wedge. 

The wedge is in equilibrium when 

F = gd 
and 

S = fd 
and 

F=:sinwy,L 

S=:COSWy,L. 



Double Wedge. 



158 



ELSMEHTS qP liACQINBRY. 



A double wedge is shown in Fig: 14. L and U are the ti^^ 
loads exerted vertically to the two tapering sides of the wedge. 
Draw the force diagram through the ends of L and L\ vie: 
f and g; then 

and 

The resulting force of both = 5* mnst be = F to have an equiK- 
brium 

FiL = bd:ab 
F^^iLXsinw. 

SINCaJS WSDGB MOVING. 

When a wedge (Fig. 15) moves from a to a, then e' g is the 

way the force has made, and ee' the way the load has made. 

Make 

ab :bc = L :F 



then 



ge' :ee'=zL :F. 




1^-&i^^^:-^^^^h s 




. I 
Double Wedge Moving. 



Single Wedge Moving. 

DOUBLE WEDGE MOVING. 

When the wedge (Fig. 16) moves from a to a then 

aa = e' g. 
The way the force has made = e' ^ 
and the way the load has made = ce' + ff- Make 

ab :bd= (L + L') : F. 
then 

ge' :(ee-{-fn = {LJfL') : F, 

Again, the load is guided so that it cannot slip on the plane, and 
acts vertically. (Fig. 17.) 
Z?/aiF the force diagram for L, one component vertical to the 
taper. Force ge will be absorbed by l\ie "wed^^^, Yoxc^i ^c -v'^ 
^ absorbed by the guide of the vertical iotce. T\vt loxt^ «,e 



ELEMENTS OF MACHINERY. 



159 



whjrfi was absorbed by the wedge, by drawing the power diagram, 
gives the components he and fe. 

fe = L 
and is resisted by the sliding plane with the force = S; therefore 

S = L 
he is resisted with equal force by force F; fe = gh. 

F : Lzzzhe i zh=^bc : ac 

F = L X tan.w. 
If the wedge moves a little, under the same conditions as above, 
then the way of the load is in proportion to the way of the force, 
as the force to the load. 



£}^ /^"i; 




Single Wedge Moving. 




5 



Block and Fall. 



THE SCREW. 



The mathematical definition of a screw is the single wedge 
isliding along the surface of a cylinder. The line produced, 
therefore, on the surface of the cylinder, forms the same angle 
with the side of the cylinder everywhere. 

The actual cutting of the thread can be best followed by the 
action of the lathe. The cutting tool has the shape of the thread, 
the motion of the tool rest is in conformity with the pitch of 
the screw, and the direction in which the tool rest moves, deter- 
mines the hand of the screw. If the tool is formed square, a 
square thread is obtained ; if formed with a point, the sharp 
thread is obtained. When the tool resl movt?* Itc^tcv \\s^\.\.^\^^ 
the right hand thread is produced, and Vvct \tts^. 
Looking at the screw itself, tVie side v^\\\c:\v xv^t.'s. e^'^.V'e^^^^'^^ 



l60 ELBlCENTit (MP MACHINEKY. ^ 

the band of the thread, tf it rites to the right it is a 1i%l|t ^ 
hand thread; if to the left, it is a left hand thread* while in a not "^ 
the directions are reversed. The thread on the screw is called 
the male, and the thread in the 'not the female thread. 

There are three standard kinds of tiiread, the sqoare, the sharpy 
and the ronnded comer one. When, after one thread has been 
cut, forming one continnoos line, a second or third line is cut 
between the lines formed by the first cot, the screw is a double or 
triple one. 

Mechanically, we can consider the screw. as a wedge, having 
for the back the pitch of the screw and for the base the drcunn 
ference of the screw, and therefore^ we apply the laws governing 
the wedge receiving the force parallel to the sliding plane (verti- 
cally to the axis of the screw exerted at the circumference) and 
the load vertically to the sliding plane (parallel to the axis of 
the screw). 

If we can P the pitch of the screw, u the circumference of the 
screw, and d the diameter of the. screw, F and L the forces, we 
have to put in the formula 

the back of the wedge be =z p 

the base of the wedge a& = « 
therefore, 

F : L = ^ : n. 

In order to avoid much explanation we will hereafter call the 

way the force makes, the force way, and the way the load makes, 

the load way. 

Load way: force way = F :L. 

If the screw is turned by a pin inserted into the head of the 
screw vertically to the axis and going through the same, we have 
the case of the wheel and drum. 

Calling R the distance from the axis to the point where the 
force attacks, the force required there = F to lift the load is 

FXR-FXr, 
when r is the radius of the screw. And 

r 
F = F— . 
R 
We had 



I ELEUENTS OF HACHIHUtY. 



rolution, the force waj is = jR v, 



It the screw made one 
and the load way is ^= p. 

BLOCK AND FALL. 

Neglecting the stiffness o£ the rope, we can easily study 
the action of the block and fall. We know that each single Mock 
must be in equilibrium, and that the tension in the same rope 
must be the same a 



£^ 






















"1 


r\ 
























^ 










Combination ol !ilngle Bloc 



COUMON BLOCK AND FALL. 

In Fig. i8, A is the block and B the fall, and one condnnons 
rope goes over ail pulleys. The number of pulleys in the block 
s= the number of pulleys in the fall = «; then 



Since we have « pulleys il is evident that the load bangs on 
9n ropes, which have all the same tension, as explained before; 
therefore, the tension in one 



The arrangement of the pulleys might be as \t\ ^'1%. V), -mVvOiv 
is preferable when hng pieces are to be \\Uc4, as \ii«^ twi "a-^Ai 
be balanced. The upper pulleys are pVvtAed m a. \«aai twSw* 



\., 



•V;^ 



IM BLEicBiiTS or uAcnmax. 

on poats or walla, while the lower pnllqrs are pivoti 
beam provided with boola to receive the load. 

COMBlHATiaM OF SOKLX BLOCKS. 

In I^g. 20 the ends of the mpa of each single block uc at- 
cured lo a fixed beam at one eiul, and to the book of the noEt 
single pidley, at the other end. The rope from the last 
loose block must be passed over a snatch block. 

Fig. 31 shows a serie* of snatch blocks connected t o g c i li er. 
The ropes are fastened with one end to the load and vrith the other 




end lo the hook of the next snatch block, and the last to where 
Ihe force is exerted. Each pulley has a separate rope. 
If we have n loose pulleys attached to ropes only we find 
I 
F = — L. 

This block and fall is called the "potential." 

The load acts first on the loose pulley A, and since each p*rt 
of the rope has an equal tension, the tension in each = % L. 
The loose pulley B has to carry only as much as rope 
I =^''A L. therefore, each rope e and d has lo carry only ■= hi L. 
The pulley C then carries only as much as rope d = ^ L, and, 
therefore, the ropes c and / only one-half of this each ^= % L, 
and the force against the hook, carrj-ing the snatch block, must 
be = -' X H i. = M t. 

The i-alues 2. 4. 8, are e\-idertly potentials of ?, whence the 
name of the block and fall. Wc can Wetrforc tiri\e \V,t 
ff/r is the aumbcT of the loose pnlleja 



ELEMENTS OF MACHINERY. 



163 



9 

Negative forces are F and L, and their sum = — L. 

8 

Positive forces are the tensions in the ropes. 

The force exerted upon the hook of the snatch block was = % L', 

9 

and the sum of all these positive forces is again = — L. 

8 
In Fig. 21 each rope carries one-quarter of the load, and its 
tension is therefore = M L. The force against the hook is 
= F -}- L, and if we call n the number of loose pulleys, then 

J 

F=: L. 

Fig. 22 shows another arrangement where each pulley has two 
hooks, with the exception of the last, the snatch block. The ten- 
sion in each rope must be the same; hence, the tensions a = & 
r= c = d = R Then the tensions e, f, g, must be each z= 3 P, 
because the tension e must be equal tensions 6 + ^ + ^^ = 3^' 
The tensions h, i, k must each be = p F, because 

h = e + f + g = 3X3F = 9F. 

The load is carried by h, i, k, therefore 

h + i + kz=sX9F = 2rF, 
then 

J 
F = ^L, 
27 
or since 27 is the third power of j, 

J 
F^-U 

n zzi 2\xi this case. 

Against the hook of the fast pulley D is exerted a force = a 
•\- h •— 2F, and upon pulley ^' = d + r = 2 F, 

pulley f z= g + f = 6 F. 
pulley c' = i -^ k = 18 F. 

The wlwie beam has to carry 

i^ (^ + ^ + 6 + 18) = 28 F =1- -V ^^ 



164 



ELEMENTS OF MACHINERY. 



Fig. 23 shows the reverse arrangement Again we hare 

being the tensions in the same rope; and for the same reasons 

g = A=;=f= pF, 

The load is carried by the ropes b, c, t, f, k, i, m, which give 
F{i + i + S + S + 9 + 9 + ^ + ^)=^9oP: 
therefore, 

P^^L^ L 

So ja + l — / 

(we have n pullejrs with double hooks). 

The fixed hook has to stand a pressure equal to the tension of 
the ropes k,l,mz=k + l + m^3X^XP = 8TP = L + P. 

DIFFERENTIAL DRUM. 
The differential drum (Fig. 24) works just like a single drum 

of the radius = ; if we call R = crank radius, r = large 

2 

drum radius, r' = small drum radius. Each of the ropes a and b 
has a tension == % L; the tension in b is exerted in the same 
direction as F, while the tension in a is in the opposite direction. 
Hence, we have: 

or 

F = — . 



and if two cranks are used 

F = 



7^ 



The differential drum has the advantage that a larger load can 
he lifted with it than with a single drum. 

The radius of the crank being a fixed length, given by the 
most convenient length for the man operating the crank, the 
drum can have only a certain minimum radius in order to be 
strong enough to carry the load. This radius, compared with r, 
the radius of the smaller one of the differential drum is 



> ELEMENTS OF MACHINERY. 165 

Jf the crank is 13' long and the anuller drum of the differential 

,4hxm equals the radius of the single drum, and the larger dmm 

of the differential is 4*, then we have, in the case of the single 

drum, a leverage of 1:12, while the differential drum has a leverage 

of I ;34, which would not have been possible with the single drum. 

r f — K 
In one case the load way is — , and in the other case = ; or. 



inserting the figures = 



■, respectively, we have 



— , or just twice as much. 
*4 

DIFFERENTIAL BLOCK AND FALL. 
The block has two chain wheels on the same shaft, both being 
keyed to it The chain is endless, and placed, as shown in Fig. 85. 
so that two complete loops are formed. In one of the loops a 
loose pulley is suspended, and the other loop is used for applying 
the force. The loose pulley carries the load. Since one part of 
the chain has no tension, the upper chain pulleys must be pr&- 
rided with sprockets or recesses to prevent the slipping of the 




r = radius of large chain pulley; r = radius of small chain 
pulley. Then 



^ r + « L r' = >A L r. 
Since the chain pulkys have eVthet sptockeX* ox ttt«««%. 



l66 ELEMENTS OP MACHINERY. V. 



nttmber of them can be ttaed instead of the radhn. If we call thfm 
n and n, respectively, we have * V, 

F = w 

If, therefore, the one chain pnlley has 22, and the other 20 
sprockets or recesses, we have 

F = = — L. 

44 »» 

When the force F is not exerted, the friction on the pivot of the 
block will generally be sufficient to hold the load in place. In 
other words, the chain need not be held, if the load remains sus- 
pended from the tackle, which is a great convenience in handling 
machinery. 

GEARS. 

If two cylindrical wheels are pressed against each others' sur- 
faces, they can transmit power to each other, but in most cases 
this friction would not be su£5cient for Ihe power required, and 
the wheels would slip. Hence, rough surfaces must be given to 
them or projections, called teeth, and recesses to engage them, in 
order to prevent slipping. The form of these so-called teeth 
must be carefully designed so that there will be no sliding fric- 
tion, but only rolling friction. The teeth are given different forms, 
but all such forms conform to the above-mentioned conditions. 

The diameter of a gear, which only is to be considered when 
selecting them, is the diameter of a circle going through about 
the middle of all the teeth, called the pitch line, while its diameter 
is called the pitch diameter. The distance from the center of one 
tooth to the center of the next tooth measured on the pitch line, 
is called pitch of the gear. 

If the outer diameter of the gear is given — which must be done 
as the gear body must be first turned to it in the lathe — and the 
number of teeth is given, the pitch diameter is obtained by sub- 
tracting from the outside diameter. 0.6 of the pitch; then divide 
the circumference of this circle by the number of the teeth, and 
the result must be the pitch. The figure 0.6 is twice the height 
of the tooth above the pitch line, while 0.4 is the distance to the 
foot of the tooth from the pitch line. Hence, Vo\;v\ W\^\\\. cvl 
00th = 0.7 of pitch. 




The diaineters of two circles (wbedi) are in direct proportion 
to their wrcumferences, and the same proportion must prevai] be- 
twewAhe numbers of the respective teeth of each wheel which 
we will call = n, antl the pitch ^ p. 

Fig. 26 represents three pairs of gears, of which two pairs act 
upon each other, while the load is attached on the periphery of 
(he pinion to the left, and the force exerted on the periphery of 
the large gear at the right hand. The load, m well ai the force, 
might be represented again as gears, or might be weights attached 
by means of rapes. 

As these gears represent simply lerers when considered at 
standstill, we must use the laws there given. If we have equili- 
brium, we must have it in any part of the system ; therefore, also, 
at (he points where the forces X and Y are located, and we have 
Fxff =XXr. 
XXR- =yxr'. 
YXR" = I-Xf^. 
By multiplying the three equations we get another equation 
which will express the relation of force and load. 

FxXxYXRXR'XR'^LXXxyXrXr'X'^. 
since X and Y appear on both sides we can cancel them, and have 
FXRXRXIi' = l'XrXr-X>^. 
The force way is again in proportion to the load way as the 
load to the force. 

To find the number of revolutions the gear will make which 
carries L on its circumference, when the revolutions of the wheel 
receiving the force are given, calling the number of teeth of each 
wheel Z, Z' Z", a, s', z' , and the number of revolutions of gear 
A = N, and of gear C or C on the same shaft = », we have 
N :n = Z'X^ :fX»- 
GEARED JACK. 

In the geared jack (Fig. 27) we have cnmk radius = R; num- 
b* of teeth of pinion r= z; number of teeth of gear wheel ■= Z' ; 
pitch radius of pinion for rack ^ T. Then 

PXRXZ- = LXrX*, 
and 

FXRXZ- 

L = , 

rX» 
the load wbkh can be lifted by the exenion ol F Qtv *&it ttM**- 



ELSUSNTS OP ICACHINBRy! 



s. 



TWO INCLINED PLANES. 
Upon two indtned planes A8 and BC of the s 
(Hg. a8) rest two wdg^ts F and L, whicb are c 
cord mmiing over a pulley at B. If the ropes a and b are paialld 
10 the respective inclined planes, we have equilibrium when 
F :L = BC :AB. 



■^^•i 



The tension i 



the cord a most be = L - 



BD 



and in cord h must be ^ i^ . 

BC 
h roust be equal, being parts of the tame rop^ 
L P 

= . or F:L = BC: AB. 

AB BC 




WORM AND WORM WHEEL. 

The load L (Fig. 39) bangs on a rope wound around dnun with 

radius r, which is kejred to the same shaft with a gear of the 

radius R. A crank with the radius R' b secured to the sa; 

shaft with the wono, the pitch of the latter is = h. Both shaft! 

are pivoted vertically to each other by the same frame 

FXiRR' - =Lkr. 

In order to have eqniUbrium in the whole system, we must 

have it at a also. We assume that the forces X are exerted there. 

Then 

FyCiR- ==Xk. 
XR = Lr. 



-' ELEMENTS OF MACHIKERY. 169 

Mnltiply the two equations. 

FXgRR'^ =LXhr; 
X being on both sides, is canceled. 

FiRR-^ =Lhr. 
SCREW.JACK WITH WORM AND WORM WHEEL. 
In order lo increase the power of nn ordinanr acrew jack > 
worm wheel is pivoted in the jack frame (Fig. 30) and receives the 
female thread corresponding to the male thread on the screw. This 
worm wheel is actuated by a worm and crank, and is prevented 
from turning hy a square at the lower end. Radius of crank = R' ; 
radius of worm gear = R; pitch of worm = A'; pitch of screw 
= A. Then 

F4RR' ir* = Lhh'. 





Considering again the equilibrium at the pcnnt of contact of worm 
and worm wheel, and calling the force there "X" we have 

XiR'T =Lh, 

FiR't =Xh'. 
Multiplying both equations and 

XF4 RR' T' = LXkW, 
X is canceled, and we have 

F4RR' "'^Lhh: 

DIFFERENTIAL SCREW. 

In order to increase the power of a screw filter press, we can 

use a screw having a coarser and a finer thread, the coarser in 

the upper press plate, and the finer in Ihe lower press -plate 

(Fig. 31). 

It is evident that since both screws move the plates in thft «v?^«- 
direction, both threads being oi tVit sa,m« Ya»4, •Ccvt ■>a.'4ii« ^%tw. 
plaie cannot compress as last aa 'tt deaccwA^ livwifc ft«.\"i-«« V'" 



i:?o 



BLBUBHTS OT HACHIHBBy. 



plate recedes slowly from it and at the ame Hat raducef tbe 
load war, and conseqnently increaiei tbe load, which force A 
can handle. We call h the pitch of coaner acrew; h' the pitch ^ 
of finer screw ; R the radiiu of crank. Then 
I- FK = i.(A — *■). 
The load in thii case ia a force directed aiainat die two preai 
plates, but in the onosite directioa to the force. To have Qqnili- 
brium for press plate C C 



for press plate D D 



Tbe force F" works in the same direction as the force at tbe 
crank, while the force F is opposed to both. Therefor^ 
F = P->rF: 




iR - 



PRINCIPLES OF VIRTUAL VELOCITY. 

If in a machine more ihan one force is applied, the force ways 
and the load ways must be considered separately. 

We allow only the smallest possible movement, and call it the 
"virtual velocity" of the force, and the product of the force and 
this virtual velocity, the "virtual moment." The product of force 
multiplied with iis proper lever is called the "moment" of the 

force load way r- 



load forte nity V 
or. force way X force = load way X load. 

If the force is not exerted in the direction the point Irai-rU. 
/Ae force way is the projection of the point way upon the force 
^/revf/oa. 



ELEUENTS OF UACHINERY. I71 

If ^ < L we have saTiiig of power, 

ItF > i, we have loss of power. 

Uy> V we have loss of time because the force makes a 

longer way. 
If F < V we have gain of time becanse the force makes a 
shorter way. 
Saving of time or force = a mechanical gain. 
Loss of time and force ^ a mechanical loss, 
id in every machine the loss must equal the gain, because 



Mo machine can save force and time at the same time. 

The virtual velocities are considered "positive" when they are 
in the direction of the force, and "negative" if in the direction 
of the load. 

We return to Fig. 23 to prove that where we lifted a load by 
one-eightieth part of the force applied, we required eighty times 
the time to do so, as if we had lifted the load directly. If the load 
is raised i" each of the ropes I and m are shortened i". Conse- 
quently k is shortened a', and the pulley C sinks 2'. coming 
3" closer to the load, since the latter was raised i". This makes 
the ropes /i and i, 3" shorter, and therefore, g, 6" longer, and the 
pulley B has sunk 6" from pulley C, or a total distance of 8* 
from the beam, and the load is now 8 + i ^= 9' closer to the pulley 
U, rope k being shortened i'. The pulley B in sinking has short- 
ened ropes e and f by 9" each ; therefore, rope d must be shortened 
18", and the pulley A sinks 18 -\- B ^^ 26'. and comes closer to 
the load by ^6 + I = 17'. This movement of the pulley A 
shortened each rope b and c by 37", and a therefore by S4'- Since, 
however, pulley A has sunk 26', the force F attached to rope a 
must have moved 5-; -j- j6 = 80'. 



LAWS OF VIRTUAL VELOCITY. 

When more than one force is exerted upon a twdy, we have 
equilibrium if the sums ( £ ) of all products of force and virtual 
velocities are ^^ o; or if the algebraic sum of the virtual moments 

" is — O. When two forces are exerted at different points of 
a. body, and act in different directions, we c%n c^i-aSi^Aw \'k». • 
both will tarn the body around a conimow c.e,vA«. T^wa ^t^vs* 

need not to be a part of the body, but can be owxivit o^ *• 




172 

We have a body JT and two forcet P and ^ exerted at ttMBointi 
^ and fi of the body in the directiona AM and NB (Fig. 33KJt,, 
we now consider the movement a very small one, we can assume 
that this movemeDt was vertical to the radios dnwn from a com- 
mon center. We, therefore, 6aA this common center by drawing 
two vertical lines to AM and ATS. Where they meet is point O, 
the common center aronnd which all points of the body mast turn. 
If point A has moved to a oa line AM, then the body K bu turned 
an angle w, and all points with it. Force P attadca in A, and tbe 
projection of the force way upon the force line P is Au, which 
gives the corrected virtual vdocity of point A ^ v. 
Fy3i 




TW'~ 



In order to get the virtual moment, we must first find the 
correct lever, \is drawing QL vertical to AP or, in this case, to 
its contioiiation, so OL is the correct lever for P = p. Therefore, 

— -I- 

Aa ~ oa' 

and since Aa ■=. OA.w, and Au = v. 

Pv = Pp.w. 
If we have more forces P it is as stated before: 

3 (Pv)= z(Pfi.w) = »: =(Prt. 
To have equilibrium, therefore, 

I (Pfi)=o, 
and consequently 

1 lPv)=o. 
For example, we apply this law to (he differential screw (Fig. 
31). Since the motion is uniform, we can take a whole turn in- 
stead of a small motion only. The force way ■= i - R; the vir- 
- taa] moment of F ii = F t R -. The press plate CC sinks the 
lieigbt A, and against the load L. Hence, rtie '(\rt«,i\ NtVwivj oV \, 
'"uat be — A, and the virtual moment = — Lh. tVt ^itw ifiaXft 



. ELEMENTS OF MACHINERY. 173 

DD sin](> h', but the load acta in the same direction u the force. 
Hence, h' = the virtual velocity of L', and Lh' the virtual moment 
-T>*£'. 

The equation of the equilibrium is 

FiR ^ = L(.h — h% 
or the same result as we had before. 

SAFETY VALVR 

A safety valve (Fig. 33) has a two-inch opening, against which 
100 pounds' pressure is exerted from the boiler. A single arm 
lever is provided 25" long oi'er all, the valve stem presses against 
the lever 2* from the fulcrum, and the weight is to be attached 
24' from the fulcrum. The valve weighs two pounds, and the 
lever is made of % by iM flat iron. 

Since, in reality, no lever is a mathematical lever, we must take 
the weight of the lever I'nlo consideration. The weight of it is 
= 0.2s X 1-5 X 25 X 0.27 = 2.53 lbs. The influence of the weight 
of the lever can be considered as a force which is negative and 
attacks the mathematical lever at the center of gravity of the 
lever, which, in this case, is one-half of its length =; 13". The 
weight of the valve, although it has but little influence, should also 
be taken in account. The valve acts negatively, and it 2" from 
the fulcrum, and the pressure against the valve from below is 
3.14 X 100 — 314 lbs. It acts also on a lever of 2" in a positive 
sense. 

Having determined all levers and forces, including their direc- 
* tions, we can now form the algebraic sum of all virtual moments, 
calling the weight we want to find = J. 

Moment of steam pressure = 314 X 2 = 628 ft. lbs. positive. 
Moment of weight of valve = 2 X 2 = 4 ft. lbs. negative. 
Moment of weight of lever ~ 2.53 X 12 = 30.3 ft- 'bs. negative. 
Moment of weiglit necessary = r X 24 ft. lbs. negative. 
Adding all moments 

(+ 628) + {- 4) + (- 30) + {- 24:r) = o. 

628 — 34 = 24*, 

X — 24.7 lbs., 

which is the weight that must be suspended «. -i.^ \\<:t^ *\<. V^- 

crarn lo prevent the valve from lifting btXo'" iw^ ■*>*- v**-'**'^^- 




ELEMENTS OF HACHIlreBT. 
RAISING BARSEL WITH ROPE AND ! 

Two men pull on one rope each, the end of each is I 
to the top of the tkids. The barrel is raifed by roltiiv (9 tm 
inclined plane (Fig. 34). The force = £ P; the weisht of At 
barrel = L; ab a the depth of the cellar, and ac the length of Ai 
sldds. 

We have the case of a body resting on a 
force exerted in the direction of the plane, and the load nrtlal 
to iL The fomiiila for this was : 

font luight of plmt 

load ttngth of flau 



', and Of = 13', and Z. = 300 lbs., then 
L ab 4X300 

P = = = 50 Ibt. 

£ ac M X ^ 





FRICTION. 

When a body lies over another and each has an absolutely per- 
fect surface, the least exertion of a force would cause one to 
slide over the other. But there is no possibility of obtaining per- j 
feet surfaces. All surfaces which we can produce are rough when 
examined under the microscope, and exhibit quite a lot of pro- 
jections and recesses which prevent the Fliding of one body over 
the other, sine: the one body must be slightly raised before its 
projections can pass the projections of the other. The case is il- 
luFtr.ited best by two small pieces of glass ground in the most 
rerhct «av against each other. If their surface was entirely wilh- 
out rireAses and they were rubbed toftcrtiei, a\\ V\vt »w ■^liM.VA be 
expelled and a perfect contact created. "BiA twAVv^ft \\Ve.' 



4 



ELEMENTS OF MACHINERY. 1 75 



V 



tW^s occurs. When, however, a little fine tallow fs rubbed over 
both, in other words, the little recesses filled with tallow and 
the plates then pressed tightly together, all the air will be ex- 
pelled, and it is extremely difficult to separate the plates by 
lifting without breaking them, when once placed together. 

We consider first two conditions of motion: Friction of a 
body starting to move, and friction of a body when in motion; 
second, sliding and rolling friction and another kind of sliding 
friction, viz. : The pivot friction. 

SLIDING FRICTION. 

The resistance offered by one body sliding over the other is 
called the "frictional resistance." The surface of the contact is 
called "frictional surface." The ratio of the force creating the 
friction, to the friction created, is the "friction cocfllicient." 

1. Frictional resistance increases with the force. 

2. Frictional resistance is independent of the frictional 
surface. 

3. Frictional resistance is reduced per square inch of 
frictional surface if the latter is increased while the pres- 
sure remains the same. 

4. Frictional resistance depends on the condition and 
nature of the frictional surfaces. Smooth and hard 
surfaces have less frictional resistance than rough and 
soft surfaces, and making the surfaces smooth by using 
lubricants as in the case of the two glass plates men- 
tioned, will reduce the frictional resistance. 

5. Frictional resistance when starting to move is 
greater than when in motion. 

6. Frictional resistance while the body is in motion 
is independent of the velocity of the moving body. 

7. Pivot frictional resistance is less than sliding fric- 
tional resistance. 

ACTION OF FRICTIONAL RESISTANCE. 

1. Frictional resistance is exerted in the plane of the 
frictional surfaces, and in opposite direction to the mov- 
ing force. 

2. Frictional resistance between Vno \icA\^"&, ^t«. tcv^h- 
ing faster fhan the other, Vie\vs \Yve ^\on?w ^tv^^ "^^^ '^'^' 

tards the motion of the iastei ont. 



i^ 








#fVt4 



ttm. 0nmti.'^ Mmwi -.'«1ih» .iLJSQ.JR.... O.ilTO.iir 

f tfMrtniin»««liML.o.4H tt.iiru.ow 

( MiMifln«i««iiMfc.<ifli ■• o.iMio.iiru.ijr ii.iM 



•i.t:£ 






^pxmxim. 






. ^ih0m 



6. lMO.JLfl.iirO <1W0 dV d.iNf i| t& .|Ki 
.# Mi.... O.iWO.tia II t) » tl.GT ... 
^.m .. O.dM.liru.JK _ 

«.4Bo.j«n.aHo iiru.ow •) « ii.iii e7j 

^ O.lBHI.OM). Ul , _ 

a.-M.flB... 



nr/ y\\ '**v^ A^ wvu 



• ff^^* • I 






191 



'i H 






f>»f' w ^l^liif Vi) ^' the, fri.-.rionaI cc<ff:c:*nt, and :he force 
/' M ^jf^ff^A m 4n anj|J« w agfainit ^he stidicg plane. Then we 
Km /A AAiiitiKrinm if 

f =-- ^. 

C01 iv 4- m JtM v 

f >f 4 V »hA f/,r^if iiikzf^m U>r P, the horizontal component being AD 
»/,/! rhA •/Tfi^*! r/ifinfir^nwit AC. 

AlJ ■■-- P cos w, 

AC ■-= P sin w. 
'( U i^fiKHf*- a(^aifi*f the plane is, therefore. 

AC :- Q — P sinw. 
(iUf AitrttUiU t»1 AC \% r4»i>otitc to that of Q), and the frictional 
»r«i«»iin/^ i« f#-(irr*#^nfrd by the proportion of the force or weight 
fAri\rA iM»'*ii thf: U»/ly v*:riically to the frictional surface which 
l« frriiiifril if> rivrr//»riie th*T friction. Therefore, 

tnflioni$t rftiiiame : m ( Q — P sin w), 
')hfi iniff tifff-Mtury to move the body m iVie dutcvKoxv ol \\v^ 



, ELEMENTS OF MACHINERY. 177 

plane prtst be equal to it 

AD = Peotw = miQ — Ptiiiw). 
''•It the angle w ^ o, or the force exerted in the directioo of the 
P 

plane, we have AD = m Q, and m = — . 
Q 

In order to determine the coefficient m it is only necessary to 
place a body of a certain material of which we want to know the 
coefficient of friction when sliding over another body of other or 
same material, in such a position that their frictlona! surface is 
horizontal, attach a. cord to the body to be moved (if a cut>e, to 
the center of the height and width) leading the cord over a pulley. 
The weight is suspended from the other end of the cord, being 
gradually added to until the body starts sliding. This weight is 

P 

= P, the load = Q, and w = — . 

Q 

Every body has a frictional angle {e). If placed in this angle 
it will not slip, while a little larger angle will allow it to do so. 
Soil or sand, if used for an embankment, will of itielf form this 
angle e when thrown on top and allowed to settie on its own 
account. 

FSICnONAL ANGLE OF A BSAlt. 

CH represents the weight of the beam, also the direction in 
which this weight, = force P, is exerted. Gravity acts vertically 
to the surface of the earth since it is directed to the center of the 
same (Fig. 36). Draw the force diagram CBHA, then CB the 
component against B, and CA the component against A. Place S 
in the center of HC. Then the frictional angle of the force against 
the wall is DBC, and against the floor GAC, the angle formed by 
the direction of the force and a vertical to the sliding plane. 

These angles must not be larger than the respective fricticnal 
angles t and «' and correspond to the coefficients m and m'. If 
we now draw the force diagram for CB and AC, constructing the 
vertical and horizontal components for each, we have AG acting 
vertically in point A to the sliding surface, and force DB acting 
in point B vertically to the sliding surface, and since the coef- 
ficients express the ratio between force and friction, we have 
CD AP 
m' = , and in = , 



179 



ELEHBinS OF M ACHINBKY. *-. 



it 1= leivtli of b 
We had 

i 
CD = m' DB = m'AF = m'—cotw, 
a 
xnd 

BE-=DF = \mmm. 
Therefore, 

f 1 

CF = DF + CD = i fM to + «' — «w w = — (v Ml w + "•' C9S «)) 





Frietignul Am>« of ■ Bmh. Frictios on locliiied PIuh. 

; i 

^f = m Cf; therefore, — co* w = — w (i *irt w + m' foj w). 
or 



divide equation bj Ct 






t — )r 



- which gives for the known cocflicients w and t»', the frictional 
angles w and w of the beain whkh is the maxinium at which it 
can be set without sliding. 

pwcnox ON INCLINED n.ANE. 

A load q rests on an inclined plane, which has an angle against 

the horizontal = ic (Fig. 37). A force P is exened to pre*-eni the 

body from sliding: the force P' is required to keep the body at rest 

ivhile force F may be so large as to pull the body up. P' is the 

force which in this ease must be exened m ovv«>''« 4"^'^<\'i^ w 

force P to counteract this pull. 



' ELEMENTS OF MACHINERY. 
Force' parallel to the plane (Fig. 38). 



179 



P = Q (sin XL -{-m cos w) = Q 



sin (w + c) 



cos e 



P* = Q (sin w — mcosw) =:Q sin (w — e). 

sin (w — e) 

P'* = Q (m cos w — sin w) =zQ , 

cos e 

Q the weight of the body; therefore, the force to be considered 
in calculating the friction is its vertical component to the plane 
= Q cos w, and the force tending to slide the weight in the direc- 
tion of the plane is the other component of Q in this direction 
= Q sin w. Wc have 

P z= m Q cos w -\- Q sin w =1 friction + sliding force of Q. 
Introducing the angle e, we know that when equilibrium is to 




v9<?^^ 







Force Parallel to Plane. Force Parallel to Base. 

Friction on Inclined Plane. 

exist, the friction must be equal to the sliding component of load 
Q. Hence, m Q cos w z^ Q sin w. But this is the condition 
when the angle is called friction angle, and = e. Hence 

m Q cos tv =z m Q cos e = Q sin e; 
and 

sin e 

m = = tan e, 

cos e 
and 

Q (sin w + fan e X cos w) = P, 
which can be written 

sin e sin w cos e + cos w sin e 

Q (sin w H cos w) = P; or, 



cos cos e 

and this expression in parenthesis is t\v^ SAXve. o\ x^c^t. ^\xwv q»V ^Osnr 
two angles == sin (w + e). Thcreiore, 



ISO BLBUENTS OF MACHINEBY. "^ ^ 

^ ^A(W + *) 

p~Q , 

ease • 

and so on for P" and P". 

P* is evidenttr the diiferance between the friction and thr 
sliding force of the body. 

Force parallel lo the base (Fig. 39). 



eotw- 


-■»<■■»» 


= 0lo»(« + .) 


MltO- 

? 


-mt»tw 


=a<«« («■-■■ 



P=Q = Qtm (w-c). 

eosw+tn stn w 
p- = Qlan(e — w). 
The above formulx are obtained as follows: Resolve force* 
P and Q into components in the direction of, and vertical to, 
the plane, the two vertical components Q cos w and P 1111 w are 
evidently the total vertical force. The friction, therefore ^= m 
(Q cos zv -\- P siti vr) . The other two components tend 10 move 
the body along the plane and are = Q sin ta and P cos w. The 
friction -f" tbe moving component of Q must be equal lo the 
moving component of P. Therefore, 

P cos w = Q siti w + m (_Q cos w + P sin w}. 

siHW + mcosw 
P = Q ^ , 

as stated above. 

To determine P' Ihe friction most be considered opposed to P" 
instead of assisting, as was the case with force P; therefore, 
p-cosu- = Qsi«v,-m{Qcosw-P sin vi) . 
P- {cos w-msinw) = Q (sin w-m cos zv). 



and for P' Ihe force must be the friction less the moving com- 
ponent of Q: or. the reverse of the value for P. P was = Ian 
(w -f e) : therefore. P" = (an (e — zu). If, as in Fig. 40, the 
force is directed at an angle to ihe inclined plane = «•', draw the 
force diagram for P and Q, then the total force against ihe 
plane is = Q cos w — P sin W and t\\e Ukuotv = m t.Ci eoi ■m 



ELEMENTS OF MACHINERY. 



l8] 



— P sin w'), and the total amount of moving forces (friction 
included), 

P cos w' = Q sin w + tn (0 cos w — P sin w'). 

{sin w-i-tn cos w) sin (w + #) 

P = Q =G . 

cos w' + m sin w* cos {w' — e) 

sinw — m cos w sin (w — e) 

P- = Q = Q . 

COS w — msinw' cos (w' + $) 

• FRICTION OP THE KEY. 

If Q is the resistance of the sides of the slot against the taper- 
ing sides of the wedge in Fig. 41, w = the one-half angle of the 

pJI 





Force at an Ancle to Plane. 
Friction on Inclined Plane. 



Friction of the Key. 
For Square Thread. 



wedge, P = power to drive the wedge, P' = the force which 
prevents the wedge slipping back, and P^ the power to draw the 
wedge out, we have 

P -=. 2Q (sin w •\' m cos w). 

sin (w + €) 

P = iQ . 

cose 
P' = 2Q {sin w — m cos w) . 
P" = 2Q (m cos w — sin w). 

FRICnON OF SCREW. 

Q the force exerted in the direction of the axis of the screw; 
h = pitch; r = mean diameter of screw; R = crank radius; 
P z=z force required to tighten the screw ; P' the force required to 
prevent the screw from backing; P" = the force required to 
loosen the screw after having been tightened. 

Square Thread. 

r{h-\- 2mr t^^ 

P=zQ ^ 

R{2r IT — m K^ 



ELEMENTS OP MACHINERY. 



P" = Q 



r(»-»«r»> 







For sharp cormrtd thread we have to use another coefficienl 
III' in the above fomiula. and this coefficient is {ouid by miiltiply- 
ing in «iih the quolient formed by the one long side of the triangle 
fonning the V thread to its height (which is the bearing surface 
of the flat thread) t= rim. It is evident that a flat thread baa 
a smaller frictional surface than the V-sbaped. >£ the side is 
longer than the height of the triangle (Fig. 42). 





.-^ 



■ found faclcr ri, we replace, in the above famiula, 

I. and then the formula is correct for the V-shaped 



If Q — load (Fig. 43) transferred to pitch line of the drr 
jear. anJ /' ihe force exerted at the pitch line of the driv 
liar Ji and 11' ilie ri'spcciivc numbtr ot itfth, «i- li.-ivc 



P = Q-\-n. 



°(z 



-). 



The friction between two gears is proportional t" tl 
of the wcTking way of each tooth and the number of t 

"'- Q 



ELEMENTS OF MACHINERY. 



183 



If thejlinion is working inside of the spur wheel, n" is nega- 
tive^, hence 

^n n ^ 

If there are more than two gears working in each other and 
their respective numbers of teeth are n, n", and m', m*, and 
Its', na", and ^ is = the force which counteracts Q without fric- 
tion (see equilibrium of gears), then, including the friction, we 
have 

/ 1 I I I ^ 

^ n' n" til' «r ^ 

FRICTION OF BEVEL GEAR. 

In addition to the letters used before we make the angle formed 
by the two axes of the two gears = w in Fig. 44. 



P=:Q + m ^ 



V- 



+-— + 



2C0SW 



.'^ 



n n n n 

Friction bettveen worm and worm wheel, — Q is the load trans- 
ferred to the pitch line of the worm wheel; r = radius of pitch 
line of worm ; R = radius of crank ; P = force necessary lo turn 
the worm; P' = force necessary to apply to the crank to allow 
the worm wheel to move back; h = pitch of worm, then 

r (JiA- 2mr ^) 

P = Q , 

R {2r TT—m h) 

r ih-\- 2mr "") 

P' = Q . 

R{2r TT+m/i) 

These formulas are correct >\hen the friction of the teeth is neg- 
lected, but we can do so, because the motion of the teeth is very 
small in comparison with the motion of the threads of the worm. 
If we want to take account of it, we must multiply the amounts 

of P and P' with the factor ( J H j . 

ROPE FRICTION. 

If a rope passes over a cylinder ^\\\c\\ caxvTvcA. Vvwxv V^n%. «^ 



184 ELEMENTS OF HACHINEKV. 

the rope rests apon a part of tbe cylinder = to the arc of the 
angle ix', expressed in parts of r. If Q ia the load, then 

P = <""' (* = basu of hyterboik logarithm = /./rfrf). 

If the rope rests on a beam shaped as shown, 

''=o('+'"™7)- 

If the rope paues over more comers (Fig. 46}, we have to add 

tbe factor (i + smnn — ): w' being the new angle; and so on 

for each comer the rope makes. Therefore, for h corners, all 
having the same angle. 



= 2(, 



:)• 



and if Ihc force is to be equal to the friction 
Q 




JOUBNAL F 

Journals of wrought or cast iron in iron bearings iubricatet 
with grease have m = 0,034 if the greasing is done continually. 
m :^ 0.07 to 0.0(1 if greased at intervals. 
For wooden journals and bearings m is about double thi 

Horisontal Journals.— A shaft has two bearings, and securet 

to the shaft is a rope wheel to which P is attached by means o 

* nv^; the dianKter of the pulley is = iR; a dram which b; 

means of a rope litts load Q is also ptovi4e4 on \^ *vi^i.-, \ 



ELEMENTS OF MACHINERY. 



l8' 



diameter is ^r. Q = the load + the weight of the shaft with 
attkchments ; r = radius of the journal; 5* = vertical force 
against the journal. 

PR=:Qr + mSr\ 
S = journal pressure, depends upon the forces, the weight of 
the shaft and attachments, and the direction of the forces. 

I*) Pf Q ^nd G (weight of shaft and attachments) are di- 
rected vertically. 

S=:P + Q + G. 

Qr + tn(Q + G)r' 

P = . 

R — mr* 

2.) Q and G are vertical, and P vertical and upwards: 

S^Q + G-^P. 

Qr + m{Q + G)r' 

P = . 

R + mr' 

3.) Q and G have the same direction, but P is directed ver- 
tically to both : 

5=V(0 + G)- + P-. 
If (Q + G) >P then, approximately, 

8=10.96 (0 + G) +o.^P,and 

Qr + o.96m{Q + G)r' 

P = , 



if 
and 



R — 0.40 tn r 



P = 



S=:Q + G, 

R 



If P acts on a crank, 5* is variable, and as a mean value S = Q 
+ G, may be taken. ' 

Journal Friction of Rope Pulley. — If we neglect the weight of 
it, which is small, and call r the radius of the pulley, and P and Q 
the forces, we have: 

I.) P and Q are parallel: 

r + mr' 



approximately, 



r — mr 



l86 ELEMENTS OF UACBINESY. 

f = (, + __). 

S = P + Q. 
3.) P and Q Ycrtiol to etch other: 

or aroroximately _ 

as P and Q can not differ nmch in unonnL Therefore, 






loumai Friclioit of Block mid FaU.—V/e have m comnion block 
and fall with n pulleya ; the ndios of each is = r, then coefSdcnt 



of friction .V = ; + - 



-— , founfl before. 
QM'ii/ — I) 



4(?(. + i^). 



n (he equation 

QM^ (M- 



M" — I 
that P must lie always smaller than (A/ — i) no maltcr liow 
many pulleys are used- This means that too large a nuniber of 
pulleys is not advisable. 

\i wc lake r" ; r = l : 6 and hi =^ 0.15. btcaujc ihcsc pulleys 
will seldom be lubricated, vre have 



il = 

T different numbers of n 



i+in~= 



1.05. 





p ~ y^Q 


0.18 Q 


f -^ %£? 


0.2Q Q 


P = ^^Q 


0.155 Q 


P - \ Q 



ELEMENTS OF UACHINERY. 187 

Bvtiotn Friclion of Uprighi Shaft— Viziua of bearing face 
^ f'; P = iatct on crank of radius R. The loss of power 
= static moment = %mQ r (friction loss). 

If the face of the shaft is not flat, but rounded, the friction is 
increased, and if it is a half globe it is 1= K in " Q r'. 

ROLLING FRICTION. 

1. The frictional resistance is proportional to the vertical 
force against the bearing. 

2. The frictional resistance is inversely proportional to the 
radius of the rolling cylinder, 

V =■ coefficient of rolling friction. For rollers of lignum vilae, 
rolling on oak planks, v = 0,046; for rollers of elm wood, 
rolling on oak planks, v = 0,08 ; for cast-iron on rails, v = 0.0$, 



n y47 




WF) 




This rolling friction (Fig. 47) must be considered as a stumb- 
ling of the roller. The roughness of the rolling surface causes 
the roller 10 stop and 10 climb the projection, and since the point 
of contact stands still, the roller will turn around this fulcrum, 
and the moment of this motion =^ v Q (v to be taken in the 

Q 

same unit as r) ; P = n — . 

Double Rolling Friclion. — A load is moved by means of two 
free rnllers (Fig, 48) supporting the load either d'fcctly or by 
means of an intervening board. The force is exerted at, and in 
the direction of, the board, and the respective friction coefficients 






Then 



v + v- 



The rolling frictiona\ resistance is used w 



BLBKBNTS OP ICACBIHERY. 



Friction Wh€€U.—tm crlindcn are forced agaiiut eadi'^dwr 
t^ the force ^ K. Tbc force P which can be tmumitted frdn 



one to the other i* = 






-P. 



These fricticHi whecli ghonld not be used except where a ■mall 
force only is to be transmitted, but smooth action is required, ai 
the friction in the journals is consideraUe. 

Comkai FricHon iVIieeU.—la order to reduce the jotimal fric- 
tion, and still to transfer considerable power from one whed 
to the other, the face of the one wheel is v-shaped, and the other 
has a recess to suit (Fig. 49). K = pressure with which the 
axes are pressed together ; tp = Mtoi the angle of the wedg^ or 






z tore 



to be transmitted. P =:- 



If an^Je «> 



is made small, the sine will decrease, and therefore, P increase in 
proportion. 

FRICTION OF BELTS ON PULLEYS. 

The difference of the tensions of the upper and lower bdt 
^ S" — S' (Fig. 50) must be not more than the friction of the 
belt on the small pulley. Its frictional surface is there = arc 




Friction ol BeJis and Patlcfs. 

w (expressed in part of r) ; /C = the tension between the 

es. and 5" + y = K. 



s-~s- = 



K~- 



Thc journal fricli 

gears, bul much le; 

Open belts give li 



"4- I 



1 in case of belts is a Hllle greater than with 
than with friction wheels. 
belt friction ihan crossed ones. If r and r' 
the respective radii of the two pulleys, and d =^ distar.ce 
ecn the centers of their shafts, then for open l«lts: 
w r"— r- 
coi — = , 



-^ ELEMENTS OF MACHINERY. 189 

and M crossed belts 

cos — = 

2 d 

If the belt pulleys are not in the same plane (Fig. 51), then 
find point L, the crossing point in the plane of the centers of both 
pulleys, center lines representing planes. AB represents, in the 
elevation, the intersecting line of these two planes. Now select two 
points B and E of AB, but so that the belts are supported, and 
draw tangents from them : AGy IE and AF, HE. These repre- 
sent the belt lines in the elevation. 

m = 0.30 for hemp rope on wood pulleys, and for new belts. 

m =r 0.4T for ordinary greasy belts on wood pulleys. 

tn = 0.38 for moist belts on turned cast-iron pulleys. 

fn = o.i2 for greased belts on turned cast-iron pulleys. 

FRICTION ROLLER BEARIN& 

If the journal A rests, instead of on a solid bearing, on the 
peripheries of two rollers, as shown in Fig. 52, both of which 
have a radius = R and a journal radius of r, and are placed at 
the distance d from center to center, then S = journal pressure 

mSr' r 

at A and moment of friction = . 

R 
If d is small as compared with R -f r', then the pressure upon 
the journals of each roller = % 5", or the friction = % m 5", 
and the force necessary to overcome this at the peripheries of 

mSr 
the rollers = . Therefore, both rollers offer a resistance 

2R 

mS r mSr 

of , and the moment of friction = r, 

R R 

This moment of friction for a solid bearing is =r m 5" r', and it 
is evident that the additional factor in the equation for the roller 
r 

bearing = , makes the friction much less. 

2R 

WAGONS. 

The load Q is to be moved upon the level ground. R = ^t^Avm^ 
of the wheels; r = radius of the axles, atvd m ^tv^*u SJcv^ ^<^t^- 
cients of the journal, and rolling iriction. TVvccv 



ELBHENTS OF MACHINUtY. 



The 
This 

If we 



talue of Q must, of conrae, include the weight of tbc 

formula shows that. Other conditions bdng equal, tha 
be exerted will be smaller when the axles are uaUer 
wheels are larger. 

combine the two frictions m and o into one £tctot V 
its valves as fellows: 

ver>- good macadam, dry and smooth Jt ^^ A 

hard macadam with light ruts Jt ^ Jt 

bad macadam with 3.4" ruts ^ to ^ 

good granite pavement Jg ^ il» 

medium granite pavement and moist dirt ^'t t» ^ 

solid natural ground ,'7 to Jt 

solid natural ground with %" gravel ,'„ to iV 

smooth plank road >, to ,'( 

Railroad tracks .' ,|n '" tin 




Tlic smaller values 
wheels, and the larger 



1 going down an i 
firalile speed, a piece of wood is forced again 
wheel, llie force exerted — Q. The wheel will 
slide along the ground. Therefore, the 101a 

— Ill') Q: m = friction coefficient between 1; 

— force exerted against the rim of the wheel 
larger than the force which is exerted on the 
//jc haIc iriciion ive have the value = 111 Q. 



■line 


with w 


iide- 


Ihc 


; rim of 


the 
but 


friction = 


(m 


>rb 


and rim 


; K 


III 


K mus 


t he 


■un. 


Negiec 


IlDK 


and 


the fric 


tion 



ELEMENTS OF MACHINERY. 



191 



TMe Band Brake.— A lever pivoted at C (Fig. 53) and attacked 
hy force P at A, receives the two ends of an iron band at D and 
B. The band circles a pulley which is to be prevented from turn- 
ing, w = arc of wheel touched by the band, expressed in parts 
of r; the lever arms are a = CB and b = AC, Then the frictional 

b (^^^ — /) 

moment is = P . 

a 

ROPE STIFFNESS. 

The stiffness of a rope is the resistance caused by the friction 
between the strands against each other, when the rope is bent. 
This friction is approximately proportional to the tension Q, 
the square of the diameter = d of the rope, and inversely propor- 
tional to the diameter of the radius around which it is bent, 
r = this radius, and 5" = rope stiffness. 

QcT 
S = x . 



X = coefficient of rope stiffness. 
If we express d and r in inches, then x = %. 

ROPE STIFFNESS IN THE CASE OF BLOCK AND FALL. 

A common block and fall has n pulleys of r = radius and 
r' =z journal radius, d = diameter of rope. 



m=(i + 



2mr 



+ ). 



5r 



P = 



"0 m" (m — /) 



If we assume that d r= i^ and r =: S^ the following table will 
give the efficiency of blocks and falls with different numbers of 
pulleys superseding the table given before which did not allow 
for the rope stiffness: 

n = 2 P = 0.615 Q P>%Q. 

n = 4 P = o.35 Q P>^^Q. 

n = 6 P = 0.26 Q P>V4.Q. 

n — 8 P = 0.22 Q P > % Q. 



POWER. 



ELEMENTARY STANDARDS AKD MEASURES POR 
STEAM ENGINES AND BOILERS. 

EvaforaUve eMciency of m boiler is the qnotient fonned Iqr 
dividing that part of the total beat of one pound of fuel, whkh u 
used to beat and to evaporate one poond of water, by the total 
beat of the ftiel itself. 

The asual measure for Btnler Capacity is H.-P., read "borse- 
power," which is, strictly speaking, inaccurate, becattse H.-P. is a 
measure of power only. When the capacity of a boiler is spoken 
of. this H.-P. roust be called Boiler HoTse-fov-'er, and such a 
H.-P. is the capacity of a boiler to heat 30 pounds of water from 
too* to 913* F., and to evaporate jo pounds of water of lOo" F. 
per hour to steam at 70 pounds pressure per square inch, or 34.5 
pounds of water evaporated from and at 213° F. 

Work consists of the sustained exertion of pressure through 
space. The unit of work is one £oot-pound, or the pressure of 
one pound sustained through a space of one foot. 

Horse-power (H.-P.) is the measure of rale at which work i> 
performed. 

1.980.000 fool-poiinds per hour = one H.-P. 
33,000 foot-pounds per minute = one H.-P. 
550 foot-pounds per second = one H.>P. 
Duly Work is the quotient obtained by dividing the number of 
foot-pounds per hour by the amount of coal used per hour per 
horse-power. If, for instance, 2.5 pounds of coal are used per 
hour per horse-power, the duty worfc is 792.000 foot-pounds. 
UEASL-KES OF fuessvre and weight. 
One pound per square inch = 2,3og feet of water at 62° 

^= 3.0416 inches of mercury at 63*. 
One atmosphere ^= J4.7 poonds per sc\uue incVi t= ^^T tttt 
ofwmteratda' = 30 inches of meiTOn tt*o!'. 
193 



'' FOWBR. 193 

One toot of water at 62° = D.433 pounds per square inch 
= 6a.355 pounds per square foot = 0.883 inches of mer- 

One inch of mercury at 62° = 0.49 pounds per square inch 
^ 70.56 pounds per square foot ^ 14 inches of water at 6^. 

WATER. 
One cubic foot of pure water: 

At 32° (freezing point) weighs 62.418 pounds. 

At 39.1° (maximum density) weighs 62.425 pounds. 

At 62° (standard temperature) weighs 62.355 pounds. 

At 212° (bailing point of water) = 59.640 pounds. 
Average weight of one cubic foot of water — 62.33 pounds. 

One gallon of water at 62° = 8.313 pounds. 

One gallon of water at 62" contains 231 cubic inches. 

One cubic foot of water contains 7.5 gallons. 

One standard barrel contains 31I4 gallons. 

One beer barrel contains 31 gallons. 

One standard barrel of water weighs 263.5 pounds. 

One beer barrel of water weighs 258,5 pounds. 
The specific heat of ice is 0,5; of gaseous steam, 0.62, taking 
water as the unit. 

A Heai-unit, or thermal unit, is the quantity of heat necessary 
to raise the temperature of one pound of water one degree. 

One thermal unit (th. u.) = 778 foot-pounds (772 according 
to Joule). 

STEAM. 

"Saturated" steam is steam which is, or has been, in contact 
with water and has not been healed or compressed. Expansion 
or cooling will cause condensation, and then the steam is certainly 
saturated. For every temperature of saturated steam there ia 
only one pressure possible, and for each pressure only one tem- 
perature. 

"Superheated" Steam. — The superheating of saturated steam 
occurs when the same is compressed without abstraction of heat, 
or is healed directly. In order to understand its naluit, ^\t%vti.te. 
and temperature must be given. 



Tbe total beat of craponttion coosicta of: 
Sensible beat necessanr to rabe the ton- 
peralnre of one ponnd of water fiDm 

33* to 313* = iSa,g th.n. 

Latent heat to cv^xirate one poond of water 

at 3ia= =893.935 th.u. 

Heat of discharge required to orercODie the 
pressttre of the atmoipbere Tcuatins the 
escape of the vapor = 73.865 th. tL 

1 146.7 th.n. 
Specific heat of saturated steam = oljos. 
Sftttirated steam heated fracn aia" to 330' acts, when fnitber 
heated or compressed, like a permanent gaa. 



Steam leaving a vessel and entering another vessel at lower 
pressure will flow out quidcer in proportion to the difference be- 
tween the absolute pressure. Tbe limit is reached at 58 per cent 
when the steam, even if discharged into a vacuum, will neither in- 
crease nor decrease its velocity. 



TABLE SHOWING THE AMOUNT OP STEAK, ETC. 
75 pounds' PKESStJRE A 

VESSEL AT VARVING PRESSUBE5. 



A BOILER AT 











Acliul Ve- 


Dl»ch«ri[o 
















sss. 


EiMD.Ion 
^1 Noiile. 


UenKily.Krt 
: prr Second. 


Sitam. Fr«1 
[<er£MOnd. 


'7'oundi.*' 


















































































































•?.',!;!-"■ 


1,«H 


»0,« 


iiie.1 


&< SO 
























e& 


30 



Approximate velocity of steam figuted a 
« per second. 




El 

si 


ji 


it 

IP 




ill 


illl 


|S5£ 


IS 


IN 
ill! 










70.0 




0.00299 


3».E0 










ai^A 


M.4 




0.00678 


173.00 


0:9738 






Ml « 


£3.1 


I0».8 


I0is!3 


0.00844 


118. EO 








133 09 


sB.e 






0.01107 


90 33 


0:0822 










130> 




0.01308 


73.21 


0.9SB2 








II33.B 






0.01022 




o.eeiB 






IT8.B0 


















IMt.U 






nets 




47:00 










1138.4 


1M.9 


9823 


0,02374 


42.12 


00934 








1 140.0 






0.02021 










212.00 






esse 




20:78 




o:(s 




siaoa 








o:caa2e 


28.14 




5.S 




247. » 




leeo 


bm's 


o.ofioa 




rooAi 


10.3 




m.M 


IIU.l 




91B.0 




18:13 






w 


m.zT 






938.9 


O^tlTSflO 


13.30 




»;> 






IISIO 


^.i 


9320 


o.aeeo8 


11. 7B 


1:0137 


Ht.l 


w 




I1B3.4 








10. J7 


1.0182 


ID .3 




m:ai 


llffi.S 










1-0903 


3t.3 




280. W 








o:ii88 


S:il8 


1.0«2B 


MS 




ate.m 


"™-J 


3M.3 




0.I2BB 


7.098 


1.0215 


n.a 




MS.W 






909^3 


0.1400 


7.O07 




HI.] 










wee 




8.383 




M.3 








272 :« 


902 1 


o^iiws 






tO.3 






iini.7 


370.9 








1 0300 
















6:420 




n.3 




SLS^M 






802. G 


u'isai 


8.120 




75.8 








3ao:o 






4.B«e 




tot 


s» 






29(.0 


8U.7 






i:0382 


«fi.S 










884 


0/2i71 


4 403 




w.» 










Wl.3 


02378 


*.20» 


i:038A 


w.s 


no 




1181.0 






0«48l 


4020 




1001 




arw.gc 


iiafi.o 


3C«'7 


8^.3 


O.23S0 




1.01UO 






(141.(16 






874.0 


03096 


3:711 




m'.a 






iisaio 












iib.a 


130 


3M.r2 


iisr.8 




809!4 


02901 










3.W.W 






**1 




3:212 


10183 


i»:i 












03321 


3.011 




1«3 


ISO 




1I0J.1- 


33^:4 






2.833 


i:oi8B 


IK.3 ' 




368.a» 






833.8 












sTji.cn 


1l»7 




8303 


0^3043 


2:^33 




i«;s 






HOT. I 




817.0 


0.1IU 


2.408 




1».3 


aw 




nM.4 


^:8 




0.4389 




IflMA 




£ffi 


391.79 




3«.1 


83113 


0.1878 


2:08! 


1 .(J67e 


anis 


») 


400. w 


12W.2 




820,5 


5,193 


IBM 




aaa.3 


STS 


40li.W 




883 :s 






1.891 




W.3 


300 




















«1 M 




399 :a 




o.tm 


1:437 




33fi:3 








WO.fl 


8008 




i.aai 




SMS 




1S8.40 










\ \,^ 








<iS.IH 


I2\1.l 


4il.* 


\ ^\ 


\ «.«a 






^.J 1 


.w , 










\v«. 


\" 


jftX^WldN 



196 



OUTFLOW or STUH IMTO THB ATMOSPRBSI 


Abwlule in- 
itial prc»ui« 
per Ml. in. 


oiiTltoJi*"!! 
ixntllj. 


.f/To'itfc'^IK.'iaiijS'Vt 


ItH. 

S" 

40 
M 
M 
70 

W 


Fot 

i 

SOS 


i 

i 


ib*. II. r. 

Is 1 i;! 

M.OS 1 W.I 
fit » 1 !«.£ 

tbK i 1)0!< 

;t.m iM.a 
M.M irt.T . 

W.» 1 IB7.» • 



ETternal presure per iq. Incb N.T Itw. Ratio o( eirvn^lon In nouk- I.SH. 

COMBUSTION. 

The combustible dements of fuel are carbon, hydrogen and 
sulphur. The oxygen of the atmosphere is consumed by them in 
tbe process of combustion and oxidizes the elements, while the 
nitrogen is neutral. 

The elements which make up the atmospheric air are only 
mechanically mixed, the ratio being eight weight units of oxygen 
to a6.S weight units of nitrogen, or one pound of oxygen to 345 
pounds of nitrogen, or 23 per cent oxygen and 77 per cent 
nitrogen. 



Klen 






ITOillli' 



Duiid Of hvdroicGii Hidroccn... I ]>ounil. 

oiindiofDlr Ot.vKen h [uunij,. 

MirOEfn.... 36.*' iwuntlv 



COMBt-STIOM t 







OMMBi". 


Cubic Peel. 


S|«cmc Hett It Conilsnt 




1I,8W 

13141 

lft.1% 
R-WS 














a.zn 















The proportion of elements is ; One cubic foot of oxygen to 
3.76 cubic feet of nitr(^^n, or 21 per cent by volume of oxygen 
to 79 per cent by volume of nitrogen. 

Every pound of oxygen consumed in combustion requires a 
supply of 4-35 pounds or 57.16 cubic feet of air. 

Every cubic foot of oxygen consumed in combustion requires a 
supply of 4.76 cubic feet of air. 

QUANTinES OF AIR REQUIRED FOR THE COUBUSTION OF ONE POUND. 



One Poiiim or 


Air 


•tfl!°. 




Producl». 






ir TBc 


ibic feel 
bicfeet 

ibicfeel 




C»rbonconi[>ieie'ljf bii 
C»rbOQ iDcoDiiilelBlj b 

Sulphur 


ned. 
umed,.. 


4.8B pounds 


Carbonic mW. 

Ide. 
Sulpburouaacid. 



To find the quantity of air at 62' and at 30* atmospheric pres- 
sure, that is chemically consumed in the complete combustion of 
one pound of fuel of given composition, call the weight per cents 
of each r oxygen 0, sulphur 5", nitrogen N, hydrogen H, carbon 
C. Then the amount expressed in cubic feet of air is: 

CC + j« — 0.4 0) 1.5^ cu. fl. of air, 
or 

C-^$H — o.40 

1.52 = pounds of air. 

13.14 
The total weight of the gaseous products of the complete com- 
bustion of one pound of fuel : 

lbs. gas — 0.126 C + o.ss8 H, 
or in cubic feet 

cu. ft. gas-= 1.52 C-V 5-52 H. 
The vo/umcB tor other temperatiwcs AiMv (tf . A V = ■»*.-«^ 



iqS fo 

St (So*, V Uk lolnnie U the d 
fired temperature, are 



UMir th»fi- 







FLOW OP STEAll THKOUGB PIPES. 








ii 




Dlftmelerot PIpp In 




s. Lengtb of Each 


».Di™ 


,™ 




li 


.!..hh| 


■ 


.|.j.j. 


,.|, 


1- 


■■ 


A-clgblorSItomPerMlD 


tel 




DdLoaio 


Prcnnra, 




__ _jiiit s'hm i>» »i lac.s. nil II 

S.9S.tl«3 7e.MllU.WIW.l3MB U8.&. 8' 

iTWB.n M.ieiN.bne.a|»i.s ais.tt s 

.^ , , Ki.ii^ia.u 9i.HisoetM.«4it.i aKuvn-uiBi 

Iv KoMJiii.i 11.03! I8|5^ IT »T.aali«t.ii»i.a|Ha.ft Tio.fli<M&.TiK 
k w BAr«.HU.itt.ai4 io-s«(ioio8>;iiro.T»s.»iw& ne.Tiiiw.siTi 

' ID fi-nk.iaaaa.MK.sii^Bi nc n itbsmxhwi.ti tbi.t.i— -■— 

« K.M».Ol!lI,>ai.»;.t: '?'■'?■'■■ -1 i-r '■?-■ r^'S r «-s.iiv 

to i.se'fi.au.ais.w 3-' ■■•■.-.- ;■ i- ..■;■! i -..li ■■■>"; e v 
— s.i9j,«ais6n 1^.^ ^, ' ■.■;-■«!■ 

3«'<.n|l7 0iUa : I- -Mil 

FREE ADI IN CASEOUS PRODUCTS. 

The weight of the free air which enters the furnace and puses 
unconsumed, is equal lo the volume of the air used cheRricallT, 
divided by i3i4- 

HEAI OF COMBVSTIOH. 

The total amount of heat obtained by the combustion of one 
pound of the elenienlar>' combustibles, by the addition of oxygen. 

Carbon or charcoal 14.500 th. u. 

Hydrogen 62.000 th. 11. 

Sulphur 4.oooth.u. 

Neglecting the amount of htal required by the sulphur, which 
is small, we have this heal of combustion = 14S (C -!- 4-^ W) 
th. o. 

Carbon in different forms develops different amounts of heat in 
combustion. 

Wood or charcoal . .\a.SM*m- 

Graphile from gas retorts i4jj&^fti-'i- 



POWEB_ 1(>9 

Natural graphite i4/>35 th. a. 

Diamonds 13.986 ih-u. 

"Approximate Evaporating Power" of one pound of combus- 
tible: 

For water at 6a' = 0.13 (C + +** H) lbs, of water. 
For water at 213" = 0.15 (C + 4.38 H} lbs. of water. 

lEHPEBATUaE OP COUBUSnOH. 

The temperature obtained in a boiler furnace is for hydrogen 
3,500', and for carbon s.ooo"- 

CONDITION FOR COUFLETE COUBUSTION. 

Certain conditions are necessary in order to bring about the 
complete combustion of fuel. The important ones are: 

1. Sufficient air; 

2. Thorough mixture of fuel and air; 

3. Bringing together air and combustible gases at the 

highest possible temperature. 

UETHODS OF FTRINC BY HAND. 

In order to burn the fuel as completely as possible and thus ob- 
tain the greatest possible amount of heat from it, attention must 
be given lo feeding the fuel and keeping it in a proper state in 
the furnace. This is done, in firing by hand, mainly by observing 
the following points; 

1. Spreading the coal evenly over the whole surface; 

2. Alternating by filling one-half of the furnace at a time; 

3. Coking the fuel by banking it in front, and the next 

time spreading it and again banking fresh fuel in 

In slowly burning furnaces with long flues, moistening the fuel 
before throwing it in, and moistening the ash pit, prodnces bet- 
ter results from the fuel. The heat radiating upon the ashes 
produces steam. Steam lessens the "glow fire" or flameless "in- 
candescence" of the fuel, and increases the quantity of the 
flame by forming carbonic oxide and hydrogen gases in its de- 
composition into its elements, and the reduction by the oxygen of 
the carbonic acid already formed in the furnace. The newly 
made gases are afterward burned in the flues. The presence 
of moisture even in coke gives rise to a. ftainc \n ■**. %»t^ «B.fe. ^*- 
duees the intensity of the heat in t\\t a^ov) fat. \V ix^iXi^ ^ 
tn'buting combustion over a largcT apact. 



Moist tHtmninotis coal bttnied in fnrnsccs with long Sues k 
most effective Under steam boilers coke or coal majr be used to 
eqoal advantage, but if great heat is required,- coke is much more 
efficient In a glass furnace the tests have shown that ei^t or 
nine ponnds of coke was equivalent to twelve pounds of coal. 
Coke, flameless, is most effective where intensity of heat is needed, 
or where short flues and rapid draft are to be dealt with. 

FUELS. 

The fuels used for the production of steam are Coal, Coke, 
Wood, Peat, Refuse Tan Bark, Straw and Bagasse or Refuse 
Sugar Cane. Asphalt, Creosote, Oil and Coal Gas are also used 
as fuels. 

COAU 

Coal can be classified as follows: 

1. Aniliracite. or blind coal, consisting almost entirely of 

free carbon. 

2. Dry Bituminous Coal, having from 70 10 80 per cent of 

3. Bituminous Caking Coal, having from 50 to 60 per cent 

of carbon. 

4. Long Flaming or Cannel Coal, having from 70 to 85 

per cent of carbon. 

5. Lignite, or Brown Coal, having from 56 to 76 per c?nt 

of carbon. 






KOt IhuToial H>l(:hl 
Fixed >.l| = . 



.Mldlolblaa and Srff>' 
t'limberland (w«l. V«.. . 

ForciiiD and Woietn 
A renggf oi 



POWER. 



20I 



or COAL MADE BY THE UNITED STATES NAVY — (Continued). 



AnthncUe. Pa 

Cuke. 2 samples from 
Midlothian and NeflT's 
Cumberland coal, Va.. 

Free burning bitumin- 
ous, Md. and Pa 

Bituminous cakini^. Va. 

Foreign and Western 
bituminous 



Averages of the 3 classes 
of American coal 



k Speciflc Gravity. 


Weight and Bulk. 


Coke 
Pro- 
duced 
from 
Coal. 
Percent. 


One 

Cubic 

Foot 

Solid 

Pounds. 


One 

Cubic 

Foot 

Hea|>ed 

Pounds. 


.Bulk of 

ITon 

Heaped 

CuWc 

Foot. 


03.78 


53.06 

32.13 

52.84 
49.28 

49.31 


42.36 

09.70 

42.42 

45.71 

45.51 


94 82 


1.358 
I.S42 

1.318 
1.400 


81.93 
83.90 

82.39 
87.54 


83.08 
09.01 

06.27 


51.72 


43.49 


82.50 



Ashes 
and 
Clinkers 
Left by 
Combus- 
tion. 
Per Cent. 



8.00 



14.91 

11.27 
8.48 

7.98 



9.42 



Anthracite Coal. — The specific gravity varies from 1.3S to 1.92. 
This coal retains its form when exposed to a temperature of 
ignition, but when heated too rapidly will fall to pieces. The 
flame is generally short, and of a bluish yellow color. The coal 
is ignited with difficulty, and yields an intense local or concen- 
trated heat, and combustion becomes extinct while yet a consid- 
erable quantity of the fuel remains on the grate. 

Dry Bituminous Coal — This is a freely burning coal, and 
lighter than anthracite, its specific gfravity varying from 1.28 to 
1.44. It contains a relatively small proportion of volatilizable 
matter, about 15 per cent, and quickly arrives at the temperature 
of ignition. 

It swells considerably in coking, thus facilitating the access of 
air and the rapid and complete combustion of the fixed carbon. 
In some cases where combustion is slow, the masses of coke 
scarcely cohere, and the original forms of the pieces of the coal are 
in some measure preserved. 

Bituminous Caking Coal. — It has the same range of specific 
gravity as the dry bituminous coal. It contains the maximum 
proportion of volatilizable matter, averaging about 30 per cent of 
the whole weight. It develops much of the hydrocarbon gases, 
and burns with a long flame. It swells consvdti^ViVj "Scxv^ ^n^'5» 
B coherent coke, which preserves notVun^ o\ \.\v^ o\\^Tva\ Vyt^^ 
of the coal. Its specific heat is 0.20. 




TOTAi. GAUous noDucn juni suuun tawmon roam or flHi. 


CuboDlewld 


!:SIIMS".:5 
,!:SSZasS:!} 


■SSSKffio"; 1:55 

K.4I euUs feat or lOJf 










«.5T 100-OS i HB-n 100.M 



This shows that if combutioa is conqdete, mnd the exccu ot 
air mixed with the burnt gisn ia cqnal to the TOlmiM ot BIT 
chemically consumed, an ordinary conditioD, there i> 13 per cmt 
of carbonic acid, by volnme, in the gaaei p»"'«g off. 

Total Heat of Combuslion.—The total heat of combtutton of 
one pound of coal of average composition, having 80 per cent of 
carbon and 5 per cent of hydrogen, is 

i45[8o + {4.28 X S)] = 14.703 th. a. 

And as per formula previously given, the evaporating power w31 
be 13.17 lbs. of water from 62', and 15.22 lbs. from water at ai2* 
per pound of coal. 

coke: 

Coke is the solid residuum of coal from which the voIatiliEable 
portions have been removed by heat, a process which is illus- 
trated in the action of ordinary furnaces, in which the gasified de- * 
ments of coal are first burned off, and afterward the fixed or 
residuary coke. The quantity of coke obtained from an average 
coal is 76.4 per cent. 

The quality of the coke obviously depends, in a great measure, 
on the proportions of the constitutent hydrogen and oxygen of 
the coal from whLch it is made, which regulate the degree of the 
fusibility of the coal when exposed to the heat. 

Coke of good quality weighs from 40 to 50 pounds per cuImc 
fool solid, and about 30 pounds per cubic fool heaped. Tfie 
average volume of one ton is 75 cubic feet ; the volumes vary from 
ro to 80 cubic feet. 

The average composition of coke is : 

Carbon 93-44 per cent. 

Sulphur -. 1.22 per cent. 

Ash 5-34 per cent. 



POWQL 
GOAL TABLE, 



OolUnavllte. . 
Halnix BluS.. 

MOUDtOllre.. 



KountOllT*... 



dleo Okiboa 

Cberokee 

QlanOubon 

Hocking Vklley.. 
MurphjabDro 

Wllkabii'rra! !!',..' 



Blf KaMj 

Oaraa. Scnmon 

GueIoum 

■oanl Pleuant, Scran- 



Fatty Fool. S< 
PocBDontu . . . 
Cootlnentbl,^ 
ATondale 



EDreks, i.'lcarfli'li 

Creek 

Turtle Crock. M 
gibeln. , 



Slope, U, K. 

Cooperslown 



304 FOWEB. 

Coke is capaUe of ■baorbing from 15 ti> ao per cent sC bt 
weight of water. It has been found to absorb as much as 8 per 
cent of water on its way from the onrens to its destination, in 
tincovered wagons. Directly exposed to rain, it may absorb 50 
per cent of its weight of water. Most of the water is afterward 
quickly evaporated, leaving from 5 to 10 per cent in (he coke. 

Brown lignite is sometimes of wooden texture, Fometimes 
earthy. Black lignite is either of woody texture, or it is homo- 
geneous, with a. resinous fracture. The coke produced from 
various lignites is either pnlvemlent like that of anthracite, or it 
retains the form of the original fibers. Lignite is less dense tban 

The composition of lignite is : 

Carbon 69 per cent. 

Hydrogen 5 per cent. 

Oxygen and nitrogen 10 per cent. 

Ash 6 per cent. 

Lignite yields about 47 per cenl of cokp. 

WOOD. 
Wood as a combustible can be divided in Iwo classes: 

1. The hard, compact, and comparatively heai-y woods, 

as oak. beech, elm, ash. 

2. The light colored, sofl. and comparatively light woods, 

as pine, birch and poplar. 
Green wood when cut down contains aboiil 45 per cmt of its 
weight in moisture. Wood which has been kept for years in a 
dry place retains from 15 to 20 per cent of water. 
Ordinary fire wood is composed of : 

Carbon 37.S percent. 

Hydrogen 4.5 percent. 

Oxygen 3075 per cent. 

Nitrogen 0.7s P«r cent. 

Ash 1,5 per cent. 

Hydromelric water 25 per cent. 

100.00 
A cord of pine wood measures 4,"<4xa feet, and ha? a voliiire of 
'-a? caA/e feel. Its weight in ordinary condilVow a\cTa^es 1.700 
pounds, or 31 pounds per cubic foot. 



POWER. 205 

If the wood contains 25 per cent of water, the weight o£ the di- 
rect products is 75 per cent of 8.4S. which is the weight of the di- 
rect products of perfectly dry wood, i. e., it is 6.34 pounds, and 
the available heat is 7951 thermal units per pound. 

In order to obtain the maximum heating power from wood it 
is the practice in some factories, as glass and porcelain works, 
where intensity of heat is required, to dry the wood fuel thor- 
ooghty before using it, even using stoves for the purpose. 

Peal, Tan or Straw are not used for fuel commercially in this 
country, and therefore no data are given for same. 

LIQUID FUELS. 

PelToUum is a hydrocarbon liquid which is found in abundance 
in the United Slates and in Europe. All the different kinds show 
practically identical composition. Average specific gravity 0.870. 
Composition ; 

Carbon 84.7 per cent. 

Hydrogen 13.1 per cent. 

Oxygen 2.3 per cent. 

1 00.0 
The total heating and evaporating- powers of one pound of 
petroleum having the average composition, are : 
Total heating power = 145 j 84.7 -\- {4.28 X i3.i) 1 = 20,400 Ih. u. 

Evaporative power from 6z° = 18.29 pounds. 
from 212° — 21,13 pounds. 

TEMPERATURE OF FIRE IN A BOILER FURNACE. 

With a stationary boiler being under-fired with coal, having a 
large graic of 26 square feet area, the temperatures were found to 



OTerlheceiucrof IhoftrestclltreronnlmeH S-.-oo" seio° SW 

Over the bridge \130' IJ30» IJffi^- 

BOILERS. 

1. Horisoiilal cyiindrical boilers, outside firing, masoned in 
so as to espose two-lhirds of the shell surface below to the 
combustion gases. Boiler should be suspended, and not sup- 
ported, and be inclined somewhat toward the ceat . 

3. yerikal cylindrical boilers, which arc wst*i -wVe-ti ?,^a.tii Vi^ 
horizontal boilers cannot be had. T\ve \aci\\w "» «atxQ-it.&B.'^ 




1^ a cylinder built of mnoMoj, and the fine sun pau Onmf^ 
the annular quce betwcm dw two. The hcatiag toAee it not . 
well utiliied, u the npor passea moitly along thcM ■nifaco 
and prevents a clou contact of the water with ume, and Ae 
iron is not protected from the action of the fire ao wdl ai in an 
horiiontal boiler. 

3. Double horUonlal boOm, one erected above the other, aad 
both connected by water legi of about 13 inches to 16 inchei 
diameter, to facilitate the motioa of the water, the upper one 
longer, and to receive the ftinutcc. 

4. Thrtt kotitonlai boUert, one above and two below, cOB- 
nected by water legs, the upper one longer and provided wUh 
the furnace. 

5. Four korisotttol boilers, two above and two below, ibo 
connected by water legs. All Ihese constructions aim at a 
good water circulation. 

6. Flue boilers, masoned in so that the gases pass first under 
the lower part of the shell, and then through the lubes located 
numerously in the shell, and oul in front through the smoke- 
stack. Or, the gases pass from under ihe shell to two fines 
located on either side of the shell, to the front, and return 
through the tubes to the back of the boiler to the smoke-stadc 
This is done to give the gases a longer way to travel and to 
utilize their heat better. The lubes are expanded in the two 
heads, and are in some cases located in two bundles, to facilitate 
cleaning of the boiler. 

7. Locomotive boilers. A cylindrical boiler is provided with 
a square or round fire-box in front and a smoke-box in the 
rear. The tubes are expanded in the two heads, forming the 
inside of the fire-box and the smoke-box. This construction 
in necL-fsary to avoid the brickwork. These boilers are mostly 
worked with forced draft, by injection ot the exhaust forcing the 
air into the ash pit. 

8. H'aUr lubi- boilers. These consist of a battery of tubes 
connected together, each of which forms really a boiler by it- 
self. The steam from all of ihem is collected in a ftcam drum. 
These boilers raise steam quickly and can be driven much over 
their capacity, but in that case deliver very moist steam. It 

/> Afst to use them well within iheii capac'Av -ji^ctv ■itMi.n^ 
^ry steam. 




207 



Tbe-^onncctions of the single tubes are made in many dif- 
ferent ways, each system being claimed to be the best by the 
respective builders. 

a. "Belleville Boiler." Tbe tubes are connected and olaced 
so that the first vertical row inclines to the rear, the second 
to the front, and the third again to the rear, and so on. 

Calling the tubes in first row i, 2, 3, 4, and the second row 
5, 6, 7, 8, reading from the bottom up, the tabes are connected 
I with 5, 2 with 6, 3 with 7, and 4 with 8, the connections being 
made in the rear. Then 2 wiih 5, 3 with 6, and 4 with 7, all 
connected in front. 

6. "Schmidt Boiler." The tubes are connected like a vertical 
continual pipe coil. The inlets below and the outlets above 
are again connected by headers, so that the steam, generated 
below must rise through all the Upper tubes before it can reach 
the collecting drum. 

c. "Root Boiler." The tubes are placed on an incline and so 
connected that the steam can escape from each tube directly 
and that each lube has its direct water supply. 

9. Vertical Hue boilers. The shell is cylindrical, and a cylin- 
drical fire-box is built in the bottom, allowing a water apace 
between shell and fire-box. The tubes are expanded in the 
top plate of the fire-box and into an extra head riveted into 
the boiler below its upper head, giving sufficient room for the 
flue gases between the two heads to reach the chimney, which 
is located in the center on lop. Such boilers are mostly used 
where there is no room to place horizontal boilers. 

It is evident that the space between the two shells will easily 
fill with scales, and afterward the inner shell, likewise, the fire- 
box will burn out, and although cleaning holes are provided 
to remove the scales from this place, it is not easy to do so. 
Moreover, since the level of the water rises and falls, leaving 
more or less of each tube exposed to the fire without protection 
from the water, the tubes will give out sooner, especially in 
the places where the water plays up and down continually. 
Another disadvantage is the forming of scale at the water level 
on the tubes. When the water recedes Ihe scale is exposed lo 
the direct action of the fire gases, and it will ivj awi '^■5'mJ*.. 
When Ihe water rises again it enlCTs Vht cta.tV.% a-tv^i -«^*v*.'i 
out the scale which has been charted \ty -Cex. atfuoiv <A '&«■ 't'^*^ 




wherebr the steun, and aftennutli the condmanl sM^, 
acquires that disagreeable unell and tute often foond in aifc- 
ficial ice. To remove ibis taste is ■ very cxpensiTe opentioa, 
u it has to be done by cbarcoal filters, the cbarge of wUcb 
must be frequently renewed and re-burned. 

For ice-making purposes, therefore, such boilers should not 

Of all these boilers, only two kinds can be said to be rmOf 
in general use, viz., the tubular, or flue boiler, nnd the wtter 
tube boiler. In !he (iist, tubes of two inches, three inchei^ tov 
inches, five inches, six inches are used, and smaller uses la 
the water tube boilers. 

For ordtnar>' use. the tubniar boiler is best. It is the cheap- i 
e&t, and requires the least space of the two. On the other hand. | 
the wDler'Iube boiler is a quick steamer, and where steam 11 
required to be raised in the shortest possible time, it is prrf- 
erabte. If not overcrowded, it will also be more economical 
than the tubular boiler. 

GR.\TES. 

For natural draft and coti/, give one square toot of gntc 
surface for every 15 pounds oi coal lo be burned — length ol 
grate 1. 5 of its width. Grate to be inclined from one inch to 
1.5 inciics loward the rear per foot of length. If there ia 
only a lit:hl draft, the srale surface should be increased, so as 
to provide one square fool for n pounds oi coal burned. 

The width of each bar should bv ni.i<le as small as possible 
consistently with the strength required, and the space between 
the single graics sliauld be from 0.5 inch to 0,75 inch, according 
to the size of llie pieces of the fuel used. Slvirl grates give 
better combusiion but sloucr evaporation. 

OraU-s for ll'ood. The grate surface should be increased from 
1.25 to 1.4 limes oi the surface required for coal. .\sb pits 
should be so proportioned that the tranfversc section is o.a 
to 0.25 oi the total grate surface for bituminous con), and aa; 
to 0.3 of that for anthracite coal. 

Tlie CiMiibuiiion chamber for coal should have a volume of 
3-73 'o .1 cubic feet per square foot ol graic surface, and fo' 
wood ii should be 4.6 to 5 cubic (ccl per square foot of grate 

Bituminous coal requires also a some"»(Viav \a,Ts,ct co'nftjiis'oK* 
chamber tlian antfincitc coal. 




ao9 



TiMf veIocil7 with which the air enters the ash pit should 
be' twelve feel per second. 

Grates have been constructed s6 that each individual bar, or 
sections of bars, can be tnrned, 1o remove clinkers, but their 
advaniage is doubtful, as they easily get out of repair or are 
ruined if clinkers get between them. 

Aulotnatk raking grates are very good, and often used with 
success. They are constructed like two gridirons working 
within each other, propelled by eccentrics placed outside on a 
shaft, run by an engine. They will prevent the formation of 
clinkers, and settle the coal nicely. But it is a costly device 
and easily gets out of order. 

Another arrangement is to construct the grate like a link belt, 
making it run over two rollers, one placed in front and one 
placed in the rear. These rollers revolve slowly and carry the 
coal forward, causing perfect combustion and no smoke. The 
clinkers and ashes form a bridge behind the furnace and are 
removed froni time lo lime. 

Another furnace is constructed so that the bars have a recip- 
rocating motion, combined with a slight up and down motion, 
carrying the coal forward in the furnace, and, at the same time, 
breaking the clinkers by the up and down motion, which also 
facilitates the sliding of the coal, as the set of bars moving 
toward the front are a little below the true grate surface. 

Automatic stokers are used to prevent the frequent opening 
of the fire door. There is some economy in them, where many 
boilers are placed in one room, as some help can be saved. 
The coal is fed into hoppers by hand, and the gears therein 
force it into the furnace ; the air is forced into the ash pit by 
a blower, and the gears are moved by eccentrics fastened to a 
shaft outside the boiler. 

.In some cases a eoal conveyor is employed to carry the coal 
fronr the coal elevator straight to the hoppers at the boilers, 
the elevator man attending to the conveyor, and, at the same time, 
to the unloading 'of the coal from the ship or car. In (he 
hydraulic power plant in London, England, there is an ar- 
rangement of this character, very little help being employed 
for running three steam engines of 75 horse-power each, -nWcK 
furnish about 8,000 horse-power. This is nfever \jsei sKv W. Qwit, 
and power is stored to a considerable amovi^*. "w \i\Sk wo^^'*.'^ 
tanks carrying ^00 pounds' pressure to the aq.\ii^t KtvOs- ^''t^'^* 




for hoisting goods, which occurs at long intemb and I 
short periods at a time oel}, it is rcadilr understood that it 
is possible with such sniall plant to famish so nrach power. 
The amount of contracts entered into mches about 9jOOO> 
The coa] is taken from a boat in the Thamet bj a conTqrer 
and delivered to the hoppers of the boilera. An automatic 
stoker and automatic moving grate ban are emplojrcd, and tbe 
machines start automaticaUy as soon as the water in the Innk 
is reduced to a certain point All the help employed lor the 
whole plant in one twelve-hour watch, besides the men in the 
boat, is one elevator man, one engineer and one bojr for assliU 
ing the engineer and cleaning up. 

RELATION OF GRATE SURFACE, HEATING SURFACE 
FUEL AND WATER. 

It is well known that, in a given boiler with a pven famacs^ 
the greater the quantity of fuel consumed per hour, the greater 
also the amount of water evaporated per hi'Ur. But tbe quan- 
tity of water evaporated increases at a less rale than the fad 
consnnied. that is to say. the quantity of water evaporated per 
pound of fuel is diminished. This diminution of efficiency is 
obviously due to the greater portion of waited heat escaping 
by the chimney, as indicated by the higher tempei^lure of the 
gases, which remains unused for evaporation. 

The total quantity of water evaporated per square foot of 
grate surface is expressed by a constant quantity A plus a con- 
stant multiple B c oi the fuel c consumed per square foot of 
grate: 

■w = A + Be. 
By experiments it has been found that the amount of the fuel 
increases with the square of the grate surface, and we can make 
A = ar*. wherein both a and B are constant for each kind of 
h heating surface 

boiler, r = — = ; c — pounds of fuel consnnied 

g gnU xnrface 
per square foot of grate surface ; u- = amount of water "vaporated. 
IVater evaporated at tit": 

Stationary boilers ro = o,o;^; r" -^- 956 e. 

Marine boilers tu = o.oi6 t*-Vio-*5e. 

Portable engine hoilen tot= 0.008 1* -\- 8A e. 



'\^^ 



POWER. 21 1 

■ ' Locomotive boilers {burn- 
ing coal) 10 = 0.009 »*+ P-? c- 

Locomotive boilers (burr- 
ing: coke) w =; o.OifS f* -f- 7.94 c. 

The limiting values of c are : 

Stationary boilers e = o.oo75St*. 

Marine boilers c = o.ooT f*. 

Portable engine boilers c = 0.oo2 1*. 

Locomotive boilers (coal) c = OM>3»5r*. 

Locomotive boilers (coke) e^O.0044 r*. 

On an average, the allowance should be twelve square feet 
of heating surfaces-figuring only tube surface— per horse-power 
per hour, for tubular boilers, and 10 to 12 square feet per 
horse-power per hour for water tube boilers. 

SETTING OF BOILERS. 

Where mason work comes in direct connection with the 
boiler, no mortar should be used, but only fire clay. All con- 
nections close 10 the boiler and below the water line should 
be made with firebrick. The firebricks should be moistened 
when laid, and have very thin joints, and every third course 
should be bound to the rest of the brickwork. The thickness 
ol the walls should not be less than one and one-half brick, 
better two bricks, and the outer wall should have an air space 
of two inches. Both walls should be bound together by a 
binding course at every third layer. 

If parts of a boiler pass through brickwork, as, for instance, 
the dome, the brickwork should be kept away fron) it at least one 



The flues must be so built thai a long and close c 
of the flue gases wiib the bailer is had, and must be easily 
accessible for cleaning. It is best to place obstructions in the 
flues or to curve them to bring the gases in close connection 
with the boiler. These obstructions should be placed at dis- 
tances of five to eight feet apart. 

The velocity of gases with natural draft should be about 
ten to fifteen feet. It Is not necessary to have the cross-section 
equal all through. 

As a general rule, if three consecul'wc ftuta ^tt ^^.^t4. Vtv ■». 
boiler using from 150 lo 250 pounds oi coa.\ ^« ^\c.^^t, *^'i- ^■*'*'' 
Sue should have an area equal to 0.2s ol VW i^aX*. sw^^"^"^- ■*■■' 




the first one i.s to 1.75 ol tbU, and the Uat bnt one 1.35 t%xs 
of the lut one. ^ ' - 

In placea where obstrnctioiis are put on pnrpoie, as those 
in the flues and the bridge they can be made with an area of 
0.135 to O-i of the gnle surface. Where the direction of the 
flue g»aci is changed, larger areas must be provided, as this 
change of direction will otherwise retard the flow of the gueft. 

SMOKE-STACKS. 

The smallest opening of the chimney should be one-fourth of 
the gr^te surface, and its height about 35 times this smallest 
opening, but nci-er under 50 (eeL 

Chimneys which are built without means for ascending on 
the outside must have an opening at the top of not less than 
24 inches. The lower diameter of a brick chimney should be 
ao3 of the height of the chimney larger than that of the top 
opening. 

Roimd chimneys are best because they ofl'er le^s resistance 
to the wind, do not retard the revolving action of the gases, and 
having the smallest circumference for a given diameter. suflFer 
the least from loss of heat. . The bottom of the opening of the 
chimney should be at least 24 inches to 30 inches from the bot- 
tom of the bridging and if more than one bridging enters the 
chimney they should be so arranged as to give the gases from all 
of them the same direction, as otherwise a considerable loss of 
velocity would occur. 

Brick chimneys arc hcst. but also the most CNpenslve. They 
last long and need no painting, nor much repairs, except pointing 
Up once in a long while. They retain llie lieat much belter than 
iron smoke-stacks. 

Iron smoke-stacks arc either made self-sustaining or are held 
by guy ropej. In the first case, the statk is provided with 3 
strong cast-iron base, bolted down upon a foundation heavy 
enough to prevent the strongest wind overturning the stack. The 
slack is also made ol heavier iron. The necessity fit keeping in 
paint, and the danger of rusting on the inside if not continu- 
ally in use, arc two disagreeable conditions connected with the 
use of iron chimneys. 

SMOKE PREVENTION. 

// srioke issues from a chimney it is a shtc iVjw -.yvav toia- 

iitstioa is imperfect. The means to present stnoV-e v^ Vo V>:» 




it )nd to admit air either at ordinary temperature or heated. 
This can be done in quite a number of ways: 

1. The air enters into the bridge from the sides, rises in it 
to the top, and is discharged at the top downward into the lire. 

2. Air admilled through a Hue, located behind the ash pit 
and controlled by a butterfly valve. This air mixes with the 
smoke right behind the bridge and consumes it. It is claimed 
that this process will save 37 per cent of the fuel when using 
soft coal. But the objection is that if the fireman admits too 
mitch air, the efficiency will not be increased but decreased. 

3. Mr. W. I.osh provides two separate furnaces and (ires them 
alternately, allowing the gases of the just fired furnace to pass 
into the ash pit of the other, which has yet an incandescent fire, 
thus consuming the smoke. 

4. Air tubes perforated with holes are placed behind and near 
the bridge, discharging air taken from the outside into 
the smoky gases, and furnishing the oxygen needed to trans- 
form them into carbonic acid gas. 

5. Mr. Williams admits air through a fine located behind the 
ash pit. discharging i( into the ash pit through perforated fire- 
clay plates, and admits addilional air through a perforated fire 
door. He makes the air inlet at (he fire door 0.5 to 1. 5 square 
inches per square toot of grate surface. 

6. Mr. March biiilds two furnaces, the grates of which can 
be moved up and down, carrying a deep bed of fuel at the 
Start, and keeping the fuel always at tlie same level. The fur- 
naces arc filled alternately. The air is sent by a blower into 
tubes located in the bottom of the boiler and connected by 
outlets with the combustion chamber, the air striking the fire 
vertically. 

7. Mr. Clark places six three-inch air tubes just over the fire 
door, and introduces the air by six steam jets of »', of an inch 
each, directing air and steam toward the opening twtween bridge 
and boiler. 

8. Another method of Mr. Clark is to place cast-iron plates 
over the fire door, forming a narrow air inlet, and to place in 
them steam jets to introduce the air, directing the current again 
as before. He had the be^t action with this arraneement over 
a deep fire. 

9. Dr. Kufnhl built a step grate UVte a ft.\^t ol ^'w^.x* V« *N.t 
use of small coal, lignite, and s\acV. ThV^ wTaTv^trnttAX^ iv'ewj' 



214 POWER. 

a lot of grates placed so that the fuel from the first grate ouuiol 
fall in the ash pit, but falls on the next grate, getting bAtit 
all the lime and nearer the point of incandescence. All these 
steps are a liiile inclined, except the lowest one, which is a 
little larger and level for the removal of the clinkers. 

la Hau-'lcy Down Draft Furnace. This furnace is provided 
with two grates, located one above the other; the lower one is 
an ordinary grate, and is not fired, but receives its supply from 
the grate above, which allows the colied coal to fait through. 
The upper grate is formed by a series of pipes, connected rear 
and front, and the front header receives the water from the 
boiler, while the rear header returns it. causing a rapid cir- 
culation of ibe water in the boiler. The coal is fed to the 
upper grate, and the g.iscs produced in the upper furnace forced 
to pass through (he coal on Ihe upper grate, since a wall 
erected right where otherwise the bridge would be, stops the 
progress of ihe gases and leads them ihroufih \h-: coal down- 
ward, where Ihey meet ihe coked fuel, and thus ihe smoke 
coming from the upper furnace i= burned. The gases then flow 
as usual into the flues, toward the chinmey. The upper grates 
are inclined toward the front, about three inches per toot 
of length, and the lower grates inclined toward the rear about 
two inches per fool. 

It is claimed that M^ apparatus previuls smoke entirely and 
increases tho economy m.iteriaily. It certainly ha? two good 
features, viz.. perfect combuMion and rapid circulaiii.n of w^ter. 
The makers claim the following for their furnace: It will con- 
sume 30 to JO pounds of coal per hour per square foot of grate 
surface, and not smoke : evaporate 1 5 to 35 per cent more 
water ihnn ^ny 'jlher tiiriiace per pomu! oi o.i.il; increase ca- 
pacity of boiler 20 to jo per cent; insure safety of boiler 
by prcveutini? batrgins or burning of shell. The claims are 
certainly high, and should be =ubs;anliatcd by a ipiarantee from 
the maker. 

FEED-W.\TER HE.^TERS. 

The liiHl-ksl hcaUr is one in which a pipe eoil of equal diam- 
eter as the c.\haust pipe is 'iibmcrged in a l.qnk fillcil with water, 
(he ?ieam emcrirg the coil at the lop a:iJ tho comleiisfd water 
discharging 3t the boltom through the f.heU. t\\>.- sleim through 
" lee placed inside the tank to the lop. 11 \\\t toW Va^ uSk- 



POWER. 315 

cicnj 4leating surface, it is a useful device, but it will require 
*tC enormous healing surface, owing to the slow motion of the 
water over it, and it cannot be expected to bring the feed water 
near 213°. 

The kealert ordinarily used are either horizontal or vertical 
cylindrical vessels, filled with brass lubes, and are constructed 
like steam condensers. In case an old tubular boiler is on 
hand, it can be used to advantage as a feed-water heater. The 
water is fed in the shell, and the exhaust into the tubes. 

There aie sonic vertical heaters built with only one lube plate, 
the pipes having return bends, and the inlet, and outlet of each 
pipe being secured to the same lube head. This is done to pre- 
vent leakage at the lube heads caused by expansion and con- 
traction, the bent ()ipes taking care of the expansion. 

The Bauer heater is an exhaust heater, oil extractor, and puri- 
fier, at the same time. It consists of two cylinders, a larger 
one below and a smaller on lop, forming the oil separator. 
The exhaust steam enters the upper vessel on top and strikes 
a lot of obstructions, placed there for the retention of the oil 
earned along with the steam. At the bottom of this upper 
cylinder the feed-water is introduced and flows over the edge 
of a tube inserted as a connection between the upper and lower 
vessels in a thin sheet, meeting the steam on this passage and 
taking up heat from it. The water then drops on corrugated 
bafHe plates, so arranged that the water runs over on the outside 
of one baffle plate and over at the center of the next baffle plate. 
Having been healed lo ihe boiling point by this time, it lib- 
erates lime and other substances held in solution, and leaves 
them on the plates. The water and exhaust steam now pass 
through filtering material and collect in a spacious receiving 
compartment at the bottom of the large cylinder, where they are 
separated. The feed-water supply is regulated by a float, Eo- 
cated in the receiving compartment, keeping the water-level 
there at even height by means of rods and levers acting on a 
balanced valve located in the feed-water inlet pipe. 

The steam coming in direct contact with the water, there will, 
of course, be a closer exchange of heat than it both were sep- 
arated by sheets of iron, and the water will be purified 
just as in a live-steam heater, to the extent, of coarse, that ItiU 
can be done williotit raising the temperaViitft o\ ^\w. -^^i-tx »^ 
fi/gh as in the live-steam heater. Some atib»tanw» «ai ■wswa.'w 



2l6 POWER. \ I 

■ohMiDa mt 2ia', while ttcy will preci^tate it « liiniiiliMii ol 

The Holmes condtuttr (Sec CondeiHen) can be med m a * 
beater, where it is advisable to ctMidente the steam, eitber far 
the purpose o( nsinff the diMDled water or becaoie Ac escape 
of the exhaust innit be prerented, and wbere plentj of water ia 
on band. 

uva-siKAii HKAtnS. 

If it is necessary to heat the water almost to the teraperatiuc 
of live steam in order to get rid oE substances carried in solution 
in the water at temperatures lower than that of the live steam 
but higher than 213°, the only beater to use is a live-steam beater. 

When a compound condentinc engine is on hand and the 
exhaust is not available for feed water heating, it pays to use 
a live-sleam healer. Not that there is any gain in economy- 
since it is immaterial where the work of heating the feed-water 
is done, coal having to be used anyway, either to produce 
the live steam to heat the water with, or to heat ihc water 
directly in the boiler. 

The live-steam heater is generally a horiiontal. cylindrical 
vessel, wherein the live slcam comes into direct contact wHlh 
the water. .\ large number of pans are provided inside, over 
which the water is run from one to the other. The pans re- 
taining the Fubflances dropped out of solution at this high 
temperature, must be cleaned from time to time. This heater 
will furnish good feed-waler and at evaporating temperature; 
it will increase the capacity — not the efficiency — of ihe boiler, 
and prolong the life of Ihe boiler by subjecting it to less sirain. 
keeping the temperatures prevailing in the different parts o( 
the boiler more equal. 

To show how much saving can be obtained by the use of a 
feed-water heater, we will assume that we have one too hone- 
power boiler, evaporating 30 pounds of water per hour, tiiat the 
coal furnishes 6,000 ih. u. per pound, and that the feed-water 
is 72° before entering the heater and 210° when leavinp it. \Vc 
then have 24 X 100 X 30 pou'-ls of steam to produce 
per day and. therefore, need just this amount of feed-water, 
which we can heat by Ihe exhaust, without any expense whalso- 
ever, from 72' to ato" = 138°. We Have therefore furnished 
^ X 100 X 30 X 1j8th.11. to the waUi w^iich ■«« woiA wA 



furnMi in the boiler, by using a feed-water heater; or, if we divide 
^tflis suTTi by 6,ocx>, we have the amount of coal saved per day 
= 1,656 pounds of coal = 0.838 tons. 

ECONOMIZERS. 

The flue gases often carry large amounts of heat out through 
the smoke-slack, allowing it to go to waste, especially when 
bcHlcrs arc forced, or high sieam pressure is used. To save this 
heat, water pipes can be laid in the bridging, and the extra heat 
used to heat the water circulated through these pipes, often to a 
higher temperature than an exhaust heater can do. It might 
even pay to use the exhaust first tor healing the fecd-walcr, 
and then to send the feed-water through the economizer. 

The table below shows the results obtained from a carefully 
conducted test made by Mr. M. W. Grosse at the works of 
Messrs. Dollfus, Mieg i Co. of Mulhouse in Alsace (page 218). 



The apparatus with which the Grosse test was made c 
of four ranges of vertical pipes 6^ feet high, 3% inches in 
diameter outside, 9 pipes in each range, connected at top and 
bottom by horizontal pipes. The water enters all the tubes 
from below and leaves them above. This system of piping Is 
enveloped in a brick casing, into which the gaseous products 
of combustion are introduced from above, leaving it from below. 
The pipes are cleared of soot externally by automatic scrapers. 
The capacity for water is 24 cubic feet, and the total externa! 
heating furfacs is 290 square feel. The apparatus is placed in 
conneclion with a boiler having 355 square feet of heating sur- 
face. 

This apparatus had been at work for seven weeks continuously 
without being cleaned, and had accumulated a one-half-inch coat- 
ing of soot and ash, when its performance in the same condition 
was observed for one week. During the second week it was 
cleaned twice every dsy; bul during the third week, after having 
been cleaned on Monday morning, it was worked continuously 
without any further cleaning. The coal used was a smoke-mak- 
ing one, and the consumption of it was practically made o 



Tim.. 




ProdDctt " 


'"■K-a- 


He«ler. 


Realer. 


Diirw- 


Ik, 

j Hotter. 


fS. 


Dlffw- 

CDOB. 


TbiTd week. 
WedDMdaj.... 

Bid's"' • ■■ 


T».0' 
MIS' 


IM ; 


,g: 

l£t.«° 
B0.0° 




ai= 






«S.l' 


! m- 





SI and i«coiid irce 



■ per lb. of coa 



The table shows ihai ihere is a great advantage in cleaning 
the pipes daily, the elevation of temperature having been in- 
creased by it from 86° to 15,1°. In the third week, without clean- 
ing, the elevation of temperature relapsed in three days to the 
level of the first week; even on the first day it was quickly re- 
duced by as much as half of the extent of the relapse. By cleaning 
the pipes daily, an increased elevation of temperature was ob- 
tained, while a gain of 6 per ceril was effected in the evaporative 
efKciency. 

BOILER \V.\TER AND ITS TREATMENT. 

There is no part in the operation of a steam plant which is of 
greater importance and which should receive more careful atten- 
tion than the proper use of scale-preventing compounds. The 
forming of fcale and other common boiler evils will here be 
treated from a thcorelicai as well as a practical standpoint, giving 
the causes, efiteets and methods of treatment. 

WATFJl IS GESEH.VL. 

Chemically pure water does not exist in nature, the nearest 
approach to it being rain water or melted st^ 
never pare, for in (ailing it dissolves or i 



isViM Ao-jm V\\\v v 



POWER. 219 

tbe gMCS, dust, germs, etc., which are always present to a grea.ter 

OT'Iess extent in the air. Rain, after reaching the earth, soaks 
down into it and in percolating through the various strata dis- 
solves certain salts or minerals, the quantity and kind of which 
varies with tho nature of the strata, with which the water comes 
In contact. It reappears in the form of springs or artesian wells 
and in that stage contains considerable mineral matter in solu- 
tion, being usually what is termed a hard water. 

These springs are generally the source of rivers and feeders of 
lakes whose water, coming in contact with the air, loses part of 
its dissolved minerals, and being increased in volume by the rain 
falling directly, and that running off the surrounding land, be- 
comes very much diluted and moderately soft. It may also con- 
tain organic matter from decomposing vegetable substances and 
sewage and other impurities from cities and factories situated 
along the river course. (For more detailed treatment of waters 
in regard to this requirement in brewing see Giapter on "Brewing 
Materials")- 

WATER FOR BOILERS. 

The greater part of the substances in solution to be considered 
in water for boiler purposes are sulphates and carbonates of lime 
and magnesia, and carbonate, chloride and sulphate of soda; al- 
though chloride of magnesia, carbonate of iron, alumina, silica, 
potassium salts, and organic matter and gases are often present, 
but only in small quantities. 



Boiler waters may be considered from two points of view and 
described accordingly as hard, or scale- forming, and soft waters. 

Hard vjahTi are those that contain considerable amounts of 
earthy sails in solution, such as carbonate and sulphate of lime 
and carbonate of magnesia. Hardness of water is designated as 
either temporary, or permanent. 

By temporary hardness is meant hardness caused by such 
earthy salts as will disappear from solution, or, in other words 
be precipitated by boiling or aeration. These are the carbonates 
of lime, magnesia, and iron, which are almost insoluble in ^u.^?. 
water, but quite soluble in the presence ol w-t^mtiw, ^ti4,%^^ V^**"^- 
0/J7i;</ in nearly all waters) wUVi WrWA ftic^j iciim 'ti\f».^>ifi'xa-'^^"' 




tcr, this carbonic acid is rcadilj driren off, and the lolaUe G 
carbonates are precipitated as insoluble carbonates. 

Fenaanrnl hardness of a water is caused bj the earthy salts 
remaining permanently in solution, and will not be precipitated 
by boiling at 213* F. or by aeration. These are sulpbate of lime 
or gypsum, sulphate of magnesia, and very small quantities of the 
carbonates of lime and magnesia. 

Soft Waters are those that contain very little or no solids i> 
solution. 

The best water tor use b a boiler is undoubtedly rain water 
or condensed steam containing practically no solids in solution, 
next, river or lake water with an average of from 5 Co 10 grains 
of solids per gallon, and lastly, spring or artesian well water 
which is generally quite hard. 



When a hard water must be used, it is best treated for the re- 
moval of lis solids before entering tlie boiler, as even moderately 
soft water becomes troublesome in the boiler on .iccount of the 
aggregation of the solids due to drawing off the sii-am and add- 
ing new water. For example, taking a soft water with only five 
grains per gallon and caleulating as an average 3"^ gallons of wa- 
ter evaporated per hour per horse power, then an engine of 
loo-horpcpower running ten hours per day would consume 
,1.500 gallons. From this would then be deposited over two 
pounds of scale per day or nearly 70 pounds per nionth. or over 
onc-lhlrd of a ton in the course of a year. With hard water these 
figures would be multiplied manj* timej, 

Wat'.T for boilers should not be judged by its appearance. A 
good drinking water may be a poor boiler water, a clear, sparkling 
water may be very hard and form dense scale, while a dirty ri\er 
water often is soft and excellent for boiler use. 

EFFECT OF W.\TER5 ON' lUHt.rHS. 

The evils in a Iwiler caused by different waters arc of three 
kinds: Incrustation or boiler scale, corrosion of the metallic 
/M/W. aatf foaming, frothing, or priming. 



/ POWEE. a2i 

. '' SCAU. 

Scale is by far the most common, the prevention and removal of 
which after once formed, is the purpose of nearly all tlie boiler 
compounds now in use. It is a hard, almost metallic coating or 
crust of lime and magnesia salts that forms on the walls and 
around the flues in the boiler. It operates most detrimentally by 
its non -conductivity of heat, as it acts as an insulator between 
the heated metal and the water to be heated, similar to a sheet of 
asbestos placed in the same position. This causes part of the 
heat to pass through the fines and up the chimney unused, in- 
volving a waste of fuel. This loss of heat and fuel varies with 
the composition of (he scale, some kinds being more heat-resist- 
ing than others. The high limits are placed at is per cent loss 
of fuel for every t-l6 inch thickness of scale, but the average is 
somewhat lower on account of the varying composition of the 
scale from different waters, a fair average for every 1-16 inch 
thickness if scale is about 8 per cent, making the loss of fuel for 
a thickness of % inch about 80 to 85 per cent. 

Where ihe scale is of considerable thickness it is of such resist- 
ing power as to allow the iron to become red-hot while keeping 
up the aniounl of heat necessary to maintain the required pres- 
sures. In this red-hot condition the plates and tubes are likely, 
owing to the high pressures to which they are subjected, to be 
bent out of shape or collapse entirely. There is further danger 
of the scale suddenly cracking or breaking away bodily from the 
iron, thereby allowing the water (o come in contact with red-hot 
metal, often causing an explosion. Scale increases any un- 
equal expansion of the whole structure which has a weakening 
effect, causing leaky seams and cracks in the plates near the rivet 

Soft scale or mud slops up feed pipes, water and steam gauge 
tubes, promotes the leaking of cocks and valves and may be 
carried over with the steam into the engine. 

SCALE-FORMING SUBSTANCES. 

The principal scale-forming solids in water are sulphate of 
lime and magnesia, and the carbonates of lime, magnesia and iron. 

SulplKxU- of Lime or Gypsum is by iat U\e •jiot^I. i.w'i'cwi ■iK -s. 
hoikr, as it forms a dense non-conduclwg scaVo. qI sivcvoW. vaO-^w- 
hardness. Its removal is the first and ^tinc^^aX toT>a\&.W'4.'i:'vQ-& v 



the treatment of a bcnier »xter. When contmined alone'lijji 
not generelly predpitated bjr boiliiig at aia* F^ but partly In die'^ 
presence of much hicarbonate of lime or magneiia- 

CarbonaU of Limt ig almost intolnble in water (abont two 
grains per gallon at fio* F.) and entirely so at 397* F., the tem- 
perature at so pounds' pressure. When held in solution aa hi- 
carboDate it begins to be slowly precipitated at 175* F., the bidk 
falling between that temperature and xi3* F. It does not settle 
easily during working hours on account of the continual cJtco- 
lation of the water in the boiler, and the scale it forms is com- 
paratively soft, except when allowed to lie on very hot sir- 
faces not exposed to the drculatioD or when mixed with sul- 
phate of lime, clay or grease. 

CarbonaU of magnesia acts almost exactly the same as car- 
bonate of lime. It is worthy of notice that ithile a gallon of 
water will hold dissolved (in the absence of carbonic acid) either 
two grains of carbonate of lime or two grains of carbonate of 
magnesia, it will not under ordinary conditions dissolve two 
grains of each. 

Sulphate of magnesia is usually contained only in small quan- 
:ities in waters. It is not liable by itself to cause any scale, is 
not corrosive, and does not cause foaming, but it hinders the 
removal of lime sails and forms a moderately hard scale in the 
presence of carbonate of foda. 

Oxide of magnesia is frequently, or even generally, present in 
the scale, altliough none is contained in the water. This is due 
to the carbonic acid of the carbonate of magnesia being driven 
off at high temperatitres such as the plalcs and tubes are sub- 

Carbonate of iron acts like carbonate o( lime or magnesia, ex- 
cept that it begins to be precipitated at a lower temperature, 
as when standing in an open vessel in contact with the air. los- 
ing its carbonic acid and taking up oxygen. 

Silica and alumina are contained in almost every water, usu- 
ally combined with each other. The>- are of litlle importance, 
the total amount being seldom more than one-quarter of a grain 
p*:r gallon. 

C/ay i.i Irequentiy present in suspension ; it has a tendency 
to mix aitti and increase the bulk ot l\\t ha^d stiXe. 
eP/y oHii grease that might find ihcir was inlo ^.^^^ \«\'^«^ a« 



, -^ POWER. 333 

to .bt' avoided, as they mix with the otherwise porous, hard 
scale, and make it impervious to moisture, therebj increasing 
its non-conduclivity or insulating properties. If of animal origin 
(adulterations in lubricating oil) the; form oleates of lime and 
magnesia (insoluble soap), a sticky, non-conducting substance, 
having a great affinity for hoi metal. 

CORKOSION. 

Besides scale-forming solids there are contained in *ater other 
solids and gases that have a corrosive action on the metal of 
the boiler. This corrosion is very often a greater annoyance 
than scale, as it causes the metal to be eaten away, bringing on 
leaks, which generally result in loss of tima by stoppages, and 
expensive repairs. The corroding solids are generally present 
in moderate quantities only, but become troublesome by their 
concentration, as they do not find an outlet until the whole 
boiler is emptied. They are readily decomposed by the high 
pressure and heat, liberating free acids which will either attack 
the iron directly or set up a galvanic action when brass or 
copper (cocks, valves, etc.) come in contact with the iron. In 
this event ihe iron (which means the -boiler itself) is the metal 
attacked or corroded, being gradually eaten away. The sub- 
stances usually causing corrosion are: 

Magnesium chloride, which is split up at a high heat and pres- 
sure, liberating hydrochloric acid which not only corrodes the 
boiler but, being a gas, may pass over with the steam into Ihe en- 
gine. Ammonium or sodium chloride (common salt) when pres- 
ent will, to a great extent, prevent this decomposition, forming 
with the magnesium chloride a stable double chloride. 

Gases, such as carbonic acid, air, oxygen, and sulphuretted 
hydrogen are corrosive when in a moist state. It is a fact that 
distilled water out of which all the air has been boiled will 
not corrode or rust iron readily, neither will dry air or carbonic 
acid gas, but when together, as they are in boiler water, they will 
soon attack the metal. These gases will either form bubbles, and 
cause what is called pitting, or, if present in larger quantities 
(which is snmettmes the case with air that is forced in hv de- 
fective feed pumps) and being heavier ftvati ?,\.ta.TO, -w'^ ^w■ro. ■*. 
straiun, belneen the water and the sUam, ca.M^m% •^.ci^-^o^v's^ ■> 




Acid Waitrt. — Some wtten an of an add natare e __, 

disiolved organic acids from bavins percolated thnogfa beda vl \ 
peat or decayins vrgetaUe matter. Water from riven ia Iiib- 
ber rcgioni where large lafta of trees and bark are Boated ofta 
contain tannic acid, and waters of the iron regioM aometimes oo^ 
tain sulphuric add. 

IQAHIMC 

Foaming, pHmiag or frolliing in boilers has no deleterious ef- 
fect on the boiler itself, but causes either non-volatile particles 
or the water itself to be directljr carried over with the steam 
into the valves, pipes and engine. Muddy deposits of soft scak 
are causes of foaming, as the steam on this account rises 
through the water more irregularly and in large bursts or bnmpi 
carrying up with it a spray of this mud, and forcing it into die 
[upes. This is to be especially avoided in breweries using live 
steam in the mash tubs, since nonvolatile matter as «ell as 
volatile matter thus carried may cause serious disturbances in 
mashing, etc. 

Foaming is also caused by rarbonal,- of soda or other alkalis 
tliat are sometimes contained in water, but are more often present 
in consequence of the addition of excessive amounts of water 
purifiers or boiler compounds, of which they are constituent 
parts. 

BOItER SCALE PREVENTATIVES. 

By a boiler compound or water purifier is understood such a 
substance as. when added to a boiler water, will lessen or entirely 
overcome the ill effects described in the forceoiiig paragraphs 

Fropriclary Comfotiads. — There arc immmerable compounds 
of secret composition in the market. Pari of them give good 
results with some waters when properly used, others are indiffer- 
ent or inert to any water, while the greater majority of com- 
pounds arc positively injurious when promiscuously used. Some 
compounds, while they reduce scale-forming, increase corrosion, 
Others become dangerous when u^ed to excess, causing more 
scale than would be precipitated if no compound were used at 
all, but a]i compounds by their addition increase the density 
o/ the ualcr and consequently its boiling poinl. 



POWER. 225 

Ta Be Specially Compounded.— A. boiler compoun<l or water 

purifier should always be specially compounded to suit the wa- 
ter to be tfEated. A certain substance in the compound may be 
of benefit by eliminating a certain constituent in the water, but 
form injurious compounds with others. Therein lies the danger 
of usii% the many secret or proprietary compounds now in the 
market. The manner of using them is always the same; they 
are "guaranteed" to remove scale already formed, no matter 
how thick or of what nature, and to purify any water irrespective 
of what it may contain in solution. 

It should be further considered that waters from different lo- 
calities are seldom, if ever, similar in composition; even water 
from the same well or river changes its composition at different 
seasons of the year or after heavy rains. Furthermore, a com- 
pound should be used in the exact amount neceesary, as too lit- 
tle docs not accomplish the desired result aq4 an excess is a 
waste of money, besides being liable to impair the quality of the 



There are three rtiethods of applying substances for the treat- 
ment of boiler waters: 

1. In sonling tanks where the water can be treated while cold. 
This applies to waters rich in carbonate of iron, suspended clay, 
organic matter, sulphate of lime, carbonates of lime and mag- 
nesia, and acid waters that are to be neutralised before use. 
This method is by far the most preferable and economical as it 
remove^ the objectionable substances before entering the boiler. 

2. In the feed -water heater when the water contains sub- 
stances best removed by the application of heat. 

3. In the boiler itself. This is allowable only with waters of 
medium hardness or where a settling tank or feed-water healer 
is not installed. Also where there are several boilers which can 
be used alternately so that one can be properly cleaned while 
the others are being used. These last methods are, however, 
rot advisable as the boiler is the most costly apparatus of the 
three, and by softening the water befoit Te!icVm% ■Cat ^nS^t* 
not on}y a saving in annoyance and \abot \s tRw:.\^4., ^«*- *'^ 

3 ^reat reduction in ihe daily expetise fot la«\. 




suBSTAxos iir aumu. 

The BubataDces of known eompoaitioB in ceaenl ns 
oompooada and water purifiers are the followtnc: 

CorboMlf of Soda or "Soia^—Tht actkm of carbMiate of 
■oda ii entird; of a chemical natore and it* chief cffecthenen 
depends on ita aUlitj to deoompoM ndphate of lime or gy p a w 
(hard >cak prodncen), change it into caifaanate of lime (aoft 
acale). and cause its prec^tation in that form. It also affects 
the precipitation of the carhonates of lime and magDcaia in the 
boiler, canaing these carbonatea to be deposited in a more flal^ 
condition, with less tendeacr to pack or harden. Carbonate ot 
soda decompoaes the corrosive chloride of magnesium, forming 
carbonate of magnesia which is predpitaled, and sodinni 
chloride. It neutralizes any free acids that may be contained ia 
the water which would otherwise coTrode or pit the iron. 

Carbonate of soda has no effect in preventing or diminishing 
the amount of scale, but in some instances increases it, as it 
precipitates carbonate of magnesia from sulphate of magnesia, 
which would otherwise remain in solution and do lillle harm to 
the boiler. It forms a soap with grease, which is more harmful 
than the grease itself. When added in excess, it causes foam- 
ing, especially in tubular boilers, and when used in considerable 
excess it attacks the packing and gaskets, having a lendcncj 
to dissolve asbestos and ruMter. Carbonate of soda should be 
used only in tvaters rich in sulphate of lime, but not in those 
containing principally the carbonates of lime and magnesia. To 
apply carbonate of soda it should be dissolved in water sepa- 
rately and added to the water to be treated in such quantity ka 
lo produce a faint red color on the addition of a solution of 
phenol-phthalein. (See "Chemical Laboratory.") 

Caustic Soda Procets. — This does not immediately pre- 
cipitate sulphate of lime, but does so in a secondary 
manner. It should be used, if at all, in waters containing mostly 
bicarbonales of lime and magnesia, besides sulphate of lime in a 
quantity approximately equivalent to the carbonates. Here it 
combines with the carbonic acid of the bicarbonates precipitating 
tAem as carbonates, and is itself changed into carbonate 
of soda, which further acts on the sulphate a\ Wme as mwAvmed 
^Aai-c. Caustic sodA should be used co\d m ft^t m\V\™* \»iScfc, 



9 POWER. 227 

as a itrong solution suddenly put in ifae boiler will not act to its 
fulT capacity or perform its work properly. 

Lime. — The lime, or Clark's, process is applied to, and effect- 
ive in, waters containing much, or mostly, bicarbon&te of lime 
and magnesia, and little or no sulphate of lime. Here the lime, 
in solution as lime water, unites with the carbonic acid of the 
bicarbonates and precipitates them, as well as itself, as insoluble 
carbonates. This precipitate with lime is double the quantity 
what it would be if caustic soda were used; but, in the absence 
of sulphate of time, has the advantage of not leaving any car- 
bonate of soda in solution. The drawbacks of the latter were 
alluded to above. Lime is detrimental in the presence of sul- 
phate of magnesia, as it precipitates hydraCed oxide of magnesia 
and leaves sulphate of lime, which is more harmful, in its place. 

Lime and Soda Combined, — This is used when water contains 
both sulphate of lime and bicarbonate of lime and magnesia in 
such proportion that the amount of carbonate of soda necessary 
does not have its full softening effect The treatment in this 
process is accomplished by the addition of the amount of soda 
necessary to precipitate the sulphate of lime, and the amount 
of lime necessary to react on the carbonates. The combined 
method gives results where either alone would do so only im- 
perfectly. Water should be treated by this process only while 
cold and in tanks. 

Besides the above, there are other substances acted upon ; but 
these are generally present in too small quantities to be con- 
sidered- They are carbonate of iron, which is affected similarly 
to the carbonates of lime and magnesia and chloride o( calcium, 
which acts like chloride of magnesium. 

Barium sails are used to some extent. Caustic baryta acts 
like lime, and has no advantage over it. Chloride of barium 
precipitates insoluble sulphate of barium from sulphate of lime, 
leaving chloride of calcium in solution. This might answer 
where the water contains exclusively sulphate of lime, but it 
also forms a precipitate with sulphate of soda and sulphate of 
magnesia, unnecessarily increasing the precipitate and leaving 
the harmful chloride of magnesia in solution. The price of 
barium salts is, however, loo high in tom^ai'\w)T\ -«\'iN •i'Cot-t 
substances of equal or greater efiec^vveTves% Vo '(wJitc. ■ftwA^ ^^ 
general. 



Sodium Kuoride is pracdallx the skme ia its action a^)^|(- 
bonate of soda, but is much more costly. It precipitates lime 
and magnesia salts in a light, flocculent, non-adhesive conststescr, 
and when pure has the advantage over soda of not leaving the 
nater so strongly alkaline. As a good many commercial sam- 
pies react strongly acid there should be some care exercised in 
its use. 

Tri-sodittm phosphate, otT. S. P., »A it ia sometimes designated 
by engineers, — The value of this chemical consists in its abili^ 
to convert the soluble lime and magnesia salts in the water into, 
and precipitating them as, insoluble phosphates of lime and 
magnesia. These phosphates are of a very flocculent nature, 
having a specific gravity little above that of water, and on that 
account do not settle easily, but are continuously in suspension, 
and settle when the boiler is at rest as a soft mud that does not 
harden. Tri-sodium phosphate, on account of its alkaline nature, 
neutralizes any acids present which would otherwise cause cor- 
rosion, and an excess is not so likely to cause foaming or priming, 
as would one of carbonate of soda. 

Bhrhromate of Soda. — The use of this chemical is patented 
in Germany, and has ."ecently been introduced here. It pre- 
cipitates scale-foiming lime and magnesia sails as insoluble, 
non-scaling chromates. It is claimed that an excels of the 
chemical, even free chromic acid, has no corrosive action on 
the iron or packing. 

Tannin or tannic add is used to some extent. It forms non- 
scaling tannales of lime and magnesia, but attacks the iron, and 
is not to be recon) mended. 

Tannatc of soda, like tannic acid, forms tannates of lime and 
magnesia, but is much safer to use. 

Sugar is also sometimes used, precipilaiing the sacc ham it's of 
lime and magnesia. 

MECH.^NICAL COMPOUNDS. 

A good many chemically inert substances are used as water 
purifiers, but they accomplish their object only partly, if at all. 

5ottjdi«(,— This is supposed to furnish a nucleus or center 
/or the crystallization of the hardening aalw pTcveniing their 
uniting together. 



J POWER. 229 

ifticilagiiioiu sttbslancts, tlarck, polaloet, etc., have the op- 
posite effect to that of sawdust, that is, to envelop or surround 
the minute crystals of scale, and thus-prevent them from harden- 
ing. Such substances, however, cause foaming and priming. 

TO PttEVENt COKROStOK. 
For the prevention of corrosion an iron-zinc couple is fre- 
quently used and seems to give good results. This is obtained 
by atlachir^ zinc plates or rods to the iron bracings of the 
boiler, whereby a galvanic action is set up. The corroding sub- 
stance attacks the ^inc, which can be easily and cheaply re- 
placed, leaving the iron of the boiler practically intact. 



In the proper selection of boiler compounds or water purifiers 
the following considerations should be observed: Never use 
any of the so-called universal compounds, alleged to be good 
for any scale or any water. There are numberless small concerns 
or individuals going into this sort of "business" every year who 
claim to have the best compound ever produced and who reck- 
lessly condemn thai of every other competitor. All they ask for 
is a trial of their compound, which means neither more nor less 
than experimenting with your boiler at your expense and risk. 
The greater part, in fact nearly all, of the secret compounds now 
sold are nothing but a mixture in varying proportions of some of 
the chemicals described above, usually sold at from three to 
twenty-five times their actual cost, the basis of most of them be- 
ing soda, colored or blended in every imaginable manner. 

Deal only with reliable concerns of financial standing, such 
as will actually make an analysis of your water, and furnish 
you a duplicate of the analysis, and who will prepare a com- 
pound to suit your particular water. 



TRANSniSSION OF POWER. 



In order to explain what U necesnrj to detemunc wfacn shift- 
ing has to be erected for the trsasmistioa of power, we will take 
the most coiiimoc case. 

Ad engine of twenty-five horse-power is to be connected to a 
shafting supplying, by means of three pulleys B, C and D, power 
to different machines (Fig. 54). The machine connected to B 
requires five horse-power, the machine connected to C requires 
eight horse-power, and the machine connected to D requires 
twelve horse-power. Diameter of pulley B =: (T; diameter of 
pulley C = /*"; diameter of pulley D = «>"; revolutions of en- 
gine := 7i; revolutions of shaft = 100. The diameter of the pul- 
ley A' on the engine is = U and = 31'. The diameter of pulley 
A, width of all belts, and the diameter of shaft are to be deter- 
mined ; also the bearings to be placed at the proper places. 



F PULLEV ON ENGINE. 

Calling the respective number of horsepower to be trans- 
mitted ^^ ft, k'. k'. . . . and the radii of the corresponding pnl- 

lejs = r. T. r- we have 

iS nV. = 5 + S -\- u = h + h- + h-. 
The diameter D of pulley A, which is to be driven by pulley A', 
calling the revolutions of the engine = .V, and of the shaft — n. 
we have 

DN 32X75 



The width of the belt required for pulley A we find, as ex- 
pfained before, by ascertaining the trictiona\ suiiact t>\ x.\it wmt 
'^ rtc 6e/f. Referring to Figs. 54 and 55 we 6n4 ^\»* iw^^-t v 



TSANSUISSION OP POWER. 



231 



b« ^ J'. We must, of course, exaniiiie the snmller pulley, as thi* 
has the smalter frictional surface. If we do not want to find this 
surface by drawing the plan, we can proceed as follows: 

The total circumference of pulley A is ^= d " = the arc of 
360°, and to find the number of d^rees for c' d', draw two ver- 
tical lines through the center of the shaft of each pulley A and A' 
to the line connecting both centers. We know that angles ate 
= f d = o' / c' =.0' f d' =w, and drawing a line throt^h «* 




= fv as the sides 



240 



= 0.0333, 



and as per table of natural trigonometrical functions w ^= 2', or, 
in this case, a very small one which we could have neg- 
lected and taken simply one-half of the periphery of pulley 
A. However, the angle wanted Is ^ iSo — 4 and the arc 



37 



= d T = 37", and expressed in parts of the radius = 

360 12 

The formula for the friction was P = Q e^^, and to gel P we 
have to insert the values wi and ui, and V\\tTV V\« \:^t 'A *vi»s. 'A 
bells and tensions will give the reqmitd vi\4vVv ol>iA\- "^ ■= '*-^' 
for old greaty beltu. 



TXANSJI^SSION OP POWEK. 





taxa m ma» 






-■ . 




tin. 

lis 


«|IL 


StD. 


Sin. 


r 




d 


J*" 











We wHl cair ^ = width of belt ; J = thickness of belt ; 5 = ten- 
sion b the belt per square Inch; p = teoNoa of the belt per inch. 
We can allow S = 77 v'"^and d = 0.147 VT, and fr = oj/ V~^ 
if i* is exerted at the rim of the poll^, and if the horse-power is 

/fljjooo 
ft = oj/V . 





33000 


and R = radius of pulley ir 


inches. 


In a shorter form 





= 7i\~ 



\ H 



I '5 



= 7S\ = 10,6: 

ItK IS X 100 

In order (o have sufficient friction of the bell the value in the 
formula P = Q e'™ for the factor c"* must be at least = /. 
Then Q = P. But in this case we have e'" = 1.44S. or nearly 
50 per cent more friction than necessary. 

WIDTH OF OTHEK BELTS. 

For the width of the other belts we proceed as follows: 
First, the conside ration of the belt friction of which we can 
dispose in short order. Since the factor f™* must be at least ^= / 
to prevent slipping, and we know that £''* := i.ii, or sufficient, 
then we need only examine the exponent niu', and if this is less 
than 0.1 we must either take a larger pulley or. if the arc can be 
sufikiently increased by crossing, the belt should be crossed, or 
tension 5 decreased by making the belt wider. 
The width of the belts for pulleys B. C. D are b'. b", b'". 



y = Z8\~ 



= 10 ; 



TRANSMISSION OF POWEB. 




The moment at the periphery of pulley A = 12 = ZSJS^, 

ii^"- 100 
QT P R = I5T56, in which P = 1313, and R = ly. 

To faciliUte matters we can simply use the tensions in the 
table per one inch width, multiplying them by the width of belt 
selected to get P. If we make b' = 10", b' = **, b'" = 10", we 
have these moments: 

for pulley B 10 X loo X 3= 3ooo lb.', 

for pulley C**X 80 X 9 = S?6olb.', 

for pulley D wX loox 'o= zoooo lb.'. 

It is not advisaUe to allow the angle of twist of a shaft 10 be 

more than 1° per 16' of length, and the table for lateral and 

torsional strength is figured on this basis. This table givea the 

diameter of different shafts for the given moment = P R, and for 

the quotient formed by dividing the number of horse-power 

through the number of the revolutions. 

TORSIONAL STREKCTH. 

Every shaft is subjected to two kinds of tensions, viz., the 
"lateral" tension or strength, and the "torsional" tension or 
strength. 

As a rule, the torsional strength required is much greater than 
the lateral, and therefore it is best to look for this first. But 
it may be that the bearings are so far apart that the bending of 
the shaft by the force acting on the rim of a pulley, or the force 
acting at the teeth of a gear, requires a heavier shaft than is nec- 
essary for the torsional tension. This case will be considered 
later. 

Of course, we must select the greatest force P acting on any 
of the pulleys, if the shaft is to have the same diameter all 
through. The greatest force, as we will see by comparing Oak. 
tour forces, is the force P acting at d*t V\m oV v^'^^'S A., *«&■ 
= ijis lbs. It we iind in the table umdei tixt \icni ^^ ^.wi^^s^ 
strength the value of P R = 15756 Ci»tar«t "*'i'»* = ibTl'^ - '™' 



334 TBANSMTSSION OP POWER. 

the diameter of the shaft needed is 3.4'. This diameter we covM 
reduce a little for pulley D, since there the moment is only 10,000^ 
«id Uu< cor/e^ond* to 3 belt of 3.1, but it arould bftrdly paj la ' 
do to. 



SKAFT VUl 


HxiDS ra s 


im HOUR 


IS un goonBR h». 


-i,». 


rorLstenlStraoKth. 


FMTonlOMiatnBgUt. 




M 




H 




PR 


n 


PB 


a 






o.ou 


Mt 


O.OM 




MM 


e.on 




o-g* 




•MS 


0.1Ci 


TJI 


0.<H» 






e.no 


ins 


o.ci 














I7M 






o!oM 


.4 


mw 


O-K 


mi 


O-OM 








MM. 












eliu 




0830 


:aM 




o.m 


■.i 




.MK 


imt 










lt7» 






jsno 


iiw 


i»ea) 


oim 




mm 


.411 


vaa 








-Mt 




0^418 




1JSS89 




*4as 


0.71 




IJSMO 


:« 


OMEO 






MMO 


.01 








aeicn 






i!m 




»fl«IO 




i&nao 


2.M 




4e>Mo 


.74 




S.U 




&iaa30 


W 




4. 




ocMoa 




siJio) 


SOI 




712*00 


1 !ss 


verta 


S.H 








4X33S0 


T.M 




IIOHOD 




7wa» 


11 -n 




i4»eD0 


Si.74 


looaoo 


]S.«8 




iBn»n 


S8.SI 




« w 




sismoo 


W.II 


lEMMD 






SSMOOO 


44.41 


M4T0IW 


w;™ 



LATEBAL STSEHGTB. 

If we now look in the cottunn for the latenU strength we find 
much smaller shaft diameters, which, however, cannot be used in 
our case, as the torsional strength requires a shaft of greater 
diameter. 

If we should find, however, that the lateral strength requires & 

greater diameter, in such case we must consider a combination 

moment formed from the two, the lateral and the torsional, 

which we will call ■= W, ; and the torsional moment = M\, and 

the lateral moment = M\. Then we have 

ifjf, > M, . then M. = 0.975 H, + o-»S M >. 
matf 

'YJr. > i<, , then if , = 0^5 Hi -V- oA U << 



TRANSMISSION OF POWER. 235 

II we have a shaft (Fiff. 56) of tbe length T from- cra- 
ter bearing to center bearing, and a pull^ is placed between the 
two bearings at the distances a and 6 from the respective centers 
of bearings, then we have first the pressure exerted against the 
bearing ^ A; 

P- = Q , 

if Q is the load on the shaft and equal to the force acting on the 
rim of the pulley ; and at point B, 

P" = Q-f—. 
+ ft 
Then the lateral moment of the point where the pulley is placed 
must be equal to the lateral moment of each bearing, and to have 
equilibrium they must be both alike. 

ba ab 

Jfj = =0— , 

a+b o+b 
if the. load is in the middle of T, then 

cf a 

a = b and Af, = = fl — . 



r BEABINGS. 

If we make T = izo" we can figure Ihe Af,. II Q is in (he 
center of the shaft, we have P = 1000 lbs. ; R = 10". Then 
Mr = PR= 10000; 

M =Q-~=: 1000 X JO = joooo; a = 60. 
s 
Therefore, 

M, = C.975 M\ + 0.3S Mt = 0.975 X 30000 + 0.15 X loooo, 

Mr = 29250 + 2500 = 31750, 

that is, far above the figure which we used when selecting Ihe 
diameter of is?70. This shows that we must put the bearings 
closer together if we want to place a pulley with such moment in 
the middle of the shaft. 

To find the proper bearing distance for a shaft of 3.4* diameter 
and the above pulley placed in the center 



' SjiS TttANSMlSSION OF POWER. 

If -we must make the distance between the bearings great 
and want the pulley in ihf middle, wc must increase the diamelv ^ 
of the shaft so thst Ihe rwutting mwiient is equal or less than 
Ihe monjeat given in the table for the diameter of sbatt selected. 

If we want to know how far we can scl pulley D away from 
the bearing without bringing undue laieral strain upon the shaft 
of the selected diameier, we have the moment of Ihe force P"' 
acting on the rini of pulley D = looo lbs., and the lever of 
P"' = a'. Since we have no outer bearing we have only t 
consider this distance of ihe ccnier of the pulley from the cetitef 
of bearing — o'. The moment, therefore, =^ P'" X «' = the tor- 
sional moment — loooo; and since wc know P'" ^ JOOO, we find 
a = lo". that is, Ihe pnller can be placed only zo" from tte 

center of Lbe beariag. 






=A 




If it is desired, however, to set the pulley farther awmy, nude- 

ing the distance b ^ lio', we can find the distance a at which the 

next bearing must be placed to prevent undue strain of the shdt. 

-'/. = 'J77<' = °-97J -V, -i- o-V -'A 



- "-975 X ' 



f o.!j X / 



isrro = 0.975 X 'ooo 1- tsoo; 

JM + a 
13170 {ISO + a) = 975 Xmx a; 
13170 X'io= (975 Xiio— 13170) a = 1591400 : 103730 = '5-*". 
If the distances are given in proportions of the whole distance, 
which is commonly the case, we must find the correct shaft 
diameter for Ihe combination moment existing in the place wher« 
(Ac palhy h placed. If w« make the d\st&T\<:« I = lyf , «(A 



TRANSMISSION OF POWER. 237 

M, = o.qjs X 'ooo h o ^J X 'oooo = 4rjoo If 

JO + 200 
and find in the table for the nearest value d = 4.f ^ diameter 
of shaft required. 

STRESSES. 
"Strength" of a material is its resistance to a permanent 
deformation. 

"Elasticity" of a material is the amount of Stress it can sus- 
tain and still regain its original form after the removal of the 

A body can be subjected to four principal stresses : The 
"crushing" stress, the "tensile" Stress, the "transverse" stress, 
and the "torsional" stress. 





r^ 



I. The "Elasticity Modul" (E) is the number of pounds re- 
quired to double the length of a prism of one square inch area, 
assuming thai the elongation per pound of weight is the same 
after the body has been lorn asunder as before this took place. It 
is proportional to the weight as far as it can be observed. 

z. The "Strength Modul" (AT) is Ihe number of pounds which 
must be exerted to elongate the prism to the limit of its elasticity, 
that is to say, so that it will regain its original length after the load 
has been removed. 

3. The "Load Modul" (7") is the number of pounds of weight 
required to tear the prism apart. 

4. The "Safety Modul" iJC) is the number of pounds which, 
experience has (aught, can be safely exerted upon the prism with- 
out deforming il if subjected to it ever so often, as is" the case 
practically. It is expressed in pans of the load modul, and Uw. 

T 
sj-mhol expressing it is = m, thereiorc, K" =■ — . 



2^ rftAHSMlSSIOH OF FOWBK. 

We luYe two Idiidi of moduli for each of the above. 

girea the nooibcr of poauds for the pulling ■treat, and the ad 
the ntunber of poomb for the crtiiUiiit atreaa. 



1 


1 


^«3Jlillii \ : 


r 


1 


liSliiilii :S 


i 
1 


1 


iiii||i|iiN 


! 


iiiilililii; 


1 

r- 5 


1 

s 


litiiiiim: 


j|«si|lii:i;: 



S- !g|i|i3S| 
iU 'Igllllli: 



I 






If H-e call P the lead OT force in pounds-, Lthe knph in inct 
o/the body; I the eiongsHon of the body sufieyeA-. E itvc tN^^'Oi 
^odaj; fr — cross section in square incbt*-, ■«« VaN«. ^"^^ * 



TRANSlflSSION OF POWER. 339 

P 

1, PMing sirtu: P = F K, and F = ~\ and for practical 

K 

purposes P = F K' ;K' = —:m = 6 usually. 

2, Crushing stress: P = P K (crushing) and, practically, 
P = F K' (crushing). 

3, Transverse stress: To consider wtiat will happen to a 
beam, when it is fastened at one end in the wall, and the load 
applied at the other end, we must consider the beam as a 
mathematical line, takii^ the neutral axis of the beam, in other 
words, the line of center of gravity for all cross sections existing. 
In the case of a regular wooden beam these cross sections are 
all alike, and the center of gravity of the cross sections lies in 
the center of it, and is found by drawing the two diagonals of 
the section, their point of intersection being the center of gravity 
for this special section. 

In order to make the formula independent of the cross section 
of the beam we use a factor W which is obtained by dividing the 
bending modul e W by the distance of the farthest fiber in the 
cross sec lion from the center of gravity of the section, and 
called the section modul. Below are given some of the values 
W and € W mostly used: 





shaft 


area 


e (V 


tv 


Fig. ST.. 


rectang- 
ular 


bh 


bh* 
12 


bh* 

6 


Fig.sS.. 


square 


A' 


A' 


0.1 18 h* 


Fig.59-- 


cylinder 


0.7SJ d' 


oo4Qd* 


o.ogSin 


Fig bo. . 


lube 


jSj (D' - d') 


<T.049{D<-d<) 


,.^(!^-) 



If we call P = weight in pounds; Q = load, or load and 
weight of beam; I = length of beam; a and b the distances where 
P attacks; IV = section modul; K' = -afety modul. We have 
for a beam fixed at one end (Fig. di): 



»'K' = (p+— ). 



240 TRANSMISSION OP 

= 0; 

P = o: 
for beam supported at both ends (Fig. 63) : 



WK-={ — +-) — .u-< : 

=(p + _) ,if_> : 










For htani fixed at both ends (Fig. 64) : 



if = 6, SWK- = {p + — Q)1: 

3 
UQ-o. 8lVK- = Pl; 
ilP = o, i2WK- = Ql. 
For beam fixed at one end and supported at the other (Fig. 63) : 
abia-^ib) Ql 

W K- = P f- — ^. 

iF 8 

a a = b. 8fVK'=(—P+Q)l; 



i{Q=o. — WK- = Pl, 

3 
i{p=zo. 8WK' = Q\. 



TRANSMISSION OF POWEB. 



241 



Explanation of ccmditiotis : 

a=b, means load or force in the middle of the beam. , 
Q ^0, means weight of beam n^lected. 
P = 0, means the 1of4 evenly distributed. 
4. Shearing stress is a transverse stress acting in the plane of 
(he force, tending to shear of the body at the attacking point of P. 
It is proporlional to the cross section, and its modul is 0.8 of E, 
or 0.8 of K' for practical purposes. 

STREMGTp OP ROPES AND CBAIHS. 

fftf^*-.— Diameter of jfope = d. Then 
tP " K 
P=- ; K (pull) = 7000 »*. 



fyygj 




m = s = cocfficit 
Wire So/>f.— Diameter of rope = rf. 



t^oo; ~ = K' = 1400 lbs. 
of safety. 



K' = — r= 17800 lbs.; m - 




tnm Cham, — Kameter of raoBd iraa tned := d. 
f ' K f' 

P = : — = P K'.K = s90O0»s.. 

i m t 

hut on mcconnt of the bending and wddiiig necessaiy, make 
K = 40000, and for ordinarr links (Fig. 65), 

K' = /aa>c»a»., 
for links witli stays (Fig. 66), 

JT = »5<» It*. 

sTKurcm or the hoox. 

In Fig. 67 we call i =^ diameter of bottom of thread Bccttring 

hook to fixed point; if = diameter of romid iron, of which tbe 

hook is supposed to be made, measured on center line AC df dw 

hook = AB; CB the radius of tbe ho<* = «. 

If we make a = — d, and d" =: 1.8$ d, and since we know that 

the iron of the part d requires 

iP ~ k iP^ 55000 d* - 
P = X — = X = Xpooo, 



STRESGTll OF BIVEtS. 



Stms in the plane of the sheet.— la Fig. 68, if D = thicknesa 



= diameter of rivet ; / = distance c 
of sheet; e = distance center to center of twt 
then 

strength of joint I 

strength of sheet 4 D 



adjoining riveta; 



This shows that the strength of the joint 
diameter of the rivets increases, as then the vali 



d 
But if d is increased then e must also be increased, and this 
means ihat the rivets must be placed farther apart, and therefore, 
t^e tightness of the joint impaired, the joint \oses to <\i£tv\.TO*» 
•»■/»/ tt gains ia strength. 



TRANSMISSION OF POWEB. 243 

For joints which arc required to be tight and strong at the 
D 
same time take — =: 2. 
4 
The resistance against tearing out the iron between the rivets 
= {e — d) D K: 

The refiistanee against shearing out the rivet holes at the end 
of the sheet = if D K'. 

The resistance of the rivets against shearing off = JC. 

And 






'^p 



p^ 




StcEDjjIh of Rivets. 

D t f ^ 

If — = ^, then — = s'4i for which 5 is taJten, and — = — 

d d d 3 

= 1.S7, for which the working formula j ■= 3i\% used. 

D I 

The strength of the joint of which — = ^. and — — J, is 

equal to % of the strength of the sheet before riveting. 

Sireis vertical to Ihe plane of Iht sheet. — Under such stress 
the heads of the rivets may be shorn off (Fig. 68a). If X = AC 
and X' = BD, then these represent the shearing lines, ajwi. -«t 



■t haw 



jr= ~ il the heads are to have One same, ^^t^^^'* 
vitb respect to pulling apart.- 



244 TSANSMISSION OP POWER. 

The diameter of the oookal head is osisally = — d, and Hit 
diameter of the round head =V«f, and its height = % if . 

SlUNGTB or BOLTS. 

The diameter to be calcwiatcd is the diameter at the bottom of 
the thread = d. The area =: F is the one which we hare to tert 

<r 

for strength. F = — t. We have for wrought iron K = SSOoa, 

4 
and take m = /^, on account of the twist the material has re- 
ceived while being threaded, and which it receives when the bolt 
is tightened. Therefore, 

4f K K 

P = — ?r — , and — = 4300. 
4 12 12 

d d 

The height of the head = — , and of the nut = — , is required to 

4 ^ 

give the same strength, while in practical work the head is made 
= % d, and the nut = d, 

STRENGTH OF CYLINDRICAL SHEET IRON VESSELS. 

We call p the pressure per square inch of surface ; d the thick- 
ness of the shell; m the coefficient of safety; r the radius of 
the cylinder; K the load modul. We have 

mpr 

d = . 

K 

and take m = 12, which is necessary to prevent parting of the 

sheet lengthwise. 

mpr 
d = , 

2K 

h necessary to prevent the parting of the sheet crosswise, and ia 
only half of »!ie above. 

This is independent of the form of the head. If the head is 
part of a globe, as is usual, and d = thickness of head, and r = the 
radius of the globe, then 

mr p 

d = . 

2K 



TRANSMISSION OF POWER. 



245 



WIRE ROPE TRANSMISSION. 

We coll P tbe force exerted on rim of rope pulley; d the diame- 
ter of rope; S the tension of rope per aquare inch; i the namber 
of wires in rope; D the diameter of rope pulley; /' the coeffident 
of journal friction of pulleys ; f the friction coefficient of rope on 
pulley; R the radius of rope pulley. 

This kind of transmission enables us to transmit power for long 
distances without much loss of efficiency. The distance possible 
is up to 4.000 feet. This is possible since the whole transmission 
requires nothing more than two rcdlers, and perhaps carriers 
over which the rope passes slack, and the weight of the rope fur- 
nishes the necessary tension. 

Most of the ropes used for this purpose consist of stx ropes 
twisted into one, each in turn being composed of six Single wires, 
making a total of thirty-six wires with a ri>pe core in tiie center. 




e Rope Ti 



If it is desired to make the rope still stronger for the same diame- 
ter, then the rope core is replaced by a seventh wire rope. 

The tension in the taut rope is called T, and the tension in tbe 
slack rope (. Then the minimum P requires 

( T T-\-l T I 

P~ ' P~ ' P ~ ' I ~ r' 
The loss by slipping of the rope is about 0.02 per cent of the 
power expended. If d' ^ diameter of journal of pulley, make 
d- 1 

— ^ — , and lake for/' the value o.i, and for / the value 0.24. 
R 16 

Thedi 



S KiSooo lbs. per square inch. 
of the pulley must not be smaller than the equa- 
140000QO 



y = velocity of rope per minute in l«(*. tfawAi «*■ ^* '^*''^' 
than = 100'. 



34^ TKANSmSSlOH OF POWKK. 

The smallest pOMiUe dlUMIer of t rope, vhkh cms be uw^ u 
obtained when 5' -|- f it cmutant, making — =: i, which eone- ' 



■ponds 1 



= Jt#DO lbs., and to « = itXoo lbs., or — = 833, 



The tag of tht wirt ropf. — If the wire rope by its own w ei g h! 
is expected to furnish stiffident tennon to prevent slippinc, we 
mast find the distance between the two pulleys so that the weight 
of the rope will be equal to the force transmitted (Fig- 69). 

We call t the distance from center to center of pnUeirs ta 
inches; A' the sag of the taat rope; k" the sag of the slack roft; 
h" the sag of the rope when at rest; S" the tension of tant rape; 
S" the tension of the slack rope ; 5* the tension of the rope wben 
at rest. Then we have 



A' 



( 



; h' = 0.67 X *" + o.rf A'. 

I 155 S- I rSSS" 
We can now find the length of the rope, knowing Ihe sag, 
which is the same for the slack and taut rope when at rest If 
we assume that the rope forms an arc of a circle, which is for 
practical purposes sufficiently accurate, and we call the line con-- 
necling both ends of the arc, for our purpose = 1. the distance 
between centers of pulleis. and take h' for the height of the arc. 
then 

r = radius of arc = \h' + (~) . 

Calling ihe angle formed by the two radii connecting the two ends 

of the arc «ith the center — 2 -a.\ we have tan «• = ■. and we 

I 
find t(' in the table of trigonometrical functions. 

Since ^ r ~ is the circumference of the whole circle formed by 
radios r. and represents = j6o°, we must take for the length oit 



the rope the value r 



: inch diameter will 



weigh about 0.2 lbs. If we take i •= SlOO lbs., we have — = S33, 
tnfl if we vtaat to transmit the force oi 5sa \^- ^^ *« ^'^"^ '^^ ** 



TRANSMISSION OP POWBB. 
SSO 



247 



pulley, we have — = ■^^— = o.o6s square inch. We then find In 
.^ S 8400 

table of "thickness of wire" at six wires per rope for the nearest 
value to 0.065; <t = 0.048", it we select a tbiity-six strand wire, 



and since v 



. have - 



- = 7, we get 

t = 350 lbs., 
T 

P~ ' 

T= It 10 lbs.. 



h = 



'55 X 4^00 
h° = 0.67 h" -f 0.28 h' = 1134" ■ 
SSO 
Therefore, the length of the rope should be ^= = i?5o' 

0.2 

f 

=; ^jo'. The diameter of the rope we find from 0.065 = — ' ' 



OF WIRE AT s 



: WIRES FEB KOFE. 



0.01100 
O.OISM 

o.asios 



348 



TKANSIilSSION OF POWSR. 



I = aytoo — S tension caused by bending wires around pi 

R 
and since — = Sjl, it followa that R = o^ X *iJ = 133"- 

We cannot, of coartc. use snch distance of pulleys under 
nary conditions, unless the power is la be transmitted from ] 
hill, where tbe valley between has at least a depth of k" = 
= iif. The power which we assumed transmitted is very : 
and the rope, therefore, very light, and has to be long to 
the wdghl to SSo 'tw- 
in a case where we cannot allow such enormous sag, we 
use the rope like a belt, giving the rope tension by taking u] 
of the sag, sufficient, as in the case of the bell, to prevei 
rope from slipping on the pullejrs. 
We know that T must not be smaller than iP. If now 



increased m t: 
= « 7". 



es, and the resulting t 



n called T>. th< 



;o remain the sanie per square inch, ihci 
-, instead of Vi S", therefore the thickness ( 



single wire d* = df m. 

The wire is under no extra strain, 
but took a larger diameter for each s 



MSDwiihouinwchlne..... 

Uan working on leTCr 

Hao warklnicoKi'nnli-- . 
Man Korklngon rope Teni 
Wap workloft on rope horli 
Hone witlraiil machlnv .. 
RoniC norktni; on mrj*l . . 

SleCT Klihoiil machine 

Steer working on iinepcl . . . 

Mole u'liboiii RiBCblne 

Miilvnorkln^on iroeiiel.., 
JL« Hlllioul roublnp 



TRANSMISSION OF POWER. 

LECTRICAL POWER IN THE BREWERY AND M> 

HOUSE. 

TRANSMISSION OF ELECTRICAL POWER. 

In late years the old style of transmission of power by mei 
f belts or ropes is gradually being replaced by electrical trai 
lission by means of a dynamo, \%1res and motors. Most of t 
lilures experienced in the use of electrical transmission ha' 
een found to be due to improper construction of dynamos an 
lotors when these machines were in their infancy, or, rather, i 
le experimental stage. At the present time, however, these part 
ave been perfected to such a degree that break-downs, etc., car 
e usually ascribed to improper or careless manipulation, rathet 
lan to faulty construction. 

The chief advantages derived from the use of electrical trans- 

lission lie in doing away ^ith the troublesome belts and coun- 

Tshafts, which require unceasing care, and are a source of con- 

derable loss of power by friction; also in the greater safety 

om fire and consequent reduction in insurance rates. This 

;s of power has been stated as averaging about 40 per cent of 

' power delivered by the engine, running even as high as 50 

cent, while the manufacturers of dynamos and niotors claim 

laximum loss of power of only 20 per cent, or a difference of 

n 10 to 30 per cent in favor of electric transmission and 

t. 

further advantage is that power can be transmitted to almost 

distance, so that a machine, no matter how far it is situated 

the power engine, can be instantly brought into use, while 

belt transmission the whole line of shafts, countershafts and 

leading to it must either be run idle until this machine is 

or, if not running, must be started up to run this machine 

which takes some time and signaling to the engineer. 

also docs away with the former method of arranging 

chines to suit the best way of placing the line shafts and 

the ditTercnt machines to be placed in the most economical 

s, thereby saving space and giving economy of arrange- 

ost of the building can also be somewhat chea.^^v^<i.<\. '^.'^ 
s, girders, etc., need not be tt\a<i^ ol ^YM^a. ^V^^xv^i^ 
to support the shafting, puWeva, c.Vt. 



aSO IBANSHIBSION OP POWOL 

Fardiennore, the dectrlod ft^Bteoi is netCor ind deaftof^. ii 
that dripping of lubricatiiig oil it done away witlL s^ 

The danger to workmen getting can^^ in gearings, belts, ptJ^ *«i 
leys, etc, is very much lessened. 

ADfVANTAGn Of SLaCXUC UGBT. 

Regarding the advantages' of dectric l^hting, it can be said 
that electric lamps present tiw foUowiog advantages: 

Electric light attains the highest degree of intensity and illumi- 
nating e£Fect in comparison with light from any other source so 
far utilized. 

If calculated from the point of view of eflkiency, electric light 
proves to be by far the cheapest, which is especially tmeln re^tect 
to arc light as compared, for instance, with petroleum or even gas- 
light 

The handling and treatment of electric lamps is exceedingly 
simple, convenient, safe and cleanly, the latter consideration 
being especially advantageous in a brewery and malt house. 

The radiation of heat by an electric incandescent lamp is al- 
most nil, and the danger of fire is consequently reduced to a 
minimum. Electric lamps may be carried from place to place as 
far as the length of the wire connecting them with the source of 
energy permits, and can be lighted and extinguished instantane- 
ously. Electric lamps do not fill the surrounding air with more 
or less malodorous products of combustion. 

Both electric power and light can be generated by the same 
dynamo, thus simplifying the whole arrangement. 

NATURE OF ELECmcnY. 

The true nature of electricity in all its many aspects is not yet 
clearly understood and remains to be further investigated. 
Electricity may, although it is not a fluid as was formerly held, be 
compared to water, on account of a similarity of their flow, in the 
following way: 

Water falling from a certain height can be utilized for ac- 
complishing work, for instance, driving a wheel. If two tanks 
connected ^ith each other at the bottom by a pipe are filled with 
water at different levels, the water from the tank having the 
higher level will naturally flow into the tank of lower level till 
Ifoth tAnks will contain water at the same level. If electricity 
/s substituted for water and a wire ot cMitoVi Vw ^t. vc^^ %3x 



TRANSMISSION OF POWER. 2$l 

idea etn be obtained of the similarity of the nature of an electric 
cvfrent. Electricity flows through a wire from a higher level to a 
Holder, similar to water. In case of electricity, however, the term 
potential is used, instead of level, and it may be said thaf an 
electric current flows from the high potential to the low potential. 

This justifies the electrical term of difference of potentials by 
the similarity to difference of levels of water in two tanks con- 
nected by a pipe. Through every cross-section of the pipe a 
certain quantity of water flow^ per second, and this quantity 
jnay be taken as the measure of the strength of the current. 
Similarly through every cross section of the wire or conductor 
there floi^s per second a certain quantity of electricity, and this 
quantity may be considered as the measure of the strength of an 
electric current. The quantity of water flowing through a pipe in 
a given time may be increased by increasing the pressure that 
causes the motion of the water, that is, by increasing the differ- 
ence between the levels of the two connected tanks. Similarly the 
strength of an electric current may be increased by increasing the 
difference between its potentials. 

As moving water, for instance a waterfall, may do work, such 
as to drive a mill, so likewise the electric current can be utilized 
for accomplishing work. As the difference in levels is the mov- 
ing power of a waterfall, so a difference in potentials of an 
electric current is the electro-motive force. A fall of difference 
of potentials would consequently mean a decrease of the power 
of the current and vice versa. 

The strength of the flow of water through a pipe depends par- 
tially on the size of the pipe. The larger the pipe, the greater 
will be the flow, and the smaller the pipe, the slo\*er the flow, 
under similar conditions, owing to the decreased or increased fric- 
tion. The friction is the resistance of the pipe to be overcome 
by the flow of water. An electric current sent through a wire or ' 
any other conductor meets with resistance like a current of wa- 
ter meets with friction in a pipe. There is, however, an essen- 
tial difference between simple mechanical friction and resistance 
in the electrical meaning of the term. Friction depends on the 
shape of the surface of a body. If the surface is smooth, the 
friction is correspondingly small. It is lV\e d^i^t^^ oV \rcv^NtTv\v^ss 
or rougrhnefifi that increases friction, not tV\t iv^\.wt^ o^ "Ocv^ "^^V 



252 TRAHSHISSIOK OF POWflS. ''. 

material itself. It is quite different with the resistance oft CMt- 
duit to an electric ctirrent. Different bodies conduct electiidty 
in different degrees. Some, for instance copper, conduct elec^ 
tricity readily, others ire poor conductors, while some do not 
conduct electricity to any appreciable extent, and are called in- 
sulators. Even good conductors of electricity offer some resist- 
ance to an electric current, as the smoothest surface does not do 
away entirely with friction. The conductivity and non- conductiv- 
ity of bodies to electricity is somewhat similar to the conductivity 
or no n- conductivity of heat. 



In calculating the flow of water in a pipe the friction must be 
taken into consideration. In the same way the quantity of elec- 
tricity per second passing from one point of the circuit lo another 
depends on the resistance of the wire or conductor between the 
two points, provided a constant difference of potentials is kept 
up between them. The amount of electricity passing a given 
cross section of the wire must become less in proportion as the 
resistance incre.i'es. This rcsislaii^i: is measured by. ohms. An 
ohm is the resistance of a column of mercury 106.3 centimeters 
(41.9 inches) long and one square millimeter (0.0015 inch) in 
cross section. A pure copper wire 46.25 meters (151 feet) loi^ 
and one mijlimclcr (0.O015 inch) in diameter, has a resistance of 
about one ohm. 

It the comparison be menially repeated between the flow of 
water in a pipe and a current of electricity in a conductor, iliere 
will he nc difficulty in compreliending the correctness of the fol- 
lowing Ohm's lav.'': 

■"The strength of a current flowing between any iwo poinl.^ of 
a wire is directly proportional to the clcctro-moiivc force in the 
wire (difference between its potentials) and invcrst-ly proper- 
tii.nal (..■■ The resistance between these two poiiils." 

The M.v >>■' risisliiiiii: may be expressed as follows: 1. The re- 
si?^t;ni..-c ■•i a conducting wire is proporlional to its length. 2. The 
rcsisi.ince of a conductiiig wire of gi'cn diameter nnJ length de- 
pends upon the specific rc■^i$litnce 01 the in.ileriai froni ivbii-h it 

tenslh 
rrsisfaiice ^ X sf'fi'i'." reiii.'Jitfi-, 

an-a of cross section 



TRANSMISSION OF POWER. 



253 



-^ rUMDAUENTAI. UNITS OF ELECTRICAL UBASUKE. 

^ Fundamental or absolute units used for defining various electri- 
cal quantities are tiie centimeter for measuring length, the grant 
for measuring mass, and the second for measuring time. All 
other electrical units are derived from these fundamental units. 
Briefly, this system is designated as the C. G. 5. (initials of centi- 
meter, gram and second) system and their quantities are rep- 
resented by the letters E. M. F. In practice, honever, larger 
units are used: 



Quantltr to be 
Measured. 


Name of Pne- 
Hcal Unit. 


Sjobol 


Num- 
ber of 


""BiC" 


"xa!" 


oS.°°"" 

Qoanllty. 


Voli. 
Aoipece. 

Farad. 


I 


10' 
10' 
10' 

10' 
10- 


Units. 

becio = 100 
deca= LO 


SSL;, 



An ampere is a current that will pass with E. M. F. (aM>re- 
viation of eleclro-motive force) of one volt through a circuit whose 
resistance is equal to one ohm, or a current that will deposit, in 
a suitable apparatus for electrolysis, 1.118 milligrams of silver 
out of a solution of nitrate of silver, or decompose O.o()32i milli- 
grams of water in a second. 

A volt is the E. M. F. of the end points of a one-ohm resistance 
through which a current of one ampere flows. 

A coulomb is the amount of electricity that flows ii 
past a point in a conductor carrying a current of 

In order to gel an idea about what a farad mean 
sary to explain what an electric condenser is. It is 
consisting of alternative layers of conducting sheets and insulat- 
ing materials. The conductors arc very close together, and the 
adjacent ones arc charged with opposite kinds of electricity, one 
with positive, the other with negative. Their nearness to each 
other allows them to hold a larger quantity of electricity than 
they could if each were alone by itself. The purpose of such an 
apparatus is 10 collect and retain electricity. They may be 
aptly compared to a reservoir for collecting and ktc^^'^^ -^i-iVft 
or gas. The ijuanfity of gas a receptac\t vna-j totAi«\ (it'^^^^ 
in the first instance on the pressure ot tVt gas, awi v 



n one second 
e ampere. 



n apparatus 



t\ \N\t *«.«.■&* 



254 TRANSMISSIOK OF POWER. 

on the size of the vessel. In the same manner the quantity of 
electricity in a condenser depends on its size and the pressure of 
the electricity. The farad is, therefore, a condenser with a ca- 
pacity to hold one coulomb of electricity at a pressure of one volt 
Such a condenser would, however, be inconveniently large for a 
unit of measure and a micro-farad is used instead in practice. 

The rate at which an electric current does work is called the 
power absorbed in the circuit. The product of the current and 
£. M. F. is the measure of that power and is called a watt A 
watt is consequently the unit of electric power, the power 
absorbed by a circuit whose resistance is such that an £. M. F. 
of one volt causes a current of one ampere to flow around it A 
watt is then a voltampcre (V. A.), it is equal to yi« of a H. P. 
One thousand \%atts are called a kilowatt. One watt is eqtial to 
lo^ergs per second. A watt-hour is the work done in one hour 
by a power of one watt. 

Work or energy produced or expended is measured by the 
joule or volt-coulomb, and is equal to >*atts X time = lo' funda- 
mental units. 

KINDS OF ELECTRICITY. 

There are four methods of generating electricity : 

1. By friction, as in the frictional machine; 

2. By chemical action, as in a primary battery; 

3. By heat, as in the thermo-pile; 

4. By magnetic induction, as in the dynamo. 
Electricity generated by the first and third methods has 

found practically no commercial application. 

The second, or chemical electricity is not used to generate 
light or power commercially, but finds application in furnishing 
electricity for telegraph work, telephones, electric bells and elec- 
tro-plating. Electricity of this kind is generated b>' the chemical 
action of an acid or a chemical solution upon plates of carbon 
or metal, such as zinc, copper, silver or platinum. 

The main reason these batteries cannot be used to furnish 

electric light and power is because they gradually get weaker and 

weaker in their action, and finally become inert. The 

current generated has a very low pressure, so that 

many batteries, or ceils, would be reqvuTtd to ^uvjply even a 

fcH- electric lamps, and to keep these ceWs \u %ov%<\ v>\0^t\ ^^x^viA 



^ TRANSMISSION OF POWER. 255 

requiir^ constant care and attention in the renewal or addition 
ol file chemicals, metallic plates, etc., since in the generation of 
ttie current the metallic plates are dissolved or eaten away by 
the action of the liquid until the latter becomes entirely ex- 
hausted. 

The fourth method, or electricity by magnetic induction, is the 
kind now almost universally used for power» traction and light- 
ing purposes. In its application the power is usually furnished 
by a steam engine — sometimes by water power — from which the 
power is transmitted to a dynamo or generator, in which the 
power is changed into an electric current. This current is then 
conducted to where wanted, either to an electric lamp for lighting 
purposes, or to a motor, in which the electricity is again converted 
into poi%er, to be used where it is wanted. 

DYNAMO-ELECTRIC MACHINE. 

The principle of a dynamo can be understood after some idea 
is obtained of electro-magnetism and induction. 

A magnet has two poles, one positive and the other negative; 
the similar poles repel, while the opposite ones attract each 
other. This power of attraction or repulsion is directly propor- 
tional to the square of the distance between the poles. The 
space where the magnetic force is acting is called the Held of 
force, in which the lines of force are contained. 

It may be added to this brief statement that the fiux of force 
is the total number of force lines passing through a surface. 

Magnets are of two kinds, the so-called natural and the 
artificial, or electro-magnets. Electro-magnets can be made 
a great deal more powerful than the natural ones and are there- 
fore preferred in practice. The total number of lines, which this 
force causes to flow through a space is called the Hux, and the 
fhix per unit area of space Is called the induction, and is denoted 
by B. The amount of the induction depends upon what material 
fills the space considered, or its pemieability. Permeability is 
denoted by the letter <*, and signifies the ratio of the 
induction to the magnetizing force producing it. The per- 
meability of a vacuum is taken as a unit. The reluctivity of a 
body or its specific magnetic resistance is the inverse ot vt«. 
permeability. 

Mechanical work expended in conlmuousXy rcvoNVci^ ^ h*v^^ v^ -^ 



256 TBAimassioif or vown. v.^ 

magnetic fuMi can be c on wtr te a into deetiic cnersf . A^^^llgl^ ^ 
necessary is to cause a closed eoil oi insulated wire to rolii^ 
in front of a magnet If tiiis is done a current is produced in um ^ 
coil, which flows around it, first in one direction and then m tiie 
opposite direction. In order to generate a current moving always 
in the same direction, it must be provided with a ring split in two 
halves, rotating with the-coil. Rubbing against the ring are two 
plates of metal or brushes, one on each side, to these are attached 
two wires leading to the circuit in which tlie current is r e qui red. 
At the instant when the current in the coil is at the point of 
reversing, each brush is passing from a position, touching one- 
half of the ring to a position touching the other half, which its 
fellow has just left The current this way becomes practically 
continuous. This rotation oofl is called the armaiurt. An arma- 
ture is therefore that part of dynamo in which the current is in- 
duced. It is usually, although not necessarily, a moving part and 
is composed of insulated wire that cuts the lines of the magnetic 
force produced by the fields. This cutting induces a current in 
the coils. A dynamo-electric machine therefore is a machine that 
converts mechanical energy into electric energy by means of an 
electro-magnet and induction. 

Use is no^' made to a great extent of currents which were not 
rectified and are called alternating currents, while the machines 
themselves are called alternators. An essential part of the modem 
dynamos is the so-called Held magnet, consisting of an iron core 
solidly connected to an iron frame and having a number of 
insulated copper wires wound around it 

Another essential part is the commutator, consisting of a num- 
ber of copper bars or segments, usually affixed radially around 
the shaft of the machine, each segment being thoroughly insulated 
by sheets of mica. Its function consists in changing the direction 
of the current. Brushes collect the current from the commuta- 
tor. The brushes are made of copper wire, copper or carbon 
plates, placed in contact with the commutator. There are at 
present about a dozen t>T)es of dynamos, differing from each 
other in the construction of their various parts. 

MEASUREMENT OF ELECTRIC QUANTITIES. 

C^a/z'anoMeter. This consists oi a ma^e\.\c nctdVt ^Ms^endcd so 
«* to move freely inside of a coil. TV\e ivced\e V2»^t& >\v ^ va«^- 



-/ TRANSMISSION OF POWER. 257 

don or^ turns according to the strength of the current moving 
thieu^h the coil. 
J ^ElectrO'dynamometer, The construction of this instrument is 
based on the principle of the mutual action of two currents on 
each other. The currents to be measured are sent through two 
coils, one of which is fixed, and the other movable and suspended 
by a torsion head. When a current passes through, the force with 
which the coils attract each other is measured by the degree of 
torsion produced, and this is proportional to the square of the cur- 
rent. In the commercial application of electricity, however, a 
needle moving over a scale from which volts or amperes can be 
read off directly, is used. These instruments are called volt- 
meters or ammeters, and play about the same part in electric ma- 
chines as pressure gauges in steam use. 

Wattmeter. This is used when the power is to be measured 
directly. t 

Resistance is measured by an apparatus consisting of a battery 
of cells, a galvanometer and a number of coils whose resistance 
is known. The standard make of resistances usually consist of 
wire, made of an alloy of platinum and silver or German silver, 
and covered with silk and wound on bobbins, the whole being sat- 
urated with paraffin to insure insulation. The two ends of the 
coils are each connected to a brass block, and this block made so 
that it can be electrically connected to its neighbor by the inser- 
tion of a brass plug between them. 

STANDARDS OF ELECTRO- MOTIVE FORCE AND RESISTANCE. 

The differences in potentials, or electric levels, are measured by 
a voltmeter. These voltmeters, however, have to be calibrated 
by means of a standard of E. M. F. For this purpose primary 
cells whose E. M. F. is accurately determined, are used. Such 
is, for instance, the Latimer-Clark's cell adopted by the Chicago 
congress of electricians. It consists of two glass tubes connected 
with each other. In one of the tubes is contained an amalgam of 
pure mercury and zinc, and in the other, pure mercury having 
a layer of sulphate of mercury at the top. The cell is filled 
with a saturated solution of sulphate of zinc, into which a crystal 
or two of zinc sulphate is placed to prevent supcrsaturation. The 
tubes are hermetically sealed with pataffviv '^^lyl, ^xv^ "Ocvr: '^Ov^'^ 
formed by pieces of p/atinum wires iused VWtovl^ \>cv^ \^o\^<^vc^' ^ 

17 



258 TRANSMISSION OF POWER. V 

each tube, in order to nuke a contact ikith the merciif>; The 
E. M. F. of such a cell is about 1.35 volts at 15' C. ^ ^ 

Measurement of Electric Energy and Power, A wattmeter cdllf'^^ 
tains two coils. One of them is a short, thick wire, and the other 
a thin, long wire. The current to be measured is sent through 
the thick, short wire, while the thin, long wire is connected to the 
two points, between which it is desired to measure the power 
developed. The deflection of the needle of the instrument is pio- 
portional to the product of the currents of the two circuits. As^ 
however, the long wire has a great resistance, the current flowing 
through it is proportional to the difference of potential betnecn 
its ends. The deflection, therefore, indicates the product of the 
current and electro-motive force, since electric energy is power 
multiplied by time. It can be measured by a wattmeter in which 
the jieedle carries a style. The current can be traced on a 
cylinder moved by clockwork, the area of the current traced 
measuring the total energy expended or absorbed. 

A modern form of meter indicates the amount of current con- 
sumed, upon a dial by means of revolving indicators, and has an 
external appearance very similar to a gas meter. The current, in 
passing through the meter, acts upon an armature coil system, 
causing it to rotate. The shaft of this armature communicates 
by means of a system of wheels with the indicators so that the lat- 
ter in revolving over a series of dials indicate the current con- 
sumed by the motor. 

Accumulators are a necessary part of every well arranged elec- 
tric plant. Their purpose is to collect or accumulate electric energy 
and store it up for use when required. They may be likened to 
reservoirs of water into which water is pumped and from which 
it may be afterward drawn at a constant rate. The nature of an 
accumulator is similar to that of an electric battery. A battery 
may consist of one or many cells in which plates and liquids 
producing electricity by chemical action, are contained. There 
are two elements, or plates, of different substances, and a liquid 
contained in every voltaic battery. A primary battery is one in 
which the elements are placed and used until worn oiu. A 
secondary or storage battery is a battery in \\hich the ele- 
ments are placed in the cell and first "formed" by the pass.ige 
o/a current through them. The cell is then said to be "charged," 
and can then be used to supply cleclnc\l>f. 



^ TRANSMISSION OF POWER. 259 

cpQmuIator is on the whole nothing but a storage battery, 
trt plates are partially surrounded by a fluid incapable of 
chemically on either of them, until the passage of an 

current, after which they acquire the property of furnish- 

independent electric current. 

CHARGING AND DISCHARGING ACCUMULATORS. 

liquid for filling the cell must be distilled water to Tvhich 
ilphuric acid is added till the specific gravity of the mix- 
1.190 when cold. The specific gravity should be 1.20 to 
len the cells are fully charged. The acid solution should 
into the cells to a height of not less than half an inch 
he tops of the plates, and this level should be kept con- 
ther by the addition of pure water or weak acid, so as to 
n this specific gravity. The current should not exceed 
ie for which the cell is constructed. The charge is not 
e until violent ebullition of the gases evolved has pro- 
for some time. The battery should always be kept as 
larged as possible. If the battery has been out of regular 
some tiriic it must be surcharged for about 23 hours sub- 
to the time it is apparently fully charged, 
lormal rate of discharge should not be exceeded or should 
»e continued after the specific gravity of the liquid has 
:d to below 1. 17, or the terminal voltage of a cell to be- 
volts as the full rate of discharge, 
irging* should be done immediately after each discharge. 

THE ELECTRIC PLANT. 

r electric plant consists of two parts — the motor part, 
ing mechanical energy, and the electric part, furnishing 

energy transformed from the mechanical energy. The 
tmmon source of energy in an electric plant is the steam 

The chief requirement for such an engine is the highest 

uniformity and regularity of operation. The best for 
rpose arc compound engines. 

I a brewery or malt house electric power and light are 
d continually day and night throughout the entire year, 
; engines arc not running at times, especially in small 
es, the value of an accumulator from iVv^ ^coyvoxxxv:. '^'^iv^ 

seems obvious. An accumulutoT s.\\ou\^ \i^ Ocvcb^^vv <^V 



260 TSANSICISSION OF POWER. V 

such a size as will sniiply about one-third of all the l^er re- 
quired by the. plant 

ABC LIGHT. ^ \^ 

As arc lights arc sometimes used in breweries and malt houses 
a few words should be said about them. The principle of th^r 
construction is somewhat different in the three principal types of 
arc lights. 

In the scries arc lamps, the regulator consists of a bobbin of 
vhire, having an iron core, the whole of the current passing 
through the lamp and the coil of wire. The iron core being 
more or less thoroughly magnetized, regulates the distance at 
which the carbons are held apart. The carbons themselves are 
electrically connected to two terminals on the top or bottom of 
the lamp. The carbons are kept touching when the lamp is out 
of use by their weight or a spring, and when a current passes 
through them, they are drawn apart and the arc is established. 

In the shunt regulating lamps the regulating coil is placed as a 
shunt across the terminals of the lamp, and is made of a num- 
ber of turns of fine wire so that only a small portion of the cur- 
rent of the lamp passes through it. This regulator cannot act 
when the potential difference is constant. 

The differential regulator forms a combination of both sys- 
tems, being supplied with both shunt and series regulating coils, 
which determine by their mutual action the distance of the two 
carbons. The electric arc requires 40 to 50 volts to keep it 
going. 

The E. M. F. generated by the dynamo supplying the current 
must be sufficient to overcome the resistance of each separate 
lamp, as well as that of the conductors joining them. The dy- 
namo must, therefore, generate currents at a high pressure. In 
order to avoid this useless resistance, causing a loss of energy, 
machines have been designed to produce a constant potential in- 
dependently of the resistance of the circuit. 

INCANDESCENT LIGHT. 

The incandescent lamp consists of a glass globe, from which 
the air has been exhausted, and containing a carbon filament with 
p/atwum tips, which pass hermetically sealed tlirough the end 
of the bulb. The platinum tips are u^^viaWv v^^s.<i^ \\v\o>y^ 1. 



y TRANSMISSION OF POWER. 



261 



short bra^ tube, cemented to the glass with plaster of Paris. 
Passipfrthrough the plaster the platinum wires arc soldered to 
brags contacts imbedded in it. The purpose is to prevent the 
platinum wires, when they emerge from the glass, from breaking 
off and making the lamp useless. On opposite sides of the brass 
tubes are two small brass pins, which fit into slots in the lamp- 
holder, and thus form an easy method of detaching and remov- 
ing the lamps. There are also two small spring blocks inside the 
lampholder, connected with the source of the current, which press 
against the contact blocks in the plaster of Paris, thus completing 
the electrical connection. 

The equipment of a lamp is completed by a switch and cut- 
out. The switch is to turn the light off or on, or to break or 
restore the current to the filament. The cut-out is a device for in- 
suring grreater safety from the overheating of the wires leading 
to the lamps. It consists essentially of a thin piece of wire, made 
of a fusible alloy, placed in the lamp circuit. This fusible wire is 
made of such thickness, that if the current in the circuit be- 
comes too dangerously strong this fusible wire or fiase becomes 
hot and melts and interrupts the current. Every lamp and coil 
system of lamps ought to have separate fuses. 



N 



STEAM ENQINBS. 



There are two tdnds of fteun engiiKs, the "portable" and At 
"stalionary" ones. 

PORTABLE ENGINES. 

The portable engines arc generally connected to a boOer, oom- 
Qlete, so as to be ready for immediate use, furnishing a con- 
venient means of power at any place and whenever wanted. 

Small sizes are mounted on a platfonn with axles and wheels, 
and upon the platform is erected a vertical boiler with an hori- 
lontal or vertical engine, steam connections and feed pump rom- 
plete. 

For use on farms for threshing, plowing, etc., a com- 
bination of an horizontal boiler, provided with axles and wheels, 
is used, the horizontal engine mounted on the back of the boiler, 
and the wheels moved by a chain connecting the wheels with a 
pulley on the shaft. 

"Sent I -port able" engines are made by putting an horizontal or 
vertical boiler upon skids, and, in the case of the horizontal 
boiler, mounting the horizontal engine either on the back of the 
boiler or on the skids, or, in the case of a vertical boiler, a vertical 
engine on the same skids with the boiler. The outfit is then 
either loaded on a low truck or moved b>- rollers to the desired 

STATION.ARY ENGINES. 
Stationary' engines are built vertically and horizontally, and for 
high and slow speed. 

A\] ''Corliss" and "automatic cut-ofT' engines are of necessity 
slow speed engines, as there is a limit to the rapid succession 
of eul-offs regulated by the governor, and such engines are gen- 
crally not mn lastcr Ihan 50 to 120 revolutions, according to the 



j^ STEAM ENGINES. 263 

y>» SLIDE VALVE ENGINES. 

A ^Hde valve" engine can be constructed for a speed as high 
. «s'400 to 500 revolutions, and such engines are especially adapted 
for running dynamos, as the belt can connect directly and no coun- 
tershaft is necessary, requiring less space, and even if the econ- 
omy is not very great, the reduced first cost and the saving of 
the countershaft and belting is a great offset for this. 

It is, of course, easy to understand that an engine running 400 
revolutions, furnishing the same power as another engine running 
only 100 revolutions, can be almost one-quarter as light, and 
consequently will cost much less. 

High speed engines generally have slide valves either flat or 
cylindrical, and have so-called fly-wheel governors, as the regu- 
lar ball or spring governor would not be sensitive enough. High 
speed engines are mostly enclosed, the shaft, journals and crank 
running in oil, as very good and continuous lubrication must be 
furnished to prevent heating. A few of these engines are the 
Ideal, Westinghouse, Huse, etc. 

Where there is no high speed required, as for drilling wells or 
hoisting, it is by far best to use slow speed engines, as in this 
case no countershaft would be needed. 

There are a good many cheap and reliable upright engines in 
the market up to about 25 horsepower. When the power re- 
quired is above 25 horsepower, it is economical to use a Corliss 
engine. 

The slide valves are made either to close and to open a single 
port at one end of the cylinder, or two or more. This is done 
in order to get a quicker and larger steam opening with the 
same throw of the eccentric. Borsig of Berlin, Germany, used to 
build engines of this type. 

A slide valve with an expansion slide on top and regulated by 
hand, gives very good economy for regular loads, and nearly as 
good a cut-off as the Corliss engine, the only difference being the 
large clearance in the main valve and the cylinder ports. 

Meyer Cut-off. — For each valve there must be one eccentric 
set at a different angle, the main valve acting like an ordinary 
slide valve, while the two expansion slides can be adjusted by 
hand from the outside by operating a hand-wheel fixed to a screw 
passing through two nuts in the expansion sA\dfc?», tcvqnTyw^ "Cw^ 
slides apart or bringing them together, TVv\s cmVq.^ v^ c*^^^ 




the "Merer cot-o£F." In tfait cue the cut-off csn be*|i^|idtled 
oalj by baud. Bat if phced in a B^antc Utam cbett oat> 
the main steani chest, the expansion ilide can be operated bf tl 
governor, as it is independent of the motions of tbe main Talvc 

In somt cases it is objectioaaUe to baTe so nnidi frictioa br 
tbe valve on tbe seat, so tbe tsItc is constnictcd balanced, br 
placing the flat valve be t we cu tbe scat and steam chest cover, 
without any play, or l^ nsing a cylindrica] valve. Bnt the tron- 
hle with either aTTangement is that earefnl adjostnient is needed 
from time to time. 

The Rider Cut-o/f is similar to tbe Meyer cnt-off. It has i 
main slide valve, and tbe bade of it is formed like > cylinder 
with the center in the line of tbe slide-valve rod. In this c^in- 
drical recess is placed the cylindrical expansion slide, which can 
be turned by its shaft around tbe axis, allowing more or leu 
tleam-opening as it passes the oblique ports of the main valve. 
This expansion slide is turned by a connection from the governor. 

CORLISS ENGINE. 

Corliss Cut-off. — The cut-off used most is the "Corliss 
cut-off," having cylindrical valves, the segments of which are 
pressed against the seals by the steam pressure, and act like regu- 
lar slide valves as long as they are held by the valve stem. As 
soon as the governor disconnects the connection between valve 
and valve stem, the valve drops very quickly, actuated by a lever 
and vacuum dash-pot closing the steam inlet. When the wrist 
plate or the eccentric, which are connected together, reaches the 
end of its stroke, the connection is made again, and the valve 
laps until the time of steam admisHon when it opens the port and 
finally the valve is tripped again by the governor. This arrange- 
ment enables the use of long, narrow ports, with little depth, and 
consequently little clearance, the ports being only the thickness of 
the material forming the cylinder at the highest part of the bore 
and close to the ends and vertical to the center line of the cylin- 
der. The live steam valves arc on lop, and the exhaust valves on 
the bottom, to drain off all condensed ivater. 

.\ny engine over 25 horsepower should be a Corliss engine, 
and all engines under 25 horsepower, good slide-valve engines, 
provided, if poss'ibie, with automatic cut-off governor. 
TAe most economical wav, however, is \0 V'isKic cmt \a.i^ 



^ STEAM ENGINES. 263 

and omP^maller Corliss engine, compound condensing, one for 
use ig the daytime, and the other at night, or for elevator 
•fril other occasional uses. Since nowadays every brewery has 
a refrigerating machine, there is generally enough water for 
condensing the steam on hand, if the water, after leaving the 
ammonia condensers, is not used for condensing the steam for 
the engine belonging to the refrigerating machine itself. 

If sufficient water is not at hand for both the refrigerating ma- 
chine and steam engine condenser a water cocking tower (which 
see) should be provided. All engines, boilers and pumps should 
be placed closely together, thereby saving time of the engineers, 
fuel and piping. 

The Corliss engine has only one drawback, namely, that its 
valves are not absolutely tight, and this is because the 
cut-off being automatic and controlled by the governor, 
it is evident that the cut-off must vary continually, which means 
that the inlet valve does not travel over the same place in the 
valve chamber all the time. As long as the work and the revolu- 
tions are nearly constant, the variation will be only slight, but 
when these conditions are changed, as for instance, during beer 
cooling, where more revolutions and more power are generally 
required, the latter, owing to the higher suction and greater con- 
densing pressure, the travel of the valve is materially changed, 
and it will travel farther, passing the point of the seat at which 
it formerly stopped. 

It is clear that after the valve has traveled for some time over 
the same stretch, it has worn this place somewhat, and if it then 
travels beyond the place worn down, it cannot be tight on the 
seat, but will allow steam to leak into the cylinder after the cut- 
off has taken place, which, of course, involves a loss. 

The slide valve, on the other hand, always travels over the 
same path, and since its edge travels both ways over the 
edge of the seat, the seat cannot wear a shoulder, and will, even 
if not quite tight in the beginning, soon become absolutely tight. 

The desire to combine this advantage of having a reliable 
valve, and yet using the steam expansively, led to the construction 
of the "automatic governor," of which the only practical type is 
the "Trempor governor." This governor takes the place of the 
ordinary throttling governor, and gives \\xs\. ^s ^\i\0«. -^ oo^-^^ 
as the Corliss, showing as periecl s^eed T^^>3\'a.\AO\N. -a.'^k "Csx^ 



366 STB&M BHSNES. \, 

Corliu gawentor mnd valre, besides beins cheiper. The a^ di»- 
advuiUse is that the deanaoe in the cyliiMtcr U i i ■!>! in- 
creased because the steam is cut off bdore it enters the Bteb»^ 
chest, adding the contents of the latter to the cjHiader clearance. 
When designing an cng^e tor this governor this clearance can 
be greatly reduced, making the ecODomj of such an engine almost 
as great as that of a Corliss engine. 

USIMG SIKAH KXPAHSIVELy. 

The advantages of using atesm e^qnnsivdr instead of throttUni^ 
will appear from the following deductions : 

In a throttling engine the speed of the machine is regulated 
bf reducing the pressure of the live steam to suit the require- 
ments, which may be up to one-half fd the total pressure. We, 
therefore, do not get the benefit of the h^h boiler pressure, al- 
tbongh we gain a lililc by superheating the steam, nhich is dose 
by the reduction in pressure, at the same time reducing the steam 
cylinder condensation. 

But another great objection to this kind of engines is that it 
is necessary to fill the cylinder about three-fourths with steam — 
three-fourths is generally the cut-off a slide valve has — while in 
an engine using the steam expansively there is, in the first place, 
steam of full pressure, and secondly, the cylinder need be filled 
only about one-fourth of its capacity. 

There is another difference in the cnt-ofis of the two kinds of 
engines. The one provided with the slide valve cuts off very 
slowly, ihe valve being actuated by the slowly moving eccentric, 
while in the other case the vacuum under the dash-pot piston 
closes the valve rapidly. The process in the slide-valve engine 
can be called only a throttling, and the pressure is almost the 
same during the whole stroke. 

DIFFERENCES OF THE TWO KINDS OF EN'GINES. 

The differences in the use of steam for the two kinds of 
en^nes are not inconsiderable. In the formul* ihat will be 
given the steam cylinder condensation will be neglected. This 
condensation may amount to a little less in the slide-valve engine; 
owing to the lower temperature of the steam entering the cylin- 
der. But since it is here assumed that both engines exhaust into 
!■*■? atmosphere the lemperature will be the same during the cx- 
aat period, and the difference will be sntaW. 



y 



STEAM ENGINES. 



267 



Taking the case of 100 pounds boiler pressure, and 90 pounds 
preaiure at the cylinders, further assuming that the steam in case 
6f the slide-valve engine is throttled to 60 pounds, the cut-ofiF in 
the slide-valve engine being three-fourths, and in the Corliss en- 
gine one- fourth, in that case, for the mean effective pressure in 
each c^se, the general formula is: 

p = P UnP''-lnP + i)—C, 
wherein: p = the effective mean pressure; P' = the absolute 
admission pressure; P = the absolute final pressure at end of 
stroke; C = the absolute pressure of the exhaust; In = hyper- 
bolic logarithm. 

The value P will be found through the proportion P : P' = 
y : V, wherein V represents the volume admitted before the 
cut-ofT takes place and V the volume at the end of the stroke. 

Calling V, which is really the capacity of the cylinder, = /, 
we, therefore, have for P in each case: 

P = = (90 + 15) XV4 = 26.25 lbs. 

I 

= ((5o + 75) X % = 56.25 lbs. 

and therefore: For the automatic cut-off 

p = P {InF — lnP + J)^C. 

= 26.25 (In 105 — In 26.25 -f j) — 15. 

= 26.25 {46540 — J.2675 +1)— ^5. 

= 62.64 — 15 = 47.64 lbs., 
and for the slide valve 

P = 56.25 {In 75 — In 56.25 -f /) — 15. 

= 56.25 {43175 — 40298 + /) — 15- 

= 66.38 — 15 = 51 38 lbs. 
If we admitted, therefore, in one case, one-fourth of a cubic foot 
of steam at 90 lbs. gauge pressure, and, in the other case, three- 
fourths of a cubic foot at 60 lbs. gauge pressure, we have for the 
respective weights of steam admitted: 

0.24T4 X 0.25 = 0.0603 i^S'j 
and 

0.1759 X 0.75 = 0.1 319 lbs. 
Or, allowing for the somewhat higher mean pressure in case of 
the slide-valve, we find that we use about twice as much steam 
for the latter as for the expansion engine. 

This shows clearly the advantage oi. wi\tv^ NiJcv^ ^\R.vrev ^^'^'*'^- 
sively. 



^Gfi STfAM ENGINES. 



The conditions to be observed in selling cither valve are ifwsa; 
The valve should open before Ihc end of the exhaosi period so"*1 
as to have a free passage for the steam when die piston is ft ttv 
end of the stroke. It is not desirable to hare the valve too wide 
open, one-sixteenth to oae^ghth of an inch bang genenB;r 
snflkient, as the piston moves very slowly «t (his time, wad m 
small opening allows infficient steam to enter the cylinder at 
fnll pressure. The indicator card shows this plainly. If the ad- 
mission line is an horizontal line with a sharp comer at (he begm- 
ning, the admission is good; if not, the lea^ of either the valve 
or the eccentric must be increased. Which of the two shooM 
be done, can only be ascertained by examining the enshion of the 
exhaost 

DEOMK <V COHPKKSSIOM. 

If indicator cards can be taken, the compression curve at the 
end of the exhaust period should rise nearly to the steam admis- 
sion line if the clearance is about 4 per cent, and to one-half the 
height if the clearance is 10 per cent. 

In order to draw the expansion curve and to criticise the 
indicator card, the clearance expressed in pans of the stroke 
must be added to the diagram. If, for instance, the clearance in a 
slide-valve engine, figuring the space between the piston and 
cylinder head when (he piston is at the end of its stroke, the 
space in the admission port of this side, and the clearance in 
steam chest, is 10 per cent, and the base line of the diagram, as 
taken from the cylinder, is 5' long, then half an inch must be 
added to the base line on either side to show the influence of the 
clearance. Vertical lines erected at Ihe ends of the new base 
line will show the real amount of st^am admitted, and ace needed 
to examine the expansion line. Under no circumstances should 
the live port be open while the exhaust steam port remains open. 

If there is no indicator at hand, the knocking of Ihe machine will 
generally tell whether there is sufficient compression or not. 



When setting the eccentric it should be remembered thai the 
highest point of (he eccentric body must advance the crank at 
}e.ast go* in the direction the machine is to turn. To this must • 
A? added the angle oi lead desired tor ihe tctewWw. a.Ti4, oV 



y STEAM ENGINES. 269 

4 

counifc, in the same direction. This angle of lead, for slide- 

sfk^ engines, is generally 15®, and for Corliss engines 2S'. 

If the sides of the cranks are parallel it is best to place the 
crank first in the horizontal position by using the spirit level, and 
then to turn the crank the way the machine is run, until a level 
provided with angle attachment, set to the proper angle, indicates 
that the crank has been moved the desired number of degrees over 
the center, when the highest point of the eccentric body should 
stand vertically, either above or below the center of the shaft, 
according to the way the machine is running. 

If no such angle level is at hand, a wooden wedge can be 
made to take the place of it. Take a piece of wood about twenty- 
four inches square, and draw a circle of ten inches diameter on it. 
Draw two lines through the center, vertical to each other, and 
divide one-quarter of the periphery into ninety parts; or, if the 
angle desired is a figure ending with a 5 or o, into 18 parts 
each of these representing 5**. If the angle desired is 15°, draw 
a line through the center and the third division, and cut the 
wood along this line and the center line next to it. This will 
give the desired angle, and is always ready for use in connection 
with an ordinary spirit level. 

It is advisable to set the eccentric this way so that its position 
can l)c controlled in case it has slipped, without removing the 
steam chest cover. 

The admission line cannot be allowed much higher than in Fig. 
I, although it would be economical, as with 10 per cent clearance 
there would be too much cushion. 

GENERAL DIRECTIONS FOR SETTING VALVES^ ETC., OF A CORLISS ENGINE. 

1. Set Steam crank in dead center toward steam cylinder. 

2. Set rod a so that rock arm c oscillates equally on both sides 
of its vertical position. 

3. Set wrist plate d so that it oscillates equally on both sides 
of its vertical position. There are marks on hubs of wrist plate 
and on bracket of steam cylinder. The mark on hub of wrist 
plate gives center position of wrist plate, while the two marks 
on hub of bracket give the distance to either side of the vertical 
position which the mark on the hub of the wrist plate is to 
travel. 




4. Sel edges e and f, which arc indicaled by tndsions w the 
back end of ihe live Meam valves, so thai iliev >ihow a Up-^f ] 
given length in ihe direction opposite the arrows over edges f, -| 
on [he bock cud oi (he valve u|iaui^p 




on cylinder. The length of lap is to be measured on the outside 
circumference of the valve. 
S- Set edges g and h, which arc indicaled by incisions on the 
Asc* end of exhmst valves, so that they bW-h a. W o^ ^inwo 



^, ' STBAU ENGINES. 2/1 

length jfitne direction opposite to the arrows over edges g, and k, 
inarkffd by incisions on the back end of the valve openings on 
Cinder. The length of lap is to be measured on the outside 
circumference of the valve. 

6. Turn highest point of eccentric or pin on governor pulley 
to its upper position, as shown on drawing. Then turn the eccen- 
tric as arrow points until the live steam valve v and exhaust 
steam valve s show Ihe correct lead respectively. The lead in 
both cases is measured on the circumference of the valves in the 
direction as the arrows point. This completes setting of eccentric, 
rock arm, wrist plate, and live and exhaust steam valves, as far 
as it can be done without the use of an indicator. 

7. Below is given a table showing the lap of live steam valves; 
of the exhaust steam valves; the lead of the live steam valves, 
and the angle of lead o 



DlBiD otite.mcvl 


\f 


l« 


1ft 


m 


». 


'» 


« 


«- 




lApo(llre.l.v«l7«. 






A 


A 


































■1, 


■1, 


/< 


^ 


;, 


A 


t 


t. 


iH " 










































*' 


*■' 


»■ 




W^ 








' 



It might be best, after having set the valves according to in- 
structions, to see whether the angle of lead obtained on eccentric 
or governor pulley corresponds to the angle of lead given in .the 
table. It will be found a very useful check for the correct 
setting of the machine. It is further advisable to see whether, 
when the exhaust valves arc just on the point of opening, the live 
steam valves still show a lap, so as to prevent any blowing off 

8. Set the horizontal weight bar y of governor so that it 
oscillates equally out of its horizontal position when the governor 
balls are brought into their highest and lowest position. 

9. A ring with a notch or a pin is provided on the governor, 
by means of which the governor can either be placed in a posi- 
tion ready for regular running or for starting. When the ma- 
chine is to be started, the steam cylinder must be able to receive 
the full steam pressure, and the live steam valves must not be 
tripped. When the machine is set lot tego\M i\K\\\\wt% ^*- ^''">- 
cnior bar w must be able to sink \k:\o-w X'Wt MV^fct <.«tf|^ -A '^^ 



*v 



r^2 STEAU engine: 

ring Jr into a slot. If the belt should break when 
in litis position, the governor regulating rods m and n wil^placc 
two safety toes in such a posiii.:>n thjt ihc live sieam valves will ^ 
be permtuKntly unhooked, and, of conn^ the machine stopped. 
In case a pin is osed and die pin ii removed, the governor can 
sink down sufficientlj to allow the rods m and « u> perform tte 
sune service as mentioned ahove. When it is desired to start 
the machine, Uie ring f or the pin which performs the same 
service must be placed so that the safety toes are put out of 

la Set cut-off toes on live steam valves so that they do not 
cut oS when the governor is set for starting and so that tb^ 
do cut off when a piece of wood or iron of about a qtiarter at 
an inch thickness is put upon the ring x or corresponding pin. 
The toes must be adjusted so that the live steam valves will be 
disengaged after the steam cross-head has traveled the same 
lengths of stroke from the dead centers. The toe of valve m 
must disengage when (he steam cross-head has traveled (say for 
instance % of a stroke} from its dead center furthest from steam 
cylinder, and the toe of valve r must disengage when the steam 
cross-head has traveled the same distance from its dead center 
nearest steam cylinder, 

II. Set safety toes so that they will not touch the disengag- 
ing point of lever when machine is set for starting, but will 
fully and securely disengage the live steam valves when the ring s 
is turned or the pin is taken out for regular running (the gov- 
cmor, of course, is at rest). 

IZ. The dash pots be set so that their center is in a position 
just in the middle between the position given by dropping a 
plnmb-bob from center of dash pot rod pin when this pin is in its 
highest or lowest position and when pin is hnrir.ontally opposite 

I.). A by-pass valve is provided in governor dash pot which, 
when open, will allow the governor to move up and dovm 
freely, but when closed will retard the up and down motion of 
the governor. The dash pot should be kepi full of a not too heavy 
oil all the time, or the governor will make this up and down 
tnoi-enient in Jerks corresponding to the height of the dash pot 
trot occupied by the oil. 



, ' STEAM ENGINES, 273 

14. Sn length of dash pot rods so that when the wrist plate is 
in j^ extreme position to the left the cut-off toe of valve » 

.i^'in the middle of both stops provided on its disengaging lever 
(the first stop is the one which lifts the dash pot piston ; the sec- 
ond stop is the one which will bring the dash pot piston to JCS 
lowest position in case the dash pot piston should not have 
reached this position of its own accord) and when the wrist plate 
is in extreme position to the right the cut-off toe of the valve w 
is in the middle of both stops provided on its respective discn- 
g^ng lever, 

15. The dash pots must be kept oiled through an oil inlet, 
which is provided, but it must be remembered that too much oil 
might cause a breakage of parts of the dash pot, as soon as the 
oil cannot escape quick enough through the compressed air pas- 
sage when the dash pot piston drops. 

A cushion regulating valve is provided, which must be set so 
that ihc dash pot piston does not strike the bottom of the dash 
pot too hard, and must still be far enough open to allow the dash 
pot piston to drop sufBciently so that the lifting toe and disen- 
gaging lever can engage the dash pot piston. 

A vacuum breaking valve or cock is provided, by means of 
which the vacuum which facilitates the dropping of dash pot pis- 
tons can be ri^ulated at will. Should the piston descend too 
quickly the valve or cock must be opened very little to obtain 
the desired speed. When running the machine with full pres- 
sure steam (not cutting off) (he cock should be full open so that 
no extra strain is put upon the live steam valve by the dash pot. 
The dash pots should sometimes be cleaned, and if this is not 
possible, oiled with kerosene instead of lard oil, so as to pre- 
vent the sticking of the dash pot piston in the dash pot. which 
will take place mostly when the machine is started after it had 
been slopped for some time, and which prevents the engine work- 
ing properly. A little pushing with the hand and some greasing 
may bring the dash pots in perfect working order in a few seconds. 

Before starling the machine for the first time, the cylinder 
should be blown out thoroughly by steam so as to remove all sand 
or chippings which might be in the ports or cylinder, and for 
this purpose the back head and steam piston must be removed. 

It must always be remembered that il V\vc \ie\V, ■«\vi'iv it'vjs.-i 
Ihe governor, is not sufficiently tight, the 40NMUOT CMSWiV ^««* 





274 STEAM ENGINES. ^*^ 

late properly. Any slip of the belt on the pulleys will 
by irregular ninning of the machine. 

When running a machine the first cotiple of days, it wiH 
found advantageous to run it without cut-off, but under throttle; 
this while the governor and dash pot are connected, however. 

The steam valves, which warp somewhat when heated, create 
considerable friction by grinding themsdves in place and grunt; 
and when the steam pressure is reduced by throttling, it wfll 
be found that the engine and valves and dash pots woiic mncil 
easier, and that everything will be in first-class order much aooaot 
than when cutting off. 

EXAMINATION OF ENGINE AND COMPRESSOR BY 

TAKING INDICATIONS. 

It is impossible to know, without an indicator, whether m 
steam engine uses the steam economically or not. The indicator 
will further tell whether the valves are set right or not, if good 
steam admission is had, if the cushion is proper and if the cut-off 
is even. The indicator will also tell if the piston or a valve leaks, 
and is the quickest means, and can be applied without stopping 
the engine, to find the trouble if the cylinder does not work 
properly. 

The same holds good for ammonia compressors and pumps. 
All of them should be proi^ded with openings for attaching the 
indicator, and provision should be made for attaching the indi- 
cator cord to the cross-heads. 

The best for the purpose is an aluminum indicator, since it can 
be used for ammonia, as well as for steam. Further, a reducing 
pulley directly attached to the indicator should be had, so as to 
accommodate all strokes of engines and compressors and pumps 
of the brewery. Such a set can be had complete in a case. If 
the connections are permanently made, to the cylinders, such as 
the attachments for the cord, then cylinders which need indicating, 
can be indicated in a few minutes, and the engineer can readily lo- 
cate any trouble, provided he has studied the reading of the cards 
taken. 

DESCRIPTION OF THE INDICATOR. 

The principle of the indicator is to give the pressure prevailing 

inside the cylinder for each part of the stroke, telling exactly 

rr/rat happens in the cylinder at any time. To do vVv\%, \V \^ c^ow- 



STEAM ENGINES. 275 

structed m certain respects like a steam cylinder. In a cylinder 
is placed a tight-fitting piston below which the pressure is ad- 
mitted. Above the piston and secured to it, is placed a spring. 
Several springs of different tension are furnished, which can easily 
be exchanged. Their total compression, which is marked on them, 
should be a little higher than the pressure to be dealt with, but 
it should not be much higher in order to get the highest possible 
diagram, which will show the action the plainest. 

To this cylinder is attached a drum, which is held taut against 
the starting stop by a coiled spring, so made that the same tension 
is on the cord, pulling the drum for one revolution of it, at the 
end of which another stop is provided. The cord, which must 
be good fishing line, so as not to stretch, runs over a little 
grooved pulley which is secured to the bottom of the drum, and 
the cord guided by a swivel roller. The piston is provided with 
a piston rod extending through the head, which is screwed on 
the cylinder to facilitate taking out the spring, and cleaning, and 
connected to a parallel motion carrying a pin on the one lever 
for marking on the paper which is put on the drum. It is best 
to use metallic coated paper and a composition pin, as this gives 
the sharpest lines. 

To a screw at the bottom of the drum is attached the reducing 
pulley which carries the cord attached to the cross-head, and 
has, inside, a stiff spring to keep this cord taut. On the shaft 
of this large pulley small ones can be fastened, of which a num- 
ber are furnished, and which are marked for the length of stroke 
they can be used. 

PUTTING THE INDICATOR IN PLACE. 

After the proper spring and pulley has been selected and ad- 
justed to the indicator and the latter placed in position, the cord 
from the large pulley of the reducing pulley must be so adjusted 
that, if connected to the cross-head, it will be parallel to the pis- 
ton rod in every direction, and, if held opposite the starting and 
stopping point of the attachment on the cross-head — not yet 
hooked in — the large pulley of the reducing pulley does not touch 
either of its stops. Now have somebody hold the end of the cord 
just opposite the attachment on the cross-head, at both ends of 
the stroke, and secure the cord of the drum to the ?»rcva\\ v^sJOv^n ^\ 
the reducing pulley so that the pin is evenVy d\s\.atv\. Itotcv x\v^ ^tv\^ 
of the card holders of the drum at the Ivro e"xlTeme -^osvOvoxva*. 



276 STBAM ENGINES. ^. 

Now put the paper on the dmm and connect the am^ tiie 
cross-head attachment, and open the mdicator cock conncil||ng 
one side of the cylinder with the hlow-off opening of the indicbh^ 
tor cock to let out the water, in case of the steam cylinder, and 
the oil, in case of a compressor; in the latter case, yon mnst be 
quick to open and shut the code, and should hold a piece of waste 
before the opening, as otherwise yoa might get a disagreeahie 
dose of ammonia in yoor face. Then turn the cock to the posi- 
tion to connect its cylinder with the steam cylinder, and press 
the pin gently against the paper, whidi must be drawn tight over 
the drum to prevent cutting by the pin. When one complete dia- 
gram has been made repeat the same <^>eration of Mowing off and 
taking the diagram on the other side, and, when finished, con- 
nect the inside of the indicator cylinder with the atmosphere to 
relieve it of its pressure, and again press the pin against the 
paper, which will then make a straight line, the so-called atmos- 
pheric line. Now disconnect the cord from the cross-head, and 
remove the paper from the drum, and mark on it date, pressures, 
number of revolutions and scale, also the name or number of the 
machine from which the card was taken. The card is then 
ready for inspection. 

When providing indicator connections for each pump, engine 
and compressor, it is best to place a half-inch valve with nipple 
directly in the two outlets of the cylinder, and to connect them 
with a union and tee, the latter to correspond with the thread 
of its outlet to the male thread of the indicator cock. If it is not 
desired to make connection for all cylinders, only valves and 
nipples should be put in the cylinder openings, to prevent stopping 
the engine when taking cards. Then a connection with a three- 
way cock in the middle, provided with blow outlet, should be 
had, and such cock should have a stuffing box of sufficient length 
on one side to allow for adjustment in length of the connection^ 
Pieces of pipe can then be cut to suit all lengths required. 

CRITICISM OF INDICATOR CARDS. 

FOR STEAM ENGINES. 

If it is desired only to examine the cards as to cut-oflF, cushion 

and admission of steam, no further preparation is necessary. If, 

however, leakage oi piston and valves is to be examined, then 

the expansion curve, which is the isothcrmic cuyn^ lot v^ttcvwv^tilV 



STEAM ENGINES. 
J 

es^tnust be laid in the diagram, which c 



277 
E will be considered 



' Fig. 2 shows ^ perfect card as it ought to be, but seldom is. 
Fig. 3 shows slow admission of the live steam, because the pis- 
ton has traveled part of the stroke before sufficient steam opening 




was had to prevent throttling of the steam. In this case either 
the lead of the eccentric or the lead of the live sieam valve must 
be increased. 

For the purposes of this chapter it will hereafter be considered 
that the lead of the eccentric is correct, as advised in the chap- 
ter on steam engines for refrigerating machines, where the angle 




of lead for the eccentric is given as 25° for Corliss engines and 
is' for slide-valve engines. 

Fig. 4 shows that the exhaust valve opened too (\mwWi-j , iti.-ac- 
ing the mean pressure and, consequentty, ttvt tfcwtwt^ qV "^^^ 
tatgine. The exhaust should not escape \)elott W* w^ ^"^ * 



278 



STEAM ENGINES. 



Stroke, but the round comer proves that the exhaust valve 4ipeiied 
too soon, allowing steam to escape which could have done l ii A. 
In this case the lead of the exhaust valve must be reduced. * ^w 
In Fig. 5 the exhaust valve opens too slowly, and the efficiency 
is reduced by compressing the exhaust or, better stated, throttliog 
it. The pressure should drop in a straight line at the end of- 
the stroke. In this case the lead of the exhaust valve must be to- 
creascd. * 








Fig. 6 shows that the cut-off is too slow, throttling the steam 
for a time instead of closing the live-steam valve quickly. This 
causes loss of efficiency because the steasn is not used altogether 
expansively. Either the stuffing boxes of the valve stems are 
too tight, or the valve has no oil, or the vacuum under the dash- 
pot is not good and the latter should be examined, after the first 
two items are found not to apply. It may also be that the dash- 
pot has too much cushion. 

Fig. 9 shows unequal cut-off and unequal cushion. The cut- 
off should be regulated by lengthening or shortening the rods. 



//f < 



R, 



f='aftn cr 




But it should first be ascertained which rod needs it. This can 
be done by raising the governor balls to the height the engineer 
knows they generally commence to act upon the cut-off. A 
piece of iron of the required height is generally kept for this 
purpose. It will thus be found which cut-off rod requires chang- 
ing, which, of course, is the one not cutting off under this posi- 
tion of the balls. The piece of iron can be placed under the ring 
^i'di'n^ an the governor stem. 



STEAM ENGINES, 



279 



Th*' cushion must be equalized, and only experience and the 
Jt^oclcing of the machine can advise as to which side to change. 
Che side which has the knock, if there is one, surely is the one 
which needs more cushion, and the exhaust valve on this side 
must be made to close sooner. The exhaust line of the card 
should fall together with the atmospheric line, when no conden- 
ser is used, and the distance between both will give the amount 
of back pressure caused by obstruction in pipe or heater. 







W- 



li^eoref/co/ Card 



this construction. Draw a line ck parallel to the atmospheric line 
ab in a distance of 15 pounds measured in the scale the indicator 
spring give!^, ascertain the clearance of ports, exhaust and live, 
and for piston for one side, in cubic inches, and divide by the 
area in inches of the cylinder. This will give ihe clearance for 
one side, in inches of stroke of the cylinder. If the atmospheric 
line, which represents the length of the stroke ift fct &vi?,fi.'TO., 
measures four inches, and the stroke is IwctA^-Iwit wOma, "C^^tt 
ttK scale is one sixtli of an inch to one \iwiv, Mv4 m ^J»* *''^' 



ago STBAM BNdHES. 

the dearance must be added. In the sketch ad is this dlftaace. 
Erect throtigh this point and through the end of the expabsipn 
line b two verticals, starting at the vacaiun line, until tb^ mcA 
a line which is the ccMitinuation of the steam admission line gp 
to both sides, in h and /; connect points c and f and draw a ver- 
tical ih.-Qugh the cut-oS point f to the vacuum line where this 
line {pi) and ef meet. Draw an horizontal line to the vertical kf, 
and this is the end of the expansion line. In the same way ever7 
other point of the curve can be found. For instance, to find 
the correct position of point u, which we assume to be one point 
of the curve made by the indicator, draw line sr through « and 
connect r with c. Where this line meets the cut-ofE line pi. draw 
an horizontal tine In, and where this line meets line n, is the 
correct point u; and so on for all points of the curve. 

ABRIDGED METHOD FOfi FIHDIKG LEAKAGE. 

To save the engineer this rather tedious work, two diagrams 
are furnished, one for this cune, called (he isothermic curve, and 
another one for the adiabalic cun-e of the permanent gases, which 
will be used later tor the compressor cards (which sec). 

To use this diagram take the distance bk between the points of 
a compass and mark the height of same on the vertical erected at 
in the diagram, draw line xa, and the lengths cut off by it from 
the other verticals are the ordinales for the diagram, which is 
used in the following manner: 

Divide line ck o£ the sketch, or the atmospheric line with the 
clearance added to one side on your diagram, into ten parts, 
commencing on the side opposite to where you have added the 
clearance, and call Ihe end of the expansion line O. and the 
divisions /, 2, etc., up to ten. Erect verticals in these points, 
and make (hem just as long as the lines which you obtained by 
drawing line xu on diagram of isothermic curve. The end points 
of these verticals will give the right expansion curve. The same 
thing can be done to the other side of llic diagram, but it should 
be remembered that the clearance should be added only once in 
each case and then on opposite side;. 

After this curve has been laid into the diagram it will be 
noticed whether it corresponds with the line made by the indica- 
tor, as it should, if everything is as it should be. If not. for 
instance, as in Fig. 7, where the ac\.ua.l \me lies a.bove the 
'-Acoretical line, then there must have been sleam aiiti a.\V« ftvt 



STEAU ENGINES. 201 

live st«|m valve had been closed by the cut-off, and, therefore, 
the,Kv% steam valve mu^t leak, and should be looked after. 

i^ig. 8 shows the actual expansion line below the theoretical. 
This can have been caused only by steam leaking from the cyl- 
inder, or past the piston. Therefore, the piston rings must be 
out of order or the exhaust valve must leak. 



Divide the atmospheric line into twenty parts, commencing to 
number the divisions with o at the end of the expansion line. 
Then measure with a strip of paper one after another of Ihc 
verticals bearing odd numbers, commencing at the exhaust, not the 
atmospheric, line and stopping at the expansion curve. A'ld 
them all on the strip of paper. Measure the whole length of all 
the ordinates thus added, in the scale which is marked on the 
indicator spring, and divide the result by ten. This will give the 
average height of all the ordinates. In other words, it will give 
the height of a rectangle having as base line the atmospheric lint. 
and having equal cubic content as your diagram. Or, it gives the 
effective mean pressure of the diagram, 

HORSE-POWER nEVELOPEO BY rHE ENGINE. 

Having found the effective mean pressure, and knowing stroke 
diameter o[ cylinder and piston rod. it is easy to calculate the 
horse-power as indicated by the card. 

The number of horse-power r= ; 

J3000 
wherein p = effective mean pressure in pounds; A = area of steam 
cylinder in square inches; a — area of piston rod; j = stroke of 
the cylinder in feet; r =: the number of revolutions per minute; 
33000 the number of foot-pounds developed by one horse-power. 
COMPRESSOR INDICATOR CARDS. 

The action of the valve can be examined directly without further 
preparation, but for leakages the theoretical curve must be laid 
in tfie diagram taken, as explained in connection with steam 
diagrams. 

Fig. I shows the isothermic and the adiabatic curve? as trans- 
mitted from the diagram furnished for this ^uv^o^c. TVt t\i\s«t 
drawn in the middle oi both represents t\\e tOTTcc\. twrvytfi^^oa 
earve for wet ammonia which should be ob«i\Tv«4 vn 'Sv^ wi'cw^ 



STEAM ENGINES. 



283 



:X 



^4 STBAlf ENGINES. 

diagram if the compressor was properly handled. TMi curve 
is also correct for the oil circulating compressor, for all practical 
purposes. To construct the curve for the wet ammonia eompfea^ 
sion with absolute accuracy, is rather tedious, as the curve of the 
saturated ammonia must first be drawn, and then the addition 
be made of the increase of pressure by the evaporation of the 
liquid injected with the gas, and to do this correctly, the tempera- 



practice 
on with 




ture of the discharge gas must be ascerlained. 
sufficient liquid can not be admitted, a; oiherw: 
the compressor would be lost as explained in 
refrigeration. 

Fig. 2 represents the card as it should be. 

Fig. 3 shows the effect of re-expansion, caused either by too 
much clearance or by the discharge valve when not seating 
promptly. 

In order to ascertain how much the capacity of the compressor 
is reduced by it, erect a vertical line de in d. Where this line is 




tangent to the diagram, which is at c, draw an horizontal line until 
it meets the re-expansion line. The distance ab represents the part 
of the stroke during which no new gas was admilled, but only 
gas which had been compressed previously had expanded. The 
hei£bt of the I'crtical cd represents the pressure of the gas which 
£Iled the compressor at the end of i^ie sicuon ^VicA, iwi "Cut 



i STEAM ENGINES. 285 

loss of capacity is proportional to the length of the distances ad 
to ab;^d representing the stroke of the compressor. 

fig. 4 shows the influence of a discharge valve which is either 
"loo heavy, or has too much seat, or too much cushion above. 
The pressure must first be raised to c in order to lift the valve. 




but owing to the large opening suddenly offered to tbe gas, the 
pressure (alls again below the pressure prevailing in the conden- 
ser which forces the valve to its seal. The pressure now rises 
again, but not so high as before, opens the valve, when the pres- 
sure is again reduced below the condenser pressure, forcing the 
discharge valve a second time to scat. Finally the valve opens 
for good, and Siays open to the end of the stroke. 

Fig. 5 shows the efl^ect of the discharge valve hanging. It 
throttles the gas, making :t necessary for the pressure below 




the valve to rise much higher than necessary, and additional po'ver 
is required to perform this unnecessary work. 

Fig. 6. Draw the correct curve in it, and the diagram shows 
that the discharge valve must leak, provided the gas was not 
luperhcaled during compression, i. e., the gas has not carried 
sufficient liquid into the compressor to absorb the heat of oww 
pression, and the volume has been inctea,sei\ \>? \\vft Vf*.^., twivV) 



386 STCAlf ENGIVES. V 

Fig. 7, after the correct CDtve hu been dnwn in ft, >lMm dnt 
ihere is a leakage «ther in piston or soctioa vdre,.in the <ne of 
a double action i,DA) compreuor. G*s hss escaped dnriog o 
pression, and loss in capacity is the result 

Fig-. 8 shows the effect of the piston valve hanging, not bein( 
either quite open or shut, and gas passii^ through it in insnf- 
ficient quantities to fill the upper part of the compressor proper!]^ 
and partly compressing the gas in the lower part of the com- 
pressor,' as shown by the diagram taken from this part of the 
compressor. This refers only to single acting (5V4) machines, u 
DA machines have no piston valve. 

Fig. 9 shows the effect of a suction valve hanging in a DA 
compressor, which has the same effect as in the upper part of 
the SA compressor shown in Fig. 8. 

Fig. 10 shows that the suction valve is either too small or 
opens too slowly, not allowing free passage for the gas in a DA 





compressor. This does not influence the capacity of the machine 
if only the admission line reaches the suction pressure before com- 
pression commences, as indicated by the gauge. It is very im- 
portant to compare the gauge pressures with the indicator pres- 
sures, as they will often tell a story of loo small suction and dis- 
charge pipes or openings. 

When reading the gauges, always take Ihe lowest poinl of the 
oscillation the hand makes for the proper reading, as this gives 
the pressure prevailing in the pipes, while the upper point of the 
oscillation is only reached by the sudden closing of the. valves 
causing a reaction upon the gauge, that is. a ram i? produced. 

Fig. 11 shows that the piston valve of a SA compressor Is held 
Op, the gas passing freely through the piston both ways, making 
but a slight compression of a few pounds above and below. Of 
course, both diagrams must show alike, the one taken from the 
k>»er fart and the one taken from the upper part of the com- 



-' STEAH ENGINES. 287 

Fig. 19 sfiows the diicharge valve hung up, giving free passage 
to the gas. The compressor must, therefore, be filled with gas at 
expensing pressure. 

' Fig. 13 shows the suction valve of a D/l compressor hung up. 
allowing free passage for the gas in and out, and no gas is dis- 
charged, as the discharge valve cannot open. 





,g0r...^l 




1- eAt^J* 


\ (f'^W'"^ 


.™,,_ ■""'■'•'■ 


\^^ OA 


U 





The effective mean pressure and horse-power needed for com- 
pressing the gas can now be found in the same way as the horse- 
power of a steam engine. It must only be remembered that the 
formula there given is for one doublc-acdng cylinder, and that 
the result for one single-acting compressor will be only about 
one-half the amount. The correct formula here is 

33000 

II IS interesting to lake the indication of the engine connected 
to the compressor under the same conditions — better at the same 
time — and, by subtracting the amounts obtained for both, to as- 
certain the friction of the machine. This friction should be about 
25 per cent of the horse-power retjuired for the compressor for 
DA compressors, and 33 per cent for SA compressors. 

It can now also be determined what the difference is in power 
required by a dry and a wet compressor, by freezing back correctly 
at one time, and, for the other diagram, keeping away the frost 
from the compressor. 

STEAM CONDENSERS. 

If it is desired only to obtain distilled water, and a cheap ap- 
paratus is wanted, which is at the same time a "Atam. W.\t^ ■i>\^ 
Steam washer, aJso a feed-water healer, then ttve 1S.q\w\^ WA« t^*- 
be recommended where the cooling water Aofts t^ot v^aXt ■cn>i.'ii- 




STEAK ENGINES. 

Tkt Opt* Air Holms Sttam Cotidtiuwr oongiif of flMsdma- 
tzed iron cylinders, one pUccd in the Other. The outer 4Vpiv 
luid the inner cylinder are lecnred tightly to the bottom, and wW^ 
is no communication between (hem below. The outer Cj&ailBt^ 
is provided with a conical top, and a lafety valve placed oa the 
highest point of this cover. The inner cylinder reaches aknotf 
to the top of the outer cylinder in order to allow free p»iim M 
the steam from the inner cylinder into the annular apace formed Iv 
the two cylinders. Near the \of of the outer cylinder, foiudag 
another annular space, is placed another receptacle reachfai( be- 
yond the conical top, for the reception of the feed water, vUcft 
is heated by the steam Rising the upper part of the outer <;^ 
inder and striking against the conical tc^. 

Just below this feed-water receptacle is placed a trough tor tfa- 
tributing the cooling water over the outside of the outer cjlinder, 
which stands vertical in order to allow the water to flow down 
its exterior surface. The water is fed lo this trough by a siiigle 
coil of pipe placed in the trough and perforated with small boles. 
The sleam enters the condenser near the bollom, passing through 
the annular space into the inner cylinder and ending in a fnimd 
pointing downward. The funnel is kept with ils orifice about one 
inch under water which will collect, and the height of which b 
regulated by a pipe goose-neck passing through (he annular space 
to the outside, and a drain valve is provided to drain the inner 
cylinder. 

Above this exhaust funnel is placed a grating covered with a 
fine wire screen ; above this, coke is placed nearly lo the top of the 
inner cylinder, and again a grating and wire screen to hold the 
coke in place. The larger pieces of coke are placed below the 
smaller ones on top. The annular space is provided with an out- 
let for condensed water on the bottom, and the safety valve on 
top of the conical top is counterweigh ted so that it will blow off at 
two pounds' pressure as the vessel is not built either for pressure 
or a vacuum. The exhaust steam is discharged from the fnnnd 
into the water, and washed, and so freed partly from oil. It tbeo 
passes through the coke, which retains the rest of the oil, and 
into the annular space between the two cylinders, where the steau 
is condenseA and runs out of the bottom outlet of the i 



STEAM ENGINES. 289 

The feed water is fed to the bottom of the receptacle provided 
for it, and allowed to overflow on top. 

The coke must be renewed at least every season, and Connels- 
ville coke is Ihe best for this purpose. The combination is a 
good one, as it furnishes a cheap feed-water heater, and saves the 
insulation for feed-water heater and steam filter which otherwise 
woald have to be provided. The air helps the condensing ma- 
terially, the water running in a thin film over the outer shell, and 
being partly evaporated. It acts as in a cooling tower, cooling the 
water itself. 

The water collected in the inner cylinder from condensation of 
the steam is of considerable amount, and this is a disadvantage, as 
this water is greasy and cannot be used. Furthermore, if the 
water forms scale, the shell requires frequent cleaning, and leaks 
will soon appear. But the apparatus is so cheap that one can 
afford to buy a new one every year. 

Holms Submtrged Condenser.— To the above is added a third 
cylinder encasing Ihe two iirst ones, and in the annular space 
between the second and third ore the cooling water circulates, 
being thus not exposed to the influence of the air. Ordinarily it 
will not scale enough to make the removal of the outer shell nec- 
essary for cleaning. The water enters at the bottom and over- 
flows at the top. 

CONDE.VSEBS WHICH CAN BE USED FOR PHODUCINC DISTaLED WATER 
AND A VACUUM AT THE SAME TIME. 

Open Air Pipe Condensers. — These are made of the size pipe 
to fit ttje opening of the exhaust, and erected in stacks, the steam 
entering at the top and Ihe condensed water leaving at the 
bottom. The cooling water is showered over the cooler by 
means of a gutter. 

They are eflicient, and use the water to advantage, but not so 
good as the spclional one;. 

Sectional Open Air Pipe Condensers.— 1htf,t condensers are 
made of two-inch pipe in three sections, the upper one consisting 
of three pipes, ihc next one of five, and Ihe lowest of seven. 
The pipes are slightly inclined so as to drain toward the Qii0.t*. 
which is at the bottom. The three oiilkts aui wiXW.^ ^.t*; '^•^^- 
nected each to one vertical header, and iViis Xxeaaet ii'ivc^ ^'^■^' 
necti the inlet headers on top and the outtel 'heaAeT?. 'iX. 0\« \)0'*'^'^ 




agq stsam engines. ^ 

to the main pipes. The inlet headers are* connected on top to 
drain any oil which is carried with the steam from the 1 
q^der, and form excellent traps. Drain cocks are provided 
each inlet header. The drains should all be allowed to empty into 
funnels, so as to allow observation of what is running out 

One condenser, ten feet long, is suflkient to condense five tons 
of water per day. The condensed water leaves the condenser 
at about 170*^, while the cooling water leaves at 160*, and csn 
well be used for feed-water, if dean. Submerged pipe coolers arc 
generally laid horizontal, or, better, a little on the incline in order 
to drain well. But owing to the slow motion of the water ran- 
ning over them, much more water and much more surface is re- 
quired to accomplish the same results as with open air coolers. 

Another form of submerged pipe cooler is the usual cylindrical 
form, like a heater, either vertical or horizontal. The cylinder 
is filled with five-eighth or three-quarter-inch brass or composi- 
tion tubes, fitted between two pipe heads placed inside the outer 
cylinder, and forming a passage for the water at both ends be- 
tween pipe-head and cylinder-head. An horizontal partition is 
often put in on the opposite side to the inlet, separating the upper 
half of the tubes from the lower ones, and thus sending the wa- 
ter twice through the condenser, using it to better advantage. 
The steam enters the shell at the top, and the condensed water 
leaves at the bottom. 

If used for compound condensing engines provide two square 
feet of surface per horse-power per hour. In this case, where 
the condensation must be done in a vacuum, an air pump must 
be provided to expel the air and the condensed water. SontC- 
timcs a dry air pump is used, and the water expelled by another 
pump. There arc combinations furnished, where all pumps re- 
quired arc directly connected with the surface condenser. The 
\acuum pump must be of such size as to maintain a vacuum of 
twenty-six inches. 

The amount of injection water required depends on the tem- 
perature of the cooling water and the vacuum required. It is 
generally from twenty-five to thirty times the weight of steam 
condensed. 
J/f/cc/WN Condenser, — Here the steam is brought into direct 
contact with the water in a vessel placed oiv Vo^ o\ v\v^ ^i "^mto.^ 



/ STEAM ENGINES. 29I 

i 

Here, of toarse, the distilled water is lost, since it is mixed with 
the cooling water. 

^ These condensers are cheap, and yet effective, and if the dis- 
iilled water is of no value, this condenser will be preferable to 
a surface condenser. If the cooling water is good enough for 
boiler feeding, the water discharged from this vacuum pump is 
available, and is about as hot as the condensed steam from the 
surface condenser. 

The Syphon Condenser, — This condenser requires no vacuum 
pump, but does not furnish distilled water either. It is cheaper 
and just as efficient as the surface condenser, but cannot handle 
varying loads so well as the surface condenser. 

It is based on the principle of a syphon. When water is allowed 
to fall thirty-two feet in a pipe, which it fills, it will be able to 
create a vacuum of twenty-nine inches in a vessel filled with air, 
and about twenty-six inches when the vessel is filled with steam, in 
this case the steam cylinder. The exhaust steam is led thirty-two 
feet high into a pipe through which water flows which creates this 
vacuum by falling thirty-two feet in the pipe, and at the same 
time condenses the steam. This water can again be used for 
feed-water. The amount of cooling water is the same as for an 
injection condenser, i. e., about twenty to twenty-five times the 
weight of the steam to be condensed. The height of the^two 
pipes may be an objection in some cases. 

All condensers should be provided with safety devices in order 
to prevent backing of the water into the cylinder, and a by-pass 
pipe should be provided which, by means of a pressure regulat- 
ing valve, leads off the exhaust automatically. A valve should 
be provided, so that the condenser can be shut off while the 
engine . is exhausting into the atmosphere, and the condenser 
can be repaired, if necessary, without shutting down the engine. 

In calculating pressures required by pumps to discharge given 
quantities of water at given levels, the following tables may be 
used in connection with formulas given in the chapter Mechanics 
(head Hydraulics) for computing discharge, etc., by converting 
the pressure into head. 



SIEAK TABUS. 



AbNlUK 


11 




i 


Pit 

,5. 


"I 


1^ 


LlL 


"iiT 










1.04 




ilo.36 




i 


£.14 




.7>.=a 


i! 


1 


!t« rMi**' 


,x66 


I'd" 


I 








I 

9 




i 


^9 




».JS,I.»J|II4») 




J 


!*.4* SPJ.9 1144-1 


19.17 


MS 9 

Si, 




jls. :.->^ ..4|j! »7-6i 
i}(li sia ii43i| lis* 
3»M -•>Jt,iM^4; »5.*S 
u-^i iiao 114^]: ».s6 

5Jej Mi4 "4»» ir.;i 


>4-T 


03S« 


IS 


oj«7 


li 

3 


''4J9 


•9 


^M «.,i .isai »T 


04BJ 




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43.7} ij^6 "SI';] ii-st 


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a 


44-M "»" "S»S, li<^ 


i: 


s 


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rf»S 1 




Uw "V4 "M« : M ia 


C67? Il 


A 


Sr.c. .-4*4 ..J^,, M.)7 


wj* 


I 


jf.^'tv;:;^;. ;ij. 


•na ■'. 




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0740 , 




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^1 


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t'. 






oSti 


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is 








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IS 


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|s 


3093 1 


i 





■M'4 



t-'^Ji-Sy-j/nCi-f, 7.J6 






STEAM TABLES. 



MM& 


1 ' 


11^ 


^ 


ii 


1 «„,.,. 




1'* 


•* 


4^ 


"-^ 1 1 


l3 


iSj PtHlurc 




!:i 


ft? 


'£ 


^^': i 


ir 


1" 


^1 


."^ 




«J' 


2" 


»j 


















CS-ft. 


LH. 




.j«.% 1316 


"V7 


377 


.=«M ■4>l 






i.jaj 


.rt 




i 


iS 19. 


8+9 


tu 


S 


»»* 


jsei'.isa.; 


:^ 


.a 






« 


/i 60 




K . 1 '•'■t'l 


».J9 


}» 










jia i.-jj.fl 


iji 


1«91 




w 70 


1 


3«S=|IIM7 


:S 


m* 




"r ^ 


s*™ 


jyt'S ■.«., 


■iSw 










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S6. 


y. 








y r 












38,1 a 


16 


it; 


r 


Si^iJ 


5 


^ 


9« 


B4> 

i 


1= 


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•m 




? 




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1 


3 

»J7 


"I** 


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s 


i 




jiofi 


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if 


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vp 


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igoi 




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169.7 


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5.86 


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3573 




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3.708 


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V 



V. 



REPRIQERATiON. 



Ref rigeratioii is the process of abstracting heat from, or coding; 
a substance. 

Where water or air is at hand at a lower tenq>eratare than it is 
desired to obtain in the body to be cooled, snch water or air can 
be used to do this cooling directly without a machine. 

Ice can be used directly if temperatures of 32* and above are 
desired, and a mixture of salt and ice or other freezing mixtures 
can be used to obtain lower temperatures than 32^, and without 
a machine. 

ICE AND FKEEUNG MIXTURES. 

One pound of calcium chloride, when mixed \iith ice or snow 
(see table), will give a solution, the lowest possible temperature 
of which will be found opposite the respective quantity of ice: 

MIXTURE MADE AT 32*. 



roonds of Snow. 

0.35 ' 

89 1 

0.43 ' 

o.-yw I 

0.48 ; 

0. w ' 

0.51 



Lowest 
Tera|)6nture. 



-i-S2« 
,1-240 

-J-iy 

4- 7=- 

0« 

— S^ 

- 9' 



Pounds of Snow. 

0.35 

0.57 

0.61 

o.ea. 

o.w 

0.66 

0.70 



Lowest 
Temperatore. 

-30* 

—38* 

|«>o 

— 50'» 
—57* 



But since all freezing mixtures and even ice are far too ex- 
pensive to be used for practical purposes, it is safe to say that 
whenever water or air cannot be used directly a machine must 
be employed. 
Practical temperatures which can be obtained by using ice for 
air-cooling are 40" to 45**, and the a\T \tv iVvt rooms cooled by it 
'V vety moist. 

294 



REFRIGERATION. 



295 



The lof^t temperature which a freezing mixture can attain is 
the.ffeczing point of the resulting solution: 



Mixture. 



Sodium chloride 

Snow or pounded Ice. 

Ammonia nitrate 

Water 



Sodl um pbospbato . 
Nltrtc acid dilute. . 

Sodium sulpbate. . , 

Sal-ammoniac 

Potassium nitrate.. 
Nitric acid dilute. . 



Sodium chloride 

Snow or pounded Ice 

Potassium nitrate — 

Sal-ammoniac 

Water 



Nitric acid dilute 

Snow or |H>unded Ice. 

Potash 

Snow or pounded Ice. 

Sodium phosphate. . . 

Sal-ammoniac 

Nitric acid dilute.... 

Sodium sulpbate 

Ammonium nitrate.. . 
Nitric acid dilute.... 

Sal-ammoniac 

Potassium Nitrate... 
Water 



Sodium carbonate. . 
Ammonium nitrate. 
Water.. 



Sodium sulphate. . 
Nitric acid dilute . 

Sodium sulphate.. 
Potassium nitrate. 

Pal-ammoniac 

Water 



Sodium sulphate 

Muriatic acid 

Sodium sulphate 

Sulphuric add dilute. 

Sulphuric acid dilute. 
Nitric acid diluted.... 
Snow or pounded ice,. 

Sulphuric acid dlluto. 
Snow or pounded ice. 

Calcium chlorld*' 

Snow or pounded ico.. 

Calcium chloride 

Snow or pounded ice.. 



Propor- 
tion In 
Weight. 



1 I 
\S 

W 

w 

6 
4 
2 
4 

1 \ 

if 

1 \ 

If 
41 

w 

If 

It 

11 \ 

31 

"is 

81 

5 1 

6 J 
f>\ 

4 < 

if 

1 I 
1 < 

:u 

^ V 



i-50"* 

150'' 
..50° 

.>'■ 

^ .12- 



Temperature 
Drops 


Prom 


To 


+82° 


— 0° 


4-50^ 


+ 3° 


-f59° 


4 16° 


460° 


— 9° 


-r50° 


0° 


-f46° 


-11° 


-i- r 


-31° 


+32° 


—85° 


455° 


+21° 


+50° 


—13° 



410° 

+ 7° 
— 2° 

4-5° 

0^ 

—40^ 



Ti' 



-\N? 



« 



996 RBFBIGERATION. ^ 



to unsatis&GtOfy tempentiire^ 'the ei s c o aifW yiitUue 
in the rooms, and the cspcnnTe handh'ng of the ice^^ttlle 
use is made of ice for cooltng purposes at the present tiinP|j|t 
mannfacturing plants. ^"^ 

However, if an emergency arises, and no machine is on hand, 
or the machine' at disposal is too small, then it might pay to inbc 
salt and ice, or calcium chloride and ice, and use this solution for 
cooling purposes. For instance, five pounds of snow or poundnd 
ice mixed with one pound of calcium chloride ¥rill furnish a adhi- 
tion having a lowest temperature of 25^, which is usually suffi- 
cient for all practical purposes. One pound common salt, if 
mixed with three pounds of snow, or pounded ice, will give m 
solution, the lowest temperature of which is 6*. 

The chemical, in this instance, does not help coc^og; it oalj 
allows the mixture to attain such a low temperature jiecanse tbe 
mixtures it produces have such low freezing points as 25* and G*. 
It must be understood that this temperature can only be obtained 
when the mixture does no cooling work, or ice and chemicals are 
constantly added so as to have always undissolved parts of both 
in the solution. 

REFRIGERATING MACHINES. 

There are, first, two divisions to be made according to the 
nature of the medium employed : 

1. Permanent gases, which will not liquify under ordinary 

conditions, as. for instance, air. 

2. Liquifiabic gases as ammonia, carbon dioxide, sulphur 

dioxide, sulphuric ether, etc. 
The first class employing permanent gases — air being the only 
one practically used — must again be divided into three classes, 
according to the manner of handling the medium, viz. : 

1. Vacuum machines; 

2. Air compression machines; 

3. Dense air compression machines. 

VACUUM MACHINE. 

This machine is based upon the fact that water will evaporate 

at a temperature below 32', the freezing point of water, when 

such evaporation takes place under a pressure of below 0.181" 

oi mercury, which is almost a perfect vacuum. To maintain such 

vacuum continually, requires a very f\ne\y \>uv\\. m^icVvvwt, ;jltv^ vJofe 



REFRIGERATION. , 297 

water j^ix which is produced during the process must be 
absorhbd by sulphuric acid, as otherwise it would be almost im- 
P^^ible to maintain the required vacuum for any length of time. 
The machine consists of a freezing chamber connected to a 
vacuum pump, from which the mixture of gases — air and water 
vapor — is passed off through a vessel containing trays filled with 
strong sulphuric acid before entering the vacuum pump, so that 
the pump really has to handle only air, which is discharged as 
useless. The sulphuric acid must be taken out from time to 
time, and strengthened again by boiling in lead vessels. 

AIR COMPRESSION MACHINES. 

This machine is based upon the fact that when air is com- 
pressed, heat is developed, and when air is allowed to expand, 
heat is absorbed. But this is true only when the expansion takes 
place in a cylinder, the piston of which is pushed by the expand- 
ing gas. Air under heavy pressure, leaving a large vessel through 
a small opening, will not do any cooling, except a trifle at the ori- 
fice, and this only because it performs some work there which, 
however, is minute in comparison with the work it could per- 
form if expanding behind a piston. The work performed in this 
instance is the friction of the out-rushing air on the sides of the 
opening, and the work required to push the outer air aside. At 
higher pressures, Prof. Linde found that some cooling effect is 
exercised by ai reduction of pressure, the temperature being re- 
duced about -Mi ° F. per atmosphere (15 pounds) pressure. 

After the air has been compressed to the desired point, having 
been taken into the compressor from the atmosphere, it is sent 
into a cooler over which water is showered, and cooled as low as 
the water will do it, then it is allowed to flow into a second 
cylinder, the so-called expansion cylinder. In this cylinder the 
air expands, driving at the same time the piston through the 
cylinder. At the end of the stroke, the air is considerably cooler, 
having been allowed to expand, and is now allowed to enter the 
rooms to be cooled. The compression and the expansion cylin- 
ders are coupled to the same shaft, and the work performed in the 
expansion cylinder by the expanding gas materially assists the 
compressor. 

It is evident that the heat which was produced by compressing 
the gas, and then removed by the water \tv iVvt cooVx, Twa.'^vXi^ 
an equal amount as the heat transiormed vxvVo hioxV ^wtvcvt "^^ 



agS • REm<aatATTON. ^^ 

expansion of the air, or, io other words, if we asuoUbi how 
many heat-units the water has received, bymnltiplying th^^lps- 
ber of pounds of water with tiie difference of temperatores oAii|^^ 
water when entering and when leaving the cocker, we have tiwi 
amount of cocking work which the expanded air can do. 

DENSE AIR .OOMPKESSION MACHINES. 

The principle pi this machine is, in the 4nain, the same as that 
of the one just described. The only difference is the faict that the 
dense air machine admits the air to the compressor at a hii^wr 
pressure than atmospheric, generally at about 60 pounds. Thia 
is done in order to reduce the size of the compressor, since air of 
60 pounds weighs 2^4 times as much as air of 15 pounds' pressure. 
Consequently the area of the compression cylinder can be reduced 
by a corresponding amount. 

The construction of the machine is the same as that of the 
machine taking in air at atmospheric pressure, except that the 
expanded air is sent into coils of pipes instead of into the room 
directly. This is done in order to be able to maintain a pressure 
of 60 pounds. 

UQUEFIABLE GAS MACHINES. 

The machines using a liquifiable gas can be divided ng^in into 
two principal classes: 

1. The compression machines. 

2. The absorption machines. 

COMPRESSION MACHINES. 

The principle of these machines is based on the ability of certain 
gases to become liquid by cooling with water, or air, of a tem- 
perature at our disposal when compressed to pressures practically 
obtainable, and on the other hand their ability to evaporate at 
temperatures required in the cooling coils. 

The process is as follows: The gas, leaving the cooling coils, 
enters the compressor, and is therein compressed to such a point 
that the water, running over the condensers, into which the g^ 
is discharged by the compressor, can liquify it. The liquid so 
formed is sent to the cooling coils, and has to pass an expansion 
cock on the way. The object of this cock is to reduce the pressure 
of the liquid to the pressure prevailing in the coils. 
// is evident that a liquid having, for instance, a temperature of 
'^'', corresponding to a condensing pressuTt ol is^ ^o>r[v^^, ^aar 



^' REFRIGERATION. 299 

not evapcrrkte in coils surrounded by brine, say of 18^, the tern- 
peninfie of the gas in the coils being 14^. Therefore, the liquid 
mtist first be brought to a temperature of 14". This is accom- 
plished by the expansion cock. Part of the liquid evaporates while 
passing the cock and cools the remainder to 14**. There is thus 
obtained a mixture of about 12 per cent in weight of gas, and 
about 88 per cent of liquid, the latter only doing useful work. 
The cooling effect of the 12 per cent utilized for cooling the re- 
maining liquid is absolutely lost. After the liquid has all been 
evaporated it flows back to the compressor and goes through the 
same routine as before. 

These machines are built horizontal and vertical, meaning, by 
this, that the compressors are either horizontal or vertical. They 
are further built with two or one compressors, and finally, as 
double-acting and single-acting compressors, necessitating differ- 
ent arrangement of parts. 

Compression is performed in one of three different ways : 

1. Dry compression. 

2. Wet compression. 

3. Oil circulation. 

DRY COMPRESSION MACHINES. 

The gas is compressed in a jacketed compressor, water is cir- 
culated through this jacket to remove, as much as possible, the 
heat produced by the compression. 

WET COMPRESSION MACHINES. 

With the gas a small portion of liquid is admitted into the com- 
pressor, which, being evaporated while the gas is compressed, 
through the heat so produced, accomplishes the same purpose as 
the jacket in the dry compressor, but in a much higher degree. 

The best result will be obtained when just so much liquid is 
injected with the gas that the gas is barely saturated at the end of 
the compression, that is to say, there was liquid present up to the 
end of the stroke, but none to leave the compressor and en^er 
the condensers, since all of the liquid has been evaporated by the 
heat of compression. 

This result is, of course, not obtainable in practical work, as 
the danger of injecting liquid is too great. The injection is, 
therefore, kept safely within the theoretical bounds. This is 
controlled by the touch of the hand. A.S \ot\^ ^^ >\v^ \.^T«^tx'^Va\'^ 
of the gas, leaving the compressor, \s apprcd2\>Vj vj^xtcv^x >Oc\axN. ^'^ 



V 




JOO KBnUGBKATION. 

liquid Icaring the coodcnsert, there ctn be no H^JM^^Baniod 
from the compressor, since it cannot exist at a higher 
than that which prevails in the condenser. 

The danger of iojecting too much liquid is apparent If liqaid 
remains in the compressor after the completion of the compresnon 
stroke, it will fill the clearance existing in every compressor, and 
when the piston recedes to take in new gas, will prevent die entry 
of new gas until all the liquid which remained after comprestiOQ 
has been evaporated. Assuming that the condensing presaore 
would be 156 pounds, and the suction pressure 27 pounds, the lots 
will be about 270 times the amount of the clearance, which 007 
be assumed to be one-sixteenth of an indi. Or, for about rf elk 
the stroke, no new gas would enter. If, therefore, the strofae 
of the compressor was only 16*, absolutely no new gas woold 
enter during this stroke, and. of course, none ^ould be dis- 
charged, and only half the refrigeration would be obtained. 

OIL CIRCULATION. 

The heat of compression is here removed by injecting cool oil 
instead of the liquid. The oil is injected during the compression 
period, and discharged with the gas into an oil tank, where part 
of the oil is retained, while the gas passes into the condenser. The 
oil is discharged into a separate cooler, and, after being cooled 
by the water, returned to the compressor. Any oil which has 
been carried with the gas into the condensers will run with the 
liquid into the liquid receiver, which is so arranged that the oil 
lias time to separate from the liquid, being about 50 per cent 
heavier than the liquid. The pipe conveying the liquid from the 
liquid receiver to the cooling coils is inserted from the top of the 
tank and reaches down to about 12" above the center of the tank, 
leaving ample room for the oil to collect. 

The other reasons why oil injection is used, arc: The perfect 
lubrication obtained, the sealing of the valves, the tilling of the 
clearances preventing re-expansion of any gas. and. finally, the 
sealing of the stuffing box in vertical compressors. This holds 
good, however, only for very slowly running niacliines. as other- 
wise the oil is not handled in bulk form. 

The oil used for this purpose nmst not saponify, must have a 
congealing point of about o*. and a flash point of about jdo**, 
and should be light -colored and not too heavy. 
T/ie same oil is used for lubricating lV\e di-y ;itv^ vV^^t v^^v ^:»vq^ 



REFRIGERATION. 3OI 

_ in the double stuffing boxes of the horizontal rna- 

chifie^r^ 

ABSORPTION MACHINES. 

The principle of this machine is the ability of water to absorb 
gases, and the best for this purpose is ammonia. 

One volume of water at 76** temperature absorbs 600 volumes of 
ammonia independent of the pressure under which both exist. It 
will therefore be seen that this absorption must be very energetic. 
The heat generated by the absorption of one pound of ammonia 
in water is 927 heat-units, or nearly twice as much as the heat of 
evaporation of aimnonia, which is, on an average, 560 heat-units. 

The process is as follows: The ammonia gas, after having 
been evaporated in the cooling coils, enters the absorber, which 
is a vessel provided with water-cooling coils for removing the 
heat of absorption. The ammonia is absorbed by the water con- 
tained in this vessel until a good, strong aqua ammonia is 
formed. This aqua is sent by a pump through a heat exchanger 
into the still. There, by means of steam coils, the strong aqua 
is heated, and the ammonia partly freed from it and sent into 
the condenser, where the ammonia gas is liquified and returned 
as a liquid to the cooling coils from which it came in the form of 
a gas. The aqua which remains in the still after having been de- 
prived of all the ammonia gas possible, is allowed to flow back 
through the heat exchanger into the absorber. This is done by 
its own pressure, the pressure in the still being about 156 pounds, 
while the pressure in the absorber is about 27 pounds. This so- 
called weak aqua is now ready to absorb ammonia gas coming 
from the cooling coils. 

The purpose of the heat exchanger is to reduce the temperature 

of the weak aqua, which is above the boiling point of water at 

atmospheric pressure, to the temperature of the strong aqua 

coming from the absorber and having a temperature of about 

'75°, the temperature of the absorber. 

RELATIVE MERITS OF THE DIFFERENT SYSTEMS. 

The vacuum machine can be dismissed as entirely impractical. 
It requires such enormous plant of vacuum pumps to do little 
work, and the difficulties to build a machine which will maintain 
such a high vacuum for any length of time, as well as the cost 
of power, which is much greater than required iox \.Vv^ -aSx ^orccv- 
pression machine, have caused it to ia\\ \t\Vo v\\\.^t ^\^>\s^. 



303 REFRIGERATION. 

The air compression machine has the disadvantagie. that Ibe 
whole cooling effect obtained by it is produced by expending 
power, which means coal. The water in this machine sintply 
takes away the heat produced by compression, so that the air 
is capable of reducing its own temperature while expanding to 
the desired low temperature. The amount of heat groduced by 
compression, ihe amount of heat removed by the water, and the 
amount of heat abstracted from the air while expanding, arc all 
of equal value. 

It must be the aim, in an efficient and economical machine, to do 
most of the work by water and not by coal. .Consequently one 
cannot economically employ a machine which requires fuel aniount- 
ing to about five times as much as a machine using a liquifiable 
gas as a medium, while the capacity of the compressor must be 
forty-five times the capacity of a compressor using liquifiable 
gases. 

The Di-iisc Air Machini- has only this advantage over the air 
compression machine, that its compressor can be of smaller ca- 
pacity because it handles denser air, and the capacity of this com- 
pressor need be only nine limes that ot a compressor using a 
liquifiable gas. There is. however, no saving of power, and coal 
still lias lo do the whole work. 

Regarding the economy of machines using the ditTerent tiquiS- 
able gases as n'edia. there i-- li'.i!v ty say. Theoretically, the effi- 
ciency is the same lor ;:11. but practically, the nature of the dif- 
ferent gases causes dirTerL-iices, and often determines the value of a 
machine charged with ::, 

The dH:r;:.^MJ ,\-iKrr,isi.-ii iiidJiiii.s h-ld the ir.nrket for the 
iollowii;g re:ir.ir.s : .-\i:imonia can be condensed and exjiandcd at 
ri asonjible pre;iurcs. A leakage wlI; be known soon by the 
strong i::id\. It is not injurious to lualth if r.iM itilialed in ex- 
cessive quanii'.ies. It has the liightfi laieiit heat in o"tnparison to 
hi specirlc hca;. which is a quality ahvay.^^ to be di.-ireJ. 

h less than t;-.e atmospheric I'rcssiire ar.d, cpnicquently, air will 
enter the stiiihiig bo.\ of tiie compressor, prodiiclns a mixture of 
gases which i; very explosive. Besides, it is very d.angerous to 
inhale the gas. 

The objections to sulphur dioxidf are that the suction pressure 
uiiif! be ki'pi so Hear the atmospheric viessuTC, and often goes 
^/oH- /( //) i;je practical iiandling oi U\c TOac\\wic. Csiii. ^t » 



A REFRIGERATION. 3O3 

sucked jsm the compressor through the stuffing box, carrying 
moi^re with it, and thus forming, with the sulphur dioxide, 
sulphuric acid, which will eat up compressor and pipes in short 
order. 

The objection to carbon dioxide is the excessive pressures un- 
der which it must be handled, viz.: 381 pounds suction 
pressure and 1,065 pounds condensing pressure. For all 
gases the temperatures prevailing in the condenser have 
been taken as 86"*, and in the cooling coils as 14^ ; therefore, the 
pressures given correspond to these temperatures. It is very 
difficult to get tight joints and stuffing boxes at such pressures. 
Moreover, since the temperature at which the gas refuses to 
liquify at any pressure — the so-called critical temperature of the 
gas, which is 89** — is so near the temperature of our cooling water 
which often is over 85 ''^it is dangerous to use this gas, and the 
condenser would be of small efficiency if working with a differ- 
ence of temperature of only 4^ between the gas and the water, 
while condensers are expected to work with a difference of tem- 
perature of at least 15''. If the water is only 85", the machine 
employing this gas will work very unsatisfactorily, and, besides, 
will require enormous quantities of water, owing to the small 
amount of heat each pound can take off. The gas itself is hardly 
noticeable by the nose or ear, and when escaping might kill the 
engineer before he knew he had a leak. Besides, it is difficult to 
detect a leak. 

It is claimed for this gas that it is cheap. But this need not 
make much difference, as ammonia joints can be made and kept 
tight. So it is only the first cost which could enter into this con- 
sideration. 

It is further claimed that since the gas is heavy and at high 
pressure, the compressor need only be small, which is true, as 
one cubic foot of it weighs 4.535 pounds, while a cubic foot of 
saturated ammonia at the same temperature weighs only 0.147 
pounds, and therefore the compressor of the carbon dioxide ma- 
chine need have only one-thirtieth the capacity of an ammonia 
compressor. But, on the other hand, while one pound of liquid 
carbon dioxide furnishes 14.79 th. u., whereas one pound of liquid 
ammonia furnishes 500.35 th. u., which is more than thirty times 
the heat developed by the carbon dioxide, making up more than 
enough for the advantage in weight. 

The objections to the ammonia ahsorpiwx m-w^vcv^^ '^'^^ ^\n.^ 



K 

304 REFRIGERATION. ^ 

miiiierotis. The handltnE oittQQu of different 8licligin/^^|ffefeBft 
t empe r atures and different pressures is work lor a chemist, llMkar 
than an engineer. As long as the machine works regolartSp^ 
there is no tronble. But the moment something nnusoal ^ 
happens, it takes a good chenust to find the trouble. There hare 
been many cases where a machine had stopped and many and good 
experts were present tr3ring to start it again, but did not su c c eed, 
and when the engineer took the machine in hand again, after 
having left it alone for a while, it started as wdl as ever. It is 
impossible to see what is the trouble by opening the machine, like 
a compressor machine, and only the intdligent reading of ther- 
mometers and gauges, and testing of the weak and strong a<iua 
at the different points, can reveal the trouble. 

At the first glance it seems as if the absorption machine was 
the correct one to use steam for cooling, as the steam is used 
directly. But a little consideration of the action of the madune 
will show a great many drawbacks. The fact is that while an 
ammonia compression machine, with simple Corliss engine, can 
perform the work of twenty-seven pounds of ice melted, figuring 
thirty pounds of steam per horse-power per hour, an absorption 
machine using the best coal can only perform the work of seven- 
teen pounds of ice melted. 

The reason for this deficiency lies in the fact that the boiling 
in the still not only drives out the ammonia gas, but also evapo- 
rates some of the water, sending water vapor along into the 
condenser. The evaporation of this requires considerable heat. 
Furthermore, while ammonia, when evaporating in the cooling 
coils, abstracts only about 500 th. u., there are 927 th. u. required 
in the still to free the ammonia gas from the water. The con- 
densation of this water vapor carried along requires extra water, 
and the absorber requires about twice as much water as the 
condenser, as 927 th. u. are transferred there to the water by the 
absorption of one pound of ammonia, while only 524 th. u. are 
abstracted by the water at the condenser. Nor c?n it be expected, 
owing to the water vapor carried in the condenser, to get perfectly 
anhydrous ammonia for the cooling coil, but considerable moist- 
ure will be found in it which impairs the efficiency of the am- 
monia materially. 

When it comes to absorption machines working with water of 
So" to 86^, much cannot be expected from them, as this tempera- 
'^^Tp js close to the temperature at wVuch am\Tvotv\^ ^T^<:\Ac.'8iJ\i 



/ 



REFRIGERATION. 305 

ceases te^ifg absorbed by water. It is, therefore, advisable to use 
absoflttton machines only where plenty of cold water is at hand 

^ad coal is cheap. 

USES OF REFRIGERATION. 

All machines, except the air compression machines handling 
air at atmospheric pressure, and the vacuum machines, can be 
applied to all the different uses hereafter described. In describing 
the handling of machines, however, the ammonia compression ma- 
chine will be kept in view as being the one most commonly used. 

WATER COOLING. 

Water is required to be cooled in a brewery, first, for the at- 
temperators, and second, for cellar washing. 

Cooling should never be done with the cooler submerged. 
The transmission of heat is proportionate to the thickness of the 
material it has to penetrate, the difference of temperature between 
cooling medium and the substance to be cooled, and to the 
velocity with which the material flows over the cooler. It is, 
therefore, wrong to submerge the cooler, as it will require about 
twenty times as much cooling surface as when the cooler is not 
submerged, but the water flowing over it. 

The ammonia should enter the top of the cooler, because then 
the hottest gas or liquid will meet the hottest water, the same as 
in the Baudelot cooler, where the beer runs outside over the 
cooler from the top, while the cooling water enters the cooling 
coil at the bottom. This enables the wort and the water to ex- 
change temperature in the most perfect way. If the cooler is 
about thirty-four pipes high and the proper amount of water — 
about 125 barrels of water for 100 barrels of wort — is supplied, 
the water will leave the cooler with a temperature about 6** lower 
than the beer. In the case of the ammonia water cooler the liquid, 
when entering, will have a higher pressure and, consequently, 
higher temperature than when it leaves the cooler, owing to the 
friction in the pipes. Furthcnnore, the liquid entering from the 
top will flow freely through the cooler, flowing downward, and 
will not fill the pipes so much as if forced upward, leaving, there- 
fore, a larger space for the evaporating gas and facilitating 
evaporation, the same as a good steam space in a boiler. Care 
must be taken to turn on the water over lV\e too\w ^\. n\\^ '^»^v^^ 
time as the ammonia is turned inside k, as o\.Vvw>n\^^ n>^^ Xvj^n^ 




i 

306 REFRIGERATION. 4.^ 

mshing through the cooler would find nothing to ilAft^ict heat 
from, and would fill the cooler rapidly, and finally the ba£^lrott 
would come back heavily to the machine. 

It is very important to choose the pn^>er suction pressure for 
water cooling, if this can be done without interfering with other 
work, for instance, when the cellars are shut off, or an extra ii»> 
chine with extra suction pipe leading to the cooler is at disposaL 

It is always advisable to keep a difference of 8* to lo*" between 
the temperature of the gas and liquid in the cooler, and the water 
to be cooled, provided that the cooler has sufficient surface to al- 
low this without freezing back too much to the machine. 

In the table giving the properties of saturated ammonia wiD 
be found the temperatures of the gas corresponding to respective 
pressures. For instance, when cooling water to 40^, a suction 
pressure of 45 pounds is advisable. The temperature of the gas 
at this pressure is 31^, as per table, and therefore we have a 
difference of 9^ between water and gas; it is not advisable to 
use a suction pressure higher than 45 pounds for the reason that 
the gas would have a temperature above 32**, and the ammonia 
pipes could not show frost, depriving the operator of the only 
means by which he can regulate the flow of the ammonia. In 
this case, and if water is to be cooled to, say 50*^, a suction pres- 
sure of 60 pounds could be carried and good work done, but in 
order to regulate the flow of the ammonia properly, an ammonia 
gauge must be connected to the suction pipe so that the operator 
can regulate by its readings. 

Another disadvantage will be encountered when using sub- 
merged coolers, viz., the forming of thick ice on the cooler 
which acts as a non-conductor, and reduces the efficiency of the 
cooler. 

The attcmperator cooler is nothing but a regular water cooler. 
But if used little it is not objectionable if ice forms on the cooler. 
The work of this cooler is of necessity very irregular, owing to 
more or fewer attcmperator coils being supplied by it, and it 
should be of the right size to prevent the frost coming back 
to the machine too strong when used to its full capacity. It must 
be expected that ice will form when it is used to about one-half 
its capacity. 

TVj^ aifempcrator coils in tubs are made preferably of black iron 
oipe of 2" diameter, the coil having one cotvNo\MUoiv> ^xv^ ^^\K^^^n 



> 

J REFRIGERATION. 307 

reduced (olt" are placed at its ends about 3" apart, the outside 
diamelef of the coil to be 6" smaller than the inside diameter of the 
tub aS the top, and the coil hung 18" from the top of the tub by 
tfiree 5" hangers. Each coil should be provided with two valves 
and unions for disconnecting. 

The. attemperator pump should be placed about 20 feet below the 
fermenting room, and the attemperator tank above the fermenting 
room, and placed in an insulated enclosure if the room above the 
fermenting room' is not cooled. This arrangement is necessary 
to provide for the automatic starting and stopping of the attem- 
perator pump. 

Attemperator Pump. — ^The speed of the pump is regulated, or 
it is started or stopped, by the weight of the water column in the 
return pipe from the attemperator mains in the fermenting room 
to the pump, by means of a pressure regulator attached to the re- 
turn pipe and connected to a balanced regulating valve placed in 
the live-steam pipe of the pump. The return pipe should be large 
enough to pre\'ent its filling at any time so that the water column 
can regulate without interruption. 

If the pump runs too fast, the water column in the return pipe 
will get shorter and exert less pressure upon the pressure regu- 
lator, and the latter will act upon the steam regulating valve, re- 
ducing the inflow of the steam, and with it the revolutions of the 
pump, stopping it entirely when all the water is out of the return 
pipe, and starting the pump again as soon as water collects in 
the return pipe, which will occur even if only one attemperator 
coil is turned on. To place the tank above the fermenting room 
will also prevent excessive pressure in the mains, as the water 
flows only by gravity to the coils. 

To cool water for cellar washing, the beer cooler can be used 
when not needed for wort cooling. The water can be run into 
a big tub and stored there ready for use. This will also prevent 
waste of cooling power, as the use of the water for this purpose. 
can plainly be seen, and the amount of work required by the 
machine measured, which is very necessary, as otherwise enorm- 
ous quantities of refrigeration may be wasted. 

Beer Cooler. — All that has been said about the water cooler 
applies also to the beer cooler. It should only be remembered 
that cooling wort with ammonia means much work, and therefore 
all possible cooling should be done by \.\vc >«*aX^\ s^Oav^w^ 
trhJch should have at least 34 pipes. 



308 RKFRIGER.\TION. \ 

II takes, approxiniairly, one ton of refrigc^ralidn^tl. coo] Iod 
barrels id", and 80 barrels can b« run safely over a c'<)^|cr of 
ao feet lengtli- ' 4_^ 

The ammonia part vt the beer cooler fthould be made of two- -^ 
inch, smooth wrought-iron pipe, well polished. This kind nil] 
give the best remits. The old method of using copper-covered 
wrought-tTon pipe cannot be recommended, because it is im- 
possible to dnw copper tubes over iron tobe« so tightlj that 
there will be no air spice between them. Air space strkdy 
confined, as in this case, is the best non-conductor for hcM 
known, tt has been found at times by sounding with a tight 
hand hammer that two-thirds of the pipes were thns put onl 
of action. 

There is no danger of affecting the wort by rust, when the ^pes 
are coated with a good varnish; besides, the «ort will form 1 
crust, which will thoroughly protect the iron. 

The beer cooler should always be made of ample height, as 
this will allow the machine to work with the most economical 
suction pressure and will prevent excessive back frost. 

Copper drip strips should' be soldered to the ammonia pipes 
and brass clamps used in the middle. Iron clamps will do for 
the ends, but these end clamps should be placed on ihc fittings 
and not on the pipes, so that the beer will not strike them and 
form ice. Lately, the entire beer cooler, the water part, as well 
as the ammonia part, have been made of polished iron pipe, 
which is preferable, as it is conducive (o cleanliness, no verdigris 
can form, and cleaning is an easy matter. But. owing to the 
thickness and the difference in conductivity of iron, about 90 
per cent more pipes should be used for the water part than for 
copper pipes. 

CELLAR COOLING, 

There are iwo methods: 

1. Direct expansion. 

2. Brine circulation. 



In ihii Evstem the ammonia comes directly in contact with 
Lhe air, being eirciila.ed in wrought-iron pipes Uicated in the 
ooms lo be couled. This is the be« nitihoJ, because it is 
'ect. Ill order to cool air in a room ^v v'.V-^^ ^'^ V **<■ «» 



I 



REFRIGERATION. 309 

in the oJt>€s must have a temperature of 14* to 20*, according 
to tfc^^inount of pipes provided to do a certain work, and 
whether the pipes arc supplied with discs or not. To work with 
^* a less difference in temperature will not pay, as the first cost 
of the pipes, the extra amount of ammonia required, and the 
extra friction of the gas in the pipes will more than counteract 
the gain in the coal pile. 

That pipes provided with discs cannot do good work with a 
small difrerence in temperature is plain from the fact that the 
cooling effect has to extend from five to seven inches from the 
center, and to spread out over a large surface, while in pipes 
without discs the distance ii has to travel is small, being about 
three-sixteenths of an inch, and the surface it has to supply is 
very small also. If there was too little difference of tempera- 
ture allowed in pipes supplied with discs, their edges would 
drip continually, which cannot be permitted as it would make 
the air in the cellar moist. 

Discs should not be used any more. It paid to extend the 
surface of the pipes by means of discs when ammonia was worth 
$1.50 and $1 per pound, as it was cheaper then to put up less 
piping and to use only one-half the amount of ammonia by 
placing discs on the pipes. But at present, with ammonia at 
25 cents, the saving would amount to about four cents, while 
the disc would cost at least 25 cents. 

' This calculation is per foot of pipe, one foot of two-inch pipe 
requires one-third pound of ammonia, and if discs are used, one 
is provided for each foot of pipe. 

If we woulci circulate brine through the pipes the brine must, 
from the above considerations, have a temperature of 20**, and 
in order to obtain brine of such temperature we must keep the 
temperature of the gas much lower than 20**, which can be done 
if we apply, lefrigeration directly. It should be at least 12°. 
But this necessitates a lower suction pressure, about 25 pounds. 
for the machine, while with direct expansion we can work 
with 30 pounds and without discs with 35 pounds if sufficient 
piping is provided. Now. five pounds' less suction pressure 
means 12 more revolutions per minute, and 12 per cent more 
coal, and 10 pounds double as much, which is certainly a u\^lV.^\ 
worthy of considtrsLiion, 



} 



\ 

310 REFBIGERATION. ^ 

Two-inch cooling coils should always be used, anl^Ao rah 
connected to one expansion cock should be longer tluflhuoo 
feet. The returns should be made of i>ipe, and haye lO-indC^ir^ 
better still, 15-inch centers. The suction mains leading to tbe^ 
machines should be of such size that the gas will never be 
Crowded on its way to the machine, as this would decrease the 
suction pressure by the friction in the pipes, and, consequently, 
reduce the capacity and efficiency of the machine. If the suc- 
tion inlet to the machine is three inches, and there is one 
double-acting compressor, the main suction pipe should be at 
least. four inches diameter, or about 50 per cent larger, and 
the branches from the main pipe should be made of such area 
as is in proportion to the mrnibrr of feet of pipe supplied by 
each, their total area being equal to the area of the main suction 
or more. 

If there are more compressors, the suction-pipe area must be 
increased in proportion to their number. 

On all lowest point of the main suction pipe and its branches 
drips should be provided, to be able to drain water and oil, 
should such accumulate, and a good-sized drip tank should be 
set up to drain the lowest part of the main suction pipe by gfrav- 
ity. This tank should always be in connection with the suction 
pipe, and will give warning as soon as too much oil or water 
accumulates, because the frost which always covers this tank, as 
long as only gas and liquid is in it. will then thaw, and the part 
uncovered will indicate the amount of water or oil accumulated, 
which should be drawn off as soon as the tank is half filled. 

BRINE CIRCULATION. 

The brine is cooled in a large tank, which may be located in 
the engine room or close to the machine. This tank is filled 
with heat-absorbing pipes, preferably of two inches' diameter, 
as they will not choke up so easily with scales and oil. There 
should be at least no feel of pipes provided for each ton of 
refrigeration, if two-inch pipes arc selected. Not to exceed 500 
feet should be connected to one expansion cock, pnd the brine 
pump, which is to be brass fitted, should be of such size that 
when each pislon makes 60 strokes per minute it will deliver 
12 gallons of brine per ton of refrigeration. This will bring 
t^c brine bruk to fhe tank, with a temperature 1* hic;her than 
when It left the tank, and is considered ^ood \>T2ie\\c^. 



REFRIGERATION. 



311 



The pinnp should be provided with suction and discharge 
valv^«^\ strainer should be put in the suction pipe, so ar- 
rayf^d by means of a by-pass and valves that it can be taken 
t)ut while the pnmp is running. A thermometer should be in- 
serted in the suction pipe, so that it can be removed when 
broken without stopping the pump. The return pipe should be 
so placed in the tank that good circulation will ensue. It should 
enter the tank at the opposite corner of the tank from where 
the suction is located, which should be put near the bottom, and 
a header might be put on the discharge pipe with openings 
to force the brine along each cooler. 



Table of Bkine Solution. 
(Chloride of Sod lam— Common Salt ) 



Percentage 
Weight. 






§.08 
'/J 


Specific 
Heat. 


Weight of 
One Gallon. 


Pounds of 
Salt in One 
Gallon. 


Pounds of 

Water in 

One Gallon. 


Weight of 
One Cubic 
Foot. 


Pounds of 
Salt in One 
Cubic Foot. 


Pounds of 
Water in 
One Cubic 
Foot. 


Freezing 
Point. De- 
grees F. 








1. 


1. 


8.35 


0. 


8.35 


62.4 


0. 


62.4 


32. 


1 


.4 


1.007 


0.092 


8.4 


0.084 


8.316 


62.8 


0.628 


62.172 


31.8 


5 


20 


1.087 


OM 


8.fl5 


0.432 


8.218 


64.7 


3.287 


61.465 


25.4 


10 


40 


1.073 


0.892 


8.95 


0.895 


8.055 


66.95 


6.695 


60.253 


18.6 


15 


60 


111.*) 


0.855 


9.3 


1.396 


7.905 


69.57 


10.435 


59.181 


12.2 


SO 


80 


I.ISO 


0.829 


9.6 


1.92 


7.68 


71.76 


14.352 


57.408 


6.86 


25 


100 


1.191 


0.783 


9.91 


2.485 


7.455 


74.26 


18.565 


55.695 


1.00 



The brine mains supplying the coils in the cellars should be 
so arranged that the brine leaving each cellar coil must rise 
to a point higher than the coil in the highest cellar, so as to 
equalize the pressure in each coil in the different stories. A 
vacuum breaker must be provided on top of the return pipe to 
prevent it being siphoned out. The pipe headers in the cellars 
must be of ample size to accommodate the quantity of brine 
delivered by the discharge pipe, the size of which is determined 
by the discharge opening of the pump, which should never be 
reduced. 

Each coil of pipes connected to the discharge header in the 
cellars should be provided with a good valve of the size of the 
coil, and no more than 120 feet of one-inch pipe, and no more than 
240 feet of two-inch pipe should be conixecVt^ \o ow^ N-aXx^. 
Air vents should be provided for eacVi \\e^d<iT. 



312 



RBVBIGERATION. 



\ 



\ 




The brine tank, the brine futinp and brine mains^ 
well insulated wherever exposed to warm air. 

It is advisable to use brine circulation only for small 
ice boxes, where there ate only few pipes required and where" 
would be difficult to regulate the expansion, as the gas would 
have to travel such short distance, or if it is desired to run the 
machine in the daytime only, and the brine pump only at night. 
In the last mentioned case refrigeration can be stored by the 
brine tank, if it is made big enough, which, however, b Teiy 
expensive, as brine tank, brine coils and machine must be twice 
the size that they would be for direct expansion. 

Properties op Solution of Chloride of Calcium. 



PereenUge bj 


Specific Heat. 


BpeetBc Gnv- 


Preeslng 


Freestng 


Welgbt. 


ttymt60*Faiir. 


Point. Uegr. F. 


Point, D«8r. a 


1 


O.OM 


1 000 


SI 


-0.5 


6 


0.964 


i.oa 


27.5 


-2.5 


10 


0.806 


1.087 


22 


-^.6 


15 


0.860 


1.1S4 


15 


-0.6 


2C 


0.834 


1.182 


+5 


—14.8 


25 


0.7B0 


i.m 


-8 


-22.1 



It is often claimed that brine circulation aflfords a safeguard 
against accidents, that the machine can be stopped for some time, 
and yet the brine will be cold enough to do work. But. first, the 
brine tank must be ver>' large to do this, and when the machine 
is in order again, it must first cool the brine, working for hours 
before the brine can be used for refrigeration. In the direct ex- 
pansion system, on the other hand, there is abundant storage 
of cold in the ice covering the pipes, which will last for almost 
24 hours, if it has been allowed to accumulate, as is nearly almost 
the case, and when the machine is again ready for work, refrig- 
eration will Stan at once. 

ICE-MAKING. 

Ice-making is another practice which is coming more and 
more into favor in breweries, on account of the small expense 
incurred in making it in connection with a brewerj' plant. The 
same machine which is used for beer cooling and cellar work 
can be used for ice-making, provided there is spare capacity 
and sufficient boiler power. 

In ice plants of reasonable size, provided with a good Corliss 

engine, there is not sufficient exhaust steam furnished by the 

"machine to supply the amount of disliWed Yja.V« t^^vsax^^ Vk 



> 

I 

) REFRIGERATION. 313 

ice-maldii^. It is generally necessary to add 25 per cent of live 
steagi;''^hich has done no work, to the exhaust in order to 
jpjfply this deficiency. Now, the brewery has an abundance 
of exhaust on hand, and, therefore, does not have to pay for 
this additional live steam. It also has the required engineers 
and firemen, so that their wages need not enter into the calcula- 
tion. The expense, therefore, will consist only in the extra 
amount of coal and the wages of the ice pullers. 
. Figuring only coal and labor lo deliver the idb in the store 
room, ice can be made with a 40-ton plant at 25 cents a ton. 

The freezing of the ice is done in a big tank filled with brine 
and containing rows of pipes, through which ammonia is circu- 
lated, and between which galvanized cans are placed. The brine 
is circulated in the tank itself by a propeller. The water used 
for filling the cans is obtained by condensing the exhaust steam, 
reboiling, filtering thoroughly and cooling it. This is done to 
expel all the air and remove ail impurities, as oil, rust, etc. It 
is necessary lo remove the air from the water, as otherwise it 
would be caught while the ice is frozen, and the product would 
have a milky appearance. 

For each ten of ice made there should be furnished 260 feet 
of two-inch pipe, and sufTicicnt cans to freeze blocks of 11x22 
by 42 inches, and 60 hours for freezing. Thus, a 40-ton ice plant 
would require 667 cans. The temperature of the brine in the 
freezing tank should be 18°. 

It is very important that the freezing tank be well insulated, 
and that the cans are straight and not twisted, and have the 
proper taper for releasing the ice. A can which will furnish 
300-pound blocks should measure at the top iiMf by 22M.» inches, 
and at the bottom 21% by 10% inches to make a full-size block. 

The strength of the brine need not be higher than necessary 
to prevent its freezing at the temperature required. Stronger 
brine docs not help freezing; it only lowers the freezing point. 

It is generally believed by engineers that stronger brine docs 
better work. This is based upon the observation they have 
made that they succeed in lowering the temperature of the brine 
in a given tank with a given machine quicker when the brine 
is strong than when it is weak, which is quite true. But tUcv 
have done equal amounts of work in boVVv c;^'?*^^, -a^s >n'^ •^'^\>vs^ 
from the following reflection: 



— V 

One ton^ of refrigeration will cool 3S.400 pounds trf water 
10°, while it will cool an equal number of pounds of ^itK of 
36 per cent 12.5°, because the specific heat of this brinc-^^j 
only 0.8 of that of water, which ii = i. It h evident, there-* - 
fore, that nothing has been guiud. While it is easier to lower 
strong brine one degree, the same briiie will heat up so much 
qtiicker. If it H, ttiercTore, a matter of storing refrigeration, the 
brine should be made only sttoiqc enough to prevent its freezing 

If, for instat^ce, it is desired to store refrigeration in the most 
economical way and reqtiiring the smallest possible tank, it is' 
best to place lai^ galvanized cans between the coils in the tank 
and to fill them with brine of different strength, say, 5 per cent 
for the first one, 10 per cent for the second and 15 per cent for 
the third. Then the can containing the weakest solution will 
freeze first, next the 10 per cent one, and, finally, the 15 per 
cent one. In this way the work is dtMie at the highest posriUe 
suction pressure and the ice stored instead of brine, which is 
about as i to 14 in capacity. This system was invented and 
patented by Mr. George Richmond. 

PRACTICAL TESTS FOR MATERIAL USED WITH 
REFRIGERATING MACHINES. 

AMUO:<IA. 
Fill a pint Venetian boiling flask about one-half full with 
liquid aminotiia. put 3 rubber cork in the opening, and insert 
a smalt glass lube projecting a few inches below the cork, but 
not so low that the ainmonia. when boiling, can strike it. Set 
the bottle in a place of ordinary temperature where the sun will 
not fall upon it. The ammonia should leave no (race, if pure 
and anhydrous. Sometimes it will leave a trace of oil. which, 
if very liiiie. will not be objectionable, but water should not 
be found after the ammonia has all evaporated. 

To fill the boiile. it is best to make a fork of wood to hold 
the bottle neck, and to fasten the bottle secr.rcly with a string. 
The piece of wood should he at least 24 inches long for safe 
handling. Place the bottle so that when the liquid rua<i otit 
of the valve of the shipping tank it will run into the bottle 
H/tAout spilling. The tank must be raised high enough so that 
ie bottle can stand upright under \hc \ai^e. O^wi v"**. n^-<« 



> 

J REFRIGERATION. 315 

very lijlff? and a white vapor of evaporating liquid will ap- 
peary which must evaporate first in order to cool the 
jmyt, so that the liquid can exist as such under atmospheric 
pressure. It creates a temperature of — 27® while thus evap- 
orating. Soon, the liquid will follow in a thin jet, but the filling 
must be done very slowly, as otherwise the bottle will burst. 
The kind of bottle described is used because it is made of very 
thin glass and will stand a great change of temperature. The 
cork and glass pipe is provided to prevent moisture entering 
through the mouth of the bottle. 

A glass thermometer kept submerged in the liquid should 
show — 27* if the ammonia has not been mixed with another 
liquid, which has been known to occur. 

AMMONIA OIL. 

Ammonia oil should not be too dark, so that it can be easily 
seen in the gauges. It should be about 26° Beaume, as other- 
wise it would be too sluggish, and it should not congeal in 
brine, or in a freezing mixture more than one or two degrees 
above zero. If a brine tank is at hand it is safe enough to put a 
sample of the oil in the brine, and if it does not congeal in 
the course of a couple of hours, it is safe to use. 

The oil must not flash much below 360', which can be ascer- 
tained by heating it over a gas flame in a little tin pot, stirring 
it all the while, and moving a very small gas flame close 
over its surface, so as to ignite any gas which may be formed. 
Whenever gas forms the flash point is reached, and can be read 
from a glass thermometer which is held in the fluid, and at the 
same time can be used for stirring. 

SALT. 

The salt when dissolved should show no lesiduc. or at least 
very liltlc, and when heated for an hour at a moderate tempera- 
ture should not lose weight, as such loss would indicate that 
it contains considerable water. It is material to know this, so as 
not to pay for water if salt is wanted. Rock salt is usually the 
most reliable. Evaporated salt might contain a great ^toomwI Cil 
water. 



3x6 



iTOon. 



\ 



Piomnus or DwvBuarr LiQcnos Vtmo m 




BoUlBff 

PolBt 

Uesrett 


TeBfUmof Vafior la nmnds per Square Inch Abore Zero. ^N 


eSmbt. 


Salphar 


AauMBte. 


Methylie 


' Cerbon 


Pleiol 


Flitar. 


Dioxide. 


IKBH^K* 


Dioxide. 


riBld. 


It 






10 ti 






• «• 


—SI 






lS.fS 






• «•• 


_2E 




S.M 


tO.B6 


ii.is 




M • «■ 


—IS 




7.a 


tl^l 


13.66 


261.0 


m m 99 


»4 


I.SS 


9.« 


t7.0t 


17.06 


202.0 


13.6 


4» 


1.30 


11.10 


ss.or 


S0.84 


SIO.l 


10.S 


14 


S.lt 


14.7S 


41 .» 


66 27 


396.4 


10.3 


a 


S.70 


1S.S1 


60.01 


30.41 


430.4 


22.0 


SI 


S.Si 


SJS 


01.66 


S6.84 


6!0.4 


26.0 


41 


4.45 


27.40 


74 66 


43.13 


»M.8 


31 .2 


SO 


S.SI 


st.so 


S9.S1 


60.84 


678.9 


36.S 


5S 


6.8i 


S9.9S 


10^.90 


60.06 


706.9 


41.7 


m 


SM 


47.oe 


1S6.0B 


09.36 


801.0 


48.1 


77 


10.19 


60.39 


140.04 


80.28 


971. 1 


55.0 


S) 


12.S1 


06 S7 


170.68 


«e.4i 


1086.6 


04.1 


96 


14.70 


77 61 


107.a 




1207.9 


73.2 


KM 


17.80 


90.32 


«7.W 




1338.2 


82.0 



SOLUBIUTY OF GaSES IN WaTER AT ATMOSPHERIC PrE.SSLRE 



1 Vol. Water UU- 
•olre» Vclit. Gas. 



Air. 



or- F. 



0.024; 



39.2« P. I SO^ F, 



Ammonia 1019 6 



VAtbtn Dioxide. 
Sulpbur l>loxld« 

MantbGaf 

Xltrofcen 

Hydrogen 

Oxygen 



1.79W 
79.789 
0.0545 

o.uaM 

O.OlflS 
0.041! 



0.02M 
Ml .9 
1.5126 
09.82K 
0.0499 
0.0184 
O.OlflS 
0.0072 



0.0195 
W2.t« 

1.1847 
W5.647 
0.0137 
0.0161 
0.0191 
0.ii325 



60' F. 



70-^ F. 



0.0179 
727.2 

i.ixeo 

47.276 
O.OCWI 
0.0U8 
0193 
0.02m 



0.0171 
654.0 
0.9014 
.'W.S74 
0.0960 
0.0140 
0.0196 
0.0284 



) 









1.000 
0.998 
0986 
0.979 
6?2 
0.9fi« 
0.960 
0.9.V3 
0.M5 

oasm 

O.fiSl 



Strength of Ammonia Liquors. 



^2 

t s e. 



10 
11 
12 
13 
II 
15 
16 
17.1 
If^.S 
19.b 
20.7 



I ""•'/ 



* mm • 



y •- •* 
£ SS |g 



I - 





1 

3 
4 

5 
G 
7 

8.2 

9.2 

10.3 



- ciif- 
.*. E r' 

30~ 

22 

24 

26 
28 
30 
32 
34 
36 
38 






'Jl 



0.925 
0.919 
0.913 
907 
0.902 
0,H97 
0.»92 
0.888 
0.HH4 
0.880 



X = •- 

.. p.. JT 

^ si Zi 



21.7 
22.8 
23.9 
24.8 
25.7 
2« 6 
27 5 
28.4 
29.3 
30.2 



O ^ •; 

^ S 93 



11.2 
12 3 
13.2 
14.3 
i:> 2 
1« 2 
17 3 
1> 2 
19.1 
20.0 



REFRIGEHATION. 



1 


i 


i 






2s 

si- 
Ill 


it 


1 

1^5 


-5 

ill 




lO.M 




ia)«a 










^S-RW 




39 






4^08 


RTfl^aS 


JIM 


o^oioo 


oos» 


4ISST 


—i 


B7 


I4!i:< 


— j» 


410. «g 




IRfltt 








+1 


« 


Id.lT 


-K 


4a. 6a 


STOioH 






ooast 


iraw 


f 


TB 


IS. IS 




410. W 










4I.0IB 






ao.tw 




4U.W 


MM 






D!ai4] 




i 


10 


ra.80 


-10 


4i>a.ii« 


Ml HI 


u'.x 




0.0M3 


41 135 


li 


« 


M.K 




4M.W 




10,18 




o.iei 


4u.mD 




07 














o.oet 






W 


BtilO 










D:IS40 


O.OM 


to:w4 


e 


« 


■su 




470 68 


MO^M 


7:a3 


0.13R 


o.uM 


40,100 


« 


« 














O.OSM 


39.820 


















o.asi. 


«i.ets 


» 


7S 


51:41 


26 


IW^DA 


Mooi 


h.^J^ 




o.oasB 


89, 4X! 


M 














o'.am 


0.03» 


ao.200 


BI 


n 


IBM 


K 


iffi:iie 


.133, T« 


):bi 


0.ai8 


o.oaa 




K 


n 


12.88 






.130.03 


»,(■■ 






iwoM 


« 


99 


HDftI 




snsiw 






o!a»9 


o.(Sf» 


M4AI 




as 


HBBIl 




.110.0a 


.■>::4.3U 




o.m4 


0.0201 


M.sae 


R 


a 






M.V«fl 




£.W 


o.raw 


o.ieoa 


:ff,n9t 


V 


















xr.TM 


















o.moe 


M7.4H1 


u 


4B 


IMW 




Kio.ea 


Rll^M 






0.0418 


87,»a> 


H 


u 


Ill.M 


75 


sas BO 


SM.M 


s.oo 


o!47Sl 


o.om 






«> 






MO.M 




I.W 


o.Kiue 


o.oaTi 


iiu:7Si 




IH 




KS 










1I2T3 


M.noii 


n 


M 


mm 




MO.ttO 


iiib!» 


rw 


oiBwi 




»,a» 








W 


."BS M 


tX>.-SB 




t-^ 
















4<«.0] 


IM 




i«,77H 




18 


m'.w 




ftOi^W 


488,72 




u.rRH 


0:02s 






W 


SB1.B7 


no 




Wl l-i 


Taw 


















IH2.41 






o:o» 




tn 


ra 






KKI.IItl 


47K.n> 




o:»80H 


0.0287 




»i 


u 


3iH.ia 


[if. 


(V5.M 


47S.4a 


09009 


1.0310 


o.oasn 




IK 




3».« 








nniHi 


1.1040 


0201 




sto 


IS 


ssn.ia 






4im:t.i 




1.1)121 


O.QMa 




sn 




»N.i2 




rtw'-w 


tttSBn 






on» 




«B 


rs 


lu-in 


i» 


fo^.na 


482 01 


11.740H 


Iw 


0.0207 




m 




jso.aj 




01(1, IW 




u.mio 




O.O^H 






u 






nin HO 




nifsii 


r»»i> 


o.oniH 


:::::: 








\m 


(W.UH 




o.Bjaji 


1.M18 


0,0»M 




M 


u 


S40.01 




»UB dU 


4i>i la 




1 7S44 


O.IOl"! 






iWwr 



uiili' t<K>i llriuldunimonruHi 3^ Fabi.. 

fc [/'/oWflainH.N(«nt 3i" Pnhr 

' lliliililammoBtu 



3l8 REFRIGERATION. \ 

OPERATING REFRIGERATING MAOlhlSc; 



Run the machine as slowly as possible to do the woric neii^ 
sary. This will insure prompt seating of the valves, -reduce ' 
wear and tear and breakage. 

STEAM FSESSURE. 

Carry the steam pressure as high as the safety valve will per- 
mit The higher the pressure, the greater the economy in fuel 
The total heat of steam, that is, the amount of heat-units neces- 
sary to produce one pound of steam from water at 32**, is = 
ii&).3 for 80 pounds' gauge pressure, or 95 pounds' absdnte 
pressure, and for steam of 125 pounds' gauge pressure = 1189^ 
Or, it takes only 8.7 heat-units more to produce steam of laS 
pounds than to produce steam of 80 pounds, which is an increase 
in fuel of only three-fourths per cent, while the gain in power 
in the steam cylinder increases in direct proportion to the in- 
crease of the absolute pressures, or, the gain is as 95 to 140, or 
47 per cent. It is true the ilue gases leave the boiler at a higher 
temperature, and, therefore, each pound of coal cannot yield 
quite so much heat. But this is a small amount, and could be 
used for heating the feed water, thus avoiding loss. 

SUCTION PRESSURE. 

The suction pressure should be carried as high as possible. 
The work which the machine has to perform, the temperatures 
it has to produce, and the amount of cooling pipes in which the 
work has to be done, determine the suction pressure. The 
best practical method is to try to raise the back pressure gradu- 
ally from 25 pounds upward, until the machine fails to produce 
the required cooling effect, and then to keep the suction pressure 
a little below it. 

To show what influence the suction pressure has on the effi- 
ciency and capacity of the machine, we need only consult the 
absolute pressure, which is obtained by adding 15 pounds, or 
the pressure of the atmosphere, to the gauge pressure. The 
capacity of the machine increases and decreases in direct pro- 
portion to the increase or decrease of the absolute pressure, for 
practical purposes. If we want to compare the capacity of a 
certain machine working at 15 pounds* gauge pressure, with the 
capacity of the same machine when worViiv^ nxwVv ^«j v^>3lti<^ 



_^ REFRIGERATION. 3 19 

gauge srWiure, we have: (15 + 15) : (35 + 15) = 30 i 50, or, 
an m^ase of 66 per cent in capacity. Thus, ue can run the ma- 
chMe with 30 revolutions at 35 pounds' suction pressure, while we 
*naTe to run the same machine at 50 revolutions when working 
with IS pounds' suction pressure. The coal copsumption is in- 
creased only 10 per cent in this case. For pressures from 25 to 45 
pounds the increase in coal consumption is practically nothing. 

CONDEHStNG PRESSURE. 

In order to reduce the coal consumption it is necessary to 
keep the condensing pressure as low as possible, since the higher 
the pressure, the more work must the machine perform, the 
pressure against the compressor piston being higher. 

This pressure is determined, in the first instance, by the tem- 
perature and quantity of the water at disposal, and, secondly, by 
the amount of condensing surface. The condition oE the con- 
densers, whether clean or not, and their location, whether ex- 
posed to an air current or not, has also a great deal to do with 
their efficiency. 

It is not proper to tigiirc how many feet of pipe are in a 
condenser, but how many stacks, assuming that submerged con- 
densers are out of the question, owing to their low cfGciency. 
Tests have shown that in a stack only about twelve pipes actually 
do any condensing. The remainder act partly as storage and 
partly as air cooler for the water running over the condensers. 
So, the condensers may be 12 pipes high for the purpose of con- 
densing simply, but it is desirable to make the condenser 18 
pipes high, for the purpose of storing liquid ammonia, and for 
cooling the water by air lo some extent. 

For about 12 tons of refrigeration there should be furnished 
one slack made of two-inch pipe. The water required for on« 
ton o( refrigeration is, for well water of 56°, one gallon, ami 
for river water ol 85°, two gallons: It is the duty of the cnjji- ' 
neer lo see that his condensers are kept scrupulously clean, that 
the water is distributed evenly over the condensers, and each 
condenser receives an ciual amount of waler. 

When stopping the machine while the waler has run over 
the condensers as usual for about an hour, the engineer sUumW 
read the condcHsiiig- pressure indicated hy \\\a %av\ftt, i^^iX v^« 
tke temperature ol the water running ovct \he wrtvien.s<:t%, 'itvw 



>330 REFRIGERATION. 

by rererrinE to the table giving the properties of sawtled 



saianiea am- i 

If nowhere 
itil the aliqire J 
.ir, not beinH 



e whether they correspond o 
1 the system, which must be vxpellcd, 
ed reading-s correspond with the (able. 
compressible under presrarei uKd in these machinei, it mixa 
with the ammonia gas which filb the condenser. Besides, the 
gas and the air join so perfectly that the air cannot be K^ 
arated from the ammonia by simply blowing it off at the top 
of the condenser. Such a proceeding would only waste con- 
siderable ammonia and not expel all the air. The only way 
is to confine the atr above the liquid in the condenser by liginfy- 
ing all that is possible, when only pare air can fill the top part 
of the condenser. 

This is done as follows: First, ascertain how much liqnid u 
in the whole system, so as to determine how many staclu of 
condensers can be fiHed at the time. Remember that each foot 
of two-inch pipe when filled contains about two-lhirds of a 
pound of liquid. Drain the liquid from those condensers which 
you do not intend to purge at present, shut them off from the 
system, closing all valves or cocks leading into them, then close 
the liquid valves of ihe condensers you want to purge, and 
Open their equalizing cocks, keeping the blow-off cock closed. 
Now start ihe tnachine, not too fast, as you are working with 
reduced condenser capacity and will soon fill the condensers 
which are connected, thus reducing the condensing surface still 
further. 

The pressure will rise gradually and should not be allowed 
to go higher than 250 pounds. When this pressure is reached, 
ihe machine should be stopped, and if the pressure drops again, 
started slowly till again 250 pounds is reached, and, after slop- 
ping, the pressure will not drop much. Generally before 35a 
pounds' pressure is reached, the hand of the gauge will move 
in jerks. This is a sure sign that the air is confined, as only 
a n on -compressible gas acts this way. When the machine is 
stopped, close the inlet valves of condensers, and open the blow- 
off valve very lilllc, the water running all the lime over the 
condensers. 

As long as there is any air in the condenser no pdor of am- 
monia is perceptible at the blow-off cock. As soon. howe\-er, as 
ammonia escapes and (he valve gets co\i a\\ a\r \a% \wim TtTOavcd, 
"^Aen this is observed, close the valve and cn»ti\TO« v\\t ^«u!aa« 



gaugt. If vresEure and temperature correspond, which is found 
by conftlltuig the table, then proceed with the reat ol the con- 
denaprt in the same manner. 

- ^ere has been a case where a plant did not work properly, 
notwithstanding the fact that everything was apparently in order, 
the ammonia was tested and found good, there was sufficient 
ammonia in the system, and no air in the condensers. But when 
the main supply of the liquid was shut off and the coaling 
coils pumped out, it was found that the suction pressure went 
down quicker than could be expected, and that the condenser 
pressure went down instead of up, which is not to be looked 
tor in a plant working properly, since when pumping out, the 
condensers must be filled with liquid and the available con- 
denser surface thereby reduced, and, therefore, the pressure 
increased. When the machine was stopped, the water still run- 
ning over the condensers, the condensing pressure went far 
below the pressure <lue to the water, showing, conclusively, that 
something else besides ammonia was in the system. Il has 
not yet been determined what it was, but il must have been an- 
other liquifiable gas, which condensed at a lower pressure than 
ammonia. The effect of this additional gas on the system was 
a material reduction in the cooling power of the machine. It 
pays to repeat the above experiment when no other cause (or 
the bad working of the machine can be found. 

The trouble was cured by proceeding just as for the purging 
of air and blowing off ihe undesirable gas, which burned with 
A yellow fiame when a lighted torch was brought near it, while 
ammonia burns with a blue fiame when treated in that way. 

INFLUENCE OF HIGH CONDENSING PRESSURE ON EFFICIENCY AND 



In the first place, Ihe higher the pressure, the higher is the 
temperature of the liquid and, therefore, a larger part of the 
liquid condensed must be spent to cool the remainder before 
it can do any cooling. For every degree the liquid is warmer, 
one thermal unit is wasted, or, since the total amount of heat 
obtainable from one pound of liquid is about 500 heat units. 0.2 
per cent is wasted per degree. The loss for an increase from 
150 pounds to 200 pounds iheicfore corresponds to an increase 
of temperature of the liquid from 86° to 100° ■=. \^ \ "a.^ "V... \n 
= a.8 per cent. 



322 REFRIGERATION. 

But the loss in efficiency is much greater than the mrk of com- 
pression is, in this case, increased 19 per cent, which means 
19 per cent more coal, harder work for the machine, sChd in- 
creased wear and tear. 

BACK PBOST. 

It is well known that saturated gas is heavier than is 
superheated. Saturated means in contact with liquid but 
not containing liquid; superheated means that the temperature 
of the gas is higher than due to the pressure of saturated gas. 
Superheating takes place when gas leaves a water or beer cooler 
which is not frosted completely. The gas will then be heated 
by the water or beer possibly as high as the temperature of 
the warmer liquid. For instance, in the beer cooler, where the 
temperature of the gas may be 20^, the beer is 40** when it 
leaves the cooler, and may, therefore, heat the gas 20*. This 
increases the volume of the gas per pound and, therefore, each 
pound of gas entering the machine weighs less, and the machine 
produces less pounds of liquid and does less cooling. A second 
cause of superheating is the heating of the gas in the suction 
pipes leading to the machine, if they are not efficiently pro- 
tected by insulation. 

It must be the aim of the engineer to get the gas 
to his machine in a saturated condition, as the small possible 
gain in cooling which he may get by superheating is more 
than counterbalanced by the loss in the capacity of his machine. 

It is now universally admitted that wet compression is the 
correct principle. Hence, there should be enough back frost 
to the machine to cause the discharge pipe to be only about 20" 
to 30** warmer than the pipe carrying the liquid from the con- 
densers to the liquid receiver. The advantages of this arrangje- 
ment have been explained while describing wet compression. 
Something may be added here about the question of power. 
Owing to the high heat generated during compression in 
a dry compression machine, which is very unsatisfactorily car- 
ried olT by the water in the water jacket of such compressor, 
the volume of the gas is considerably increased during com- 
pression, and more power is, therefore, required than if the 
heat is almost perfectly removed, as in the wet compression 
compressor and the oil circulation compressor. The com- 
oress/on curves produced by both of t\Ae \tLUeT ;5LT<i ^\vc\osX xd^uucal. 



> 



REFRIGERATION. 323 



while the compression curve of the dry compressor rises much 
more rapidly. 

Jt has been claimed that when liquid expands while the gas 
is compressed it must necessarily increase the volume of the 
gas in the compressor. While this is true, yet the curve is the 
same as the cur\'e produced by injecting oil, because the oil 
does not cool the gas so much as the liquid does, and, therefore, 
this defect does not exist. 

EFFECT OF BAD AMMONIA AND OIL ON THE PLANT. 

Ammonia which contains water has not the refrigerating 
power which anhydrous ammonia has. It loses just as much 
of its power as there are per cent of water in it. Moreover, 
the water accumulates in the coils and prevents the free passage 
of the ammonia in places where water can collect, and prevents 
the pipes from transmitting heat where it locates. Besides, 
when paying for ammonia it is not pleasant to receive water 
instead. 

The oil, if it contains animal oil, will saponify, clog up the 
pipes and expansion cocks, coat the inside of the pipes with a 
non-conductor, and be very hard to remove. Care must be 
taken, if oil circulation is not used, to use as little oil as possible 
for the lubrication of the compressor. Generally in horizontal 
machines sufficient oil is forced into the compressor from the 
double oil-sealed stuffing box to make any other compressor 
lubrication unnecessary. 

Freezing back too much, so that the discharge pipe is almost 
or quite as cool as the liquid pipe, has another disadvantage, 
namely, that the piston rod getting very cold carries too much 
oil into the compressor which again brings it into the system, 
"necessitating a frequent removal and the supplying of new oil 
for the stuffing box lubrication. 

AMOUNT OF AMMONIA REQUIRED FOR A PLANT. 

Allow for 

One lo-ton machine 200 pounds 

One 15-ton machine 250 pounds 

One 25-ton machine 350 pounds 

One 35-ton machine 400 pounds 

One 50-ton machine ^«jO ^c»\w^% 

One 65-ton machine S"Q^ ^owxv(i% 



324 REFSIGERATIOrf. 

One loo-ton machine 580 ponnda 

One 150-I011 machine 680 pounds 

One 300-ton machine 780 pounds 

One 300-ton machine i.oSo pounds 

One 4Cio-ton machine 1,380 pounds 

and for each foot of Iwo-inch cooling pipe, one-third of a 

pound of a 



AMOUNT OF REFRIGERATION REQUIRED FOR A 
BREWERY. 

For western conditions, allow one ton of refrigeration foT 
10,000 cubic feet of space in fermenting room, stock cellar, rack- 
ing room and hop room, when figuring on the whole plant, and 
using this figure as an average. For the cooling of the daily 
brew, estimate the requited refrigeration as follows: Multiply 
the number of barrels of the brew by the number o( degrees 
the ammonia cooler must lake out, figuring ibat the lemperature 
which the beer will have when it enters ihe cooler will be 6° 
higher than Ihe cooling water at disposal. DJviilc ihc result 
by i.ooo. This will give the number of ions of refrigeration 
required per brew. 

If you have a beer cooler 24 feel long you can cool with 
it 100 barrels per hour, and with a 20-iooi cooler, 80 barrels. 
Divide the number of Ions above obtained by the number of hours 
required (o cool your daily brew, and muhiply ibe resuh by 
A(, to gel ihe capacily of the machine needed for beer cooling 
only, machines being estinialed on 24 hours' work. Add 
this amount to ihe amount required for the cellars. This will 
give the total capacily of the machine required, provided a 
direct expansion cooler is to be used. 

If the machine is en hand and a new one cannot be placed, 
the boi'r doling can be done by brine, and ihe w.Tk tf cooling 
the [>cer 'distributed over 24 hours. In that case, the machine 
ntcd only be larRc enough to do the actual work of beer cooling 
in additinn 10 cellar cooling. But this i? very expensive, as rx- 
pl.-iincd liefore. first, in running exp.-nscs. .-(nd fccmdly. in first 
cost, ns Ihe hrine tank bat to be very large in order t'l More suf- 
ficient brine for the work. 
Stiice Ihc hrine caTinol well give off move thai\ 12' and do 
e/Scicnt work, each i>oim»l of brine w\\\ Iwwi'wVv ""V- \Q Vt^l- 



REFRIGERATION. 325 

units, the specific heat of brine being 0.8. One ton of refrigera- 
tion being = 284,000 heat-units, we must store 28,400 pounds of 
brine for every ton of work required for the beer cooling, 
which amount takes up a space of 400 cubic feet. 

If, for instance, we have to cool 400 barrels of beer 40° in 
four hours, we would require 16 tons of refrigeration in four 
hours. The capacity of a machine to do this in a day would 
be 16 tons a day, or two-thirds of a ton per hour. We can, 
therefore, do directly only 4 X 0.66 = 2.64 tens, and must store 

the rest of 13.36 tons, which would require a tank of 5,344 cubic 
feet, or measuring about 24' X 20' X 12', an enormous tank. 

AMOUNT OF REFRIGERATION REQUIRED FOR CELLARS. 

Many sources of heat which have to be removed must be 
considered in this calculation, viz.: 

1. The heat transmitted through the walls; 

2. The heat given off by the first fermentation; 

3. The heat given off by the second fermentation; 

4. The heat given off by the light used; 

5. The heat given off by people working therein; 

6. The heat admitted by opening the doors. 

It would be too complicated to go into details regarding items 
4 and 5, and therefore only general data are given for these items. 
Heat produced by one man per hour, 518 th. u. 
Heat produced by one candle per hour, 430 th. u. 
Heat produced by one gas flame burning 3.5 feet per 
minute, 3.650 th. u. 

HEAT TRANSMITTED BY WALLS. 

We have to consider each side, the ceiling, and floor sep- 
arately, if the temperature on the other side of them is different 
from that inside the room. 

Ascertain the number of square feet of sides, ceiling and 
floor, and their respective temperatures outside, taking, of course, 
maximum temperatures; for instance, for the shady side, 90', 
for the sunny side 110°, for not Cv:)olcd sides adjoining living 
or storerooms, 75**. Use the values for each case as given below. 

The heat transmitted per square foot, per day and per degree 
difference between the temperature inside and outside of the wall 
in question, is as follows: 

For rooms containing 2,000 cu\V\c \e.<i\. ;vw\ onvi\, >»iVvi.w 
insulation is superior, 2V2 ih. u. 



326 REPRIGEBATION. 

When insulation is good, 3 th. u. 

When insulation is not very good, as thick brick wi^ 

not insulated or having no air spaces, 3^ th. u. * ^ 

For rooms containing under 2,000 cubic feet, 4 th. u. 
For rooms containing under 1,000 cubic feet, 5 th. u. 
For rooms containing under 600 cubic feet, 6 th. u. 
For rooms containing under 300 cubic feet, T- th. u. 

The differences in the above figures are caused by the influence 
of opening the doors, which will have almost the same eflFect 
for small as for large rooms, but is greater proportionally to the 
whole in small rooms than in large ones. 

The side which is most exposed to the wind should be con- 
sidered 50 per cent more difficult to cool, therefore, if the value 
for it is 4, it should be changed to 6 in this case. 

For instance, wc have a cellar, the insulation of which is 
called good, the weather side is one of the long sides, and the 
side opposite it is the sunny side; one of the short sides adjoins 
a room used for general cold storage, and the other short side 
adjoins a cooled room, the temperature of which is 40°; the ceil- 
ing is the floor of a cooled room, which has a temperature of 
34**, and the floor is on the ground, but well insulated, the tem- 
perature of the ground being assumed to be 55 \ The room in 
question is to be kept at 34°. Then we have: 

Weather side 40 X 10 X 3 X i-5 X ( QO — 34) — 100800 th u. 

Sunny side 40 X 10 X 3 X (no — 34) — 91200 th. u. 

Cooled side 20 X 10 X 3 X ( 40 — 34) = 3600 th. u. 

Storage side 20 X 10 X 3 X (75 — 34)= 24600 th. u. 

Ceiling 40 X 20 X 3 X ^ 34 — 34) = 00000 th. u. 

Floor 40 X 20 X 3 X ( 65 — 34) = 74400 th. u. 

Total 294600 th. u. 

Now, 284000 th. u. represent one ton of refrigeration. If we 
divide the above number of thermal units by 284000, we have 
therefore, the number of tons of refrigeration required per day 
= 1.04 tons. 

We must now deteriuine the amount of pipes leqiiired per 

ton of refrieeration, which is 400 feet of two-inch pipe per 

ton. when the difference in temperature be*, ween gas and air 

IS 2^°. For jnstnnce. the suction pressvvTC \s 27 v^->\\w<\?.\ \\\<itv 

^e temperature of the gas is 14**. In \V\\s c^lSC, \\vt Vwc\^^t;^X>yc^ 



3*? 

of tbe.ali' would have been 14 + 23 = 36*. If the difference is 
onfal' cme-balf, we shall need only one-lialf of the nmount of 
.^ing, = 200 feet, and so on. 

BEAT FBDH FERUENIATION, WARM KZG5, ETa 

To this amount must be added the following amount of piping 
to take care of the first and second heal of fermentation, cellar 
washing, and warm kegs. 

Add for each barrel of daily brew ; 

In fcTtneiiting room ■ • 7.4 feet of 2" pipe 

In rnh cellar 2.2 feet of 2' pipe 

In chip cellar 1.6 feet of 2" pipe 

In racking room, keg^ not previously cooled. .4.0 feet of 2" pipe 

Racking room, kegs previously cooled 1.2 feet of a" pipe 

In keg room, for each quarter entering, not 

considering the daily brew i.o feel of a" pipe 

In hop rooms 0.0 feet of 2" pipe 

if the room in question was a fermenting room and belonged 
to a brewery producing 100 barrels per day. If more than one 
room of any kind is lo be cooled, the above rule of adding 
pipes apphes only to that portion of the daily brew this cellar 
takes care of. We would accordingly require, in our examples, 
720 feet outside the 400 feel reijuired by the cellar ilself to 
absorb the heat transmitted through the walls, which was one 
ton.. Assuming a difference of ttrnperatiire between gas and air 
of 22°. this one ton will require 400 feet of pipe, or the cellar 
complete, 1,120 feet of two-inch pipe. 

AMOUNT OF WORK REQUIRED FOR BEER COOUNO. 

For all practical purposes the formula as given before will 
be sufficient, i. e., multiply the number of barrels by the number 
of .degrees you want to take out, and divide by 1,000: the result 
is the number of tons of refrigeration tor a difference of tem- 
perature of 28°, which win be obtained when cooling beer to 
4d' with a suction pressure of 25 pounds. (12°). 

The following si^es are recommended, but can be reduced 23 
per cent, if absolutely necessary: 

To cool beer from 60° to 40° give 12 two-Inch pipes. 
To cool beer from 70° to 40° give 16 two-'mA ^\^e.?.. 
To cool beer from 80" to 40° give 20 lwt>-\T«:\i ?\^^. 
To cool beer from go" to 40° give 24 tvfO-VtitV ^\9e:>" 



3^8 REFRIGERATION. 

If the difference in temperatares is not 28*, then the juunber 

of pipes should be increased in inverse ratio to the difference in 

• temperatures between 28 and the new difference. 

THE STEAM END OF THE REFRIGERATING MA- 
CHINE. 

There are really only two kinds of engines in use connected 
with refrigerating machines, viz., the slide-valve engine, either 
with throttling governor or with cut-off governor, and the anto- 
matic cut-off engine with Corliss valve and cut-off (for both 
of which see under the head of "Steam Engine")- 

Slide-valve engines are used only for smaller machines, where 
the parts of the Corliss motion would be too small to work well 
or for machines where cheapness is the first consideration. 

There is another occasion where it is advisable to use a 
slide-valve engine, even for larger size machines and where the 
matter of first cost is not the principal consideration: that is 
in the case of an ice plant where no additional exhaust steam 
is on hand to make up the shortage of distilled water, which 
will occur when Corliss cut-off is used. Here it is immaterial 
whether the extra amount of live steanr used to make up the 
required amount of distilled water has been taken directly from 
the boiler, or has gone through the steam cylinder and is con- 
densed as additional exhaust. In other words, the economical 
use of the steam need not be considered. It is advisable to use 
a slide-valve engine in this ca->c, because it is a cheaper engine 
and furnishes an absolutely tighi valve, which cannot be the 
case in a Corliss engine. 

INSULATION. 

The object of insulation is to prevent heat parsing through 
walls that are exposed to different temperatures on opposite sides. 

There are two kinds of insulation to be considered, which 
answer quite different requirements: First, the insulation for 
surfaces where heat is trying to escape, and, secondly, where 
"cold" is trying to escape, as, for instance, steam pipes for the 
first and brine pipes for the second. 

In the first case, we have only to provide an insulation of 
sufficient thickness and ncn-conductive quaiity to retard the 
passage of the bent as nuich as poss\b\e, wVv\cV\ q;jl\\\\v>\, ol course, 
^e Jone with absolute perfcction. 



REFRIGERATION. 329 

In Ihe'secoiid case, the iniulation must be such that the tem- 
pcratore od the warmer side must never be so low that the 
_.< -Atmospheric air, coming in contact with it, will reach its dew 
point, ihat is to say, be cooled so much as to condense some oi 
the moisttire which it carries, as this would cause sweating o[ 
the insulation, and spoiling it, and cause dripping, which is dis- 
agreeable and often injurious. 

If it is remembered that in surfaces which are cooled on one 
side Ihe difference of temperature is seldom more than gn° — 
12*^78°, whereas, in steam pipes, (or instance, it is generally 
340° — ()b°^250°, it is readily understood that thickness is not 
BO important for insulation for coid surfaces as (or (he protec- 
tion of warm surfaces. 

In protecting cold surfaces, the principal consideraiion is to 
have air and water-light material for the insulation. The influ- 
ence of the thickness of insulation for protecting cold surfaces is 
also important, but what will happen if air, and with it moisture, 
penetrates the insulation? 

First of all, the moisture will condense on the colder part of 
the insulation and on the surface to be protecled, and will be 
frozen, finally destroying the insulation and. perhaps, ihc surface 
in a short lime, affording a better escape for the cold, and finally 
cause dripping. While, therefore, ample insulation is necessary 
for warm surfaces, it is financial suicide to employ anything but 
the best insulation for cold surfaces, because it is not only the 
loss in cooling power which we suffer, but also the cost of a 
frequent renewal of the insulation. 

WALL INSULATION. 

Since one can hardly expect to get an insulation absolutely tight, 
it should be of such a nature as not to be spoiled in case moisture 
should enter together with air. It follows that all such material as 
mineral w-ool, felt, cork, charcoal, etc.. which, if it should gel 
moist, becomes a good conductor of heal, should be avoided. 
as there is no other remedy than to tear down ihe insulation 
if once spoiled. 

On the other hand, confined air is one of the best non-con- 
ductors, and certainly it is the cheapest possible material. 

Now, it might be elaimcd ihat in order \(> \vaNt ?,cic-&. 'cisgw. 
airspaces, the material and labor wou\d cosl mott ftv^ft -wVtrie. 
graaile, mtol or cork is used. But tbift W a mv*■«l^fce. "^ 



330 

matter what ve use to fill the spaces with, the spaces ^MBpdfes 
must be so made that thcj are air and water-tight, wheter 
filled with air or any other substance. Hence, confined air affonb^ 
the chei4>est and best insolation which can be had» and is 
the only insulation which can be dried out, when once spoiM. 
by simply blowing hot air into the space. 



RsLATivB Value op Nosc-conductors. 
(Ohas. E. Bdmit*) 



NoQ-Conductor. 



Wood Fell 

Mineral Wool No. S 

Mineral Wool wlthur.. 

Sawduai 

Mineral Wool No. ! 

Cliarcoal 

Pine Wood, across fiber. 



Value 



I. €00 

o.e 

0.7U 

0.« 

0.675 

0.« 

0.563 



Non-Conductor. 

JLoam, dry and open 

:Slacked Lime 

jOas House Carbon 

[Asbeatoa 

'Coal Ashen 

'Coke, In Inmpa 

Air Space, undivided . . . 



iValne. 

i O.HS 
0.4S0 

' 0.410 
0. 
0. 

o.sn 

0.IS8 



With all possible care it will still be difficult to make the 
partitions forming the air spaces absolutely tight, and this is 
just as impossible as when any other filling is used. But we have 
some substances which will do what we require of a perfect 
insulation, viz., pitch or resin, or any other substance of a like 
nature which is not too expensive, is imper\'ious to 
air and moisture, will not rou smd is a first-class non-conductor. 
In this case, it is not necessary to have the partitions air-tight, 
except the one which the warm air strikes, and this only to 
protect it from getting moist, if the layer of pitch is not thick 
enough to prevent a sufficient reduction of temperature on the 
exposed side, which might cause condensation. If ihe pitch 
is thick enough, even this partition can be made simply to hold 
the pitch in place. 

The refuse pitch in breweries, mixed with some resin to give 
it the right consistency, makes an excellent insulation. 

Holloiv Tile. — From the above it will be seen how wrong it 
is to use hollow tiles when air spaces for insulation are wanted, 
unless they are carefully glazed all over, and the joints per- 
fectly made with the best cement. But how can this be done 
on the inside unless they are laid against a surface with cement? 
Jt \s impossible to make a perfect joint when the hollow bricks 
^/ngr placed two inches from the vj^W, loxrcv ^tv ^\t 
"^e, as the mason cannot be sure that l\\e \om\. \>f\o^ otv ^^ Var 



REFRIGERATION. 



ntr sid^ii propfrlj made, and the work cannot be anperviseil, un- 
It'uiipector is on the ground all the time, which is imprac- 



lesfJdt' ii 



If, however, the two-inch space between the liles and brick 
wall is filled with pitch and the exposed side of the tiles care- 
fnUy glazed and well pointed with cement, we have besides 
the pitch a fairly good air space, and can call the insulation 
first-class. See Fig. i. A good plaster on the exposed side of 
the tilca will be better still, as it forms a uniform surface, and 
there is no dependence on the work of the mason to make the 
jmnta perfect. If the tiles have not been carefully jointed, the 
amount of pitch required is astonishing, as the pilch will run into 
the hollow tiles, which, of course, improves this insulation, but is 
expensive. 




The inner wall, built of tiles, must be lied to Ihc main wall. 
which can be done, as shown in Fig. I, by building in hollow 
tile binders at intervals, which will be filled with pitch, being 
in connection with the two-inch pitch space; another method is 
to provide at intervals special ttles with openings for iron 
hooks, which have been masoned in previously, in the main 
wall, the holes in the tiles being arranged so that the tile can 
be slipped over the hook. The pilch will then enter the hole 
and fill this tile, which should be closed a( the boltoni to pre- 
vent waste of pilch. The hook should be a little lontrcr than 
necessary, so that the space between the nose o( the hook and 
the tile can be Kfouted with cement, lo get a solid connection. 

The beams should rest on pilasters, bnill inside ihc pitch 
space, so that they cannot transmit heat, \je\iig coTOi^'M^.VvitJi'j 
good conductors. IS thought necessary, iVicst v^\i^\.e^^ ^'^a.'J 
** tied to the main wall, as shown in Figs. \ ot 2. 




There are other forou of insolation: 

T. Two-imeh pitch betmmt tkt maiii watt and m 
on the other side of the pitch, the retaining wall hdd ii 
by iron hooks masoned into both walls, and the bcwna ftamg^ 
through the retaimiq> wall into the main waU. Thia 1 
serioni ditadvvitagei. The iron books and the beams 




rormi^bjtile*. 



very good conductors and both pass through the pitch, break- 
ing ihe insulation there Tig 3 

2. The same insulalion hasiiig filch bct<ncn Ihe mm» woli 
and retaining nail hooks to secure the inner uati lo Ihe outer, 
but Ihe beams resting on pilasters buiU into the retamwg wall 



^-; 


re 3 


fc«i 


mmd 




so as to prevent the beams from passing through the pitch. 

Fig. 4- 

3. InsMlalion of a brick v/all vith wood, ming pilch to SB 

apace between boards and wall. Siuds aie secM^ti «> 1.^ ^«U 

Ak h^J/ hooks, to which either one laser or Wo U-jw* o\ unvM 




and groowtf psper >* nailed as tight as possible, to prevent the 
pitch pl>tn running out. It is not advisable to place the studs 
too^ar apart, as otherwise the filling-in o( Ihe pitch would 
Ibve to be done vcrj slowly, to prevent bulging out o( the 




boards. Eighteen to 24 inches is the best for the purpose. Ii 
it is immaterial how the inside of the wall looks after Ihe pitch 
is filled in, one laytr of hoards will dii. If not. il raighl be be.^il 
to put the second layer of boards on after the pitch is hard- 
ened, as there would be a certainty of getting a clean inside wall. 




Blick wait with wood and onn ait f p^or. 

4. Insulation of a brick wall n'i//i ivood and one air s/^acs. — 
Fig- S' Place sluds against the wall, about 36 inches apart, and 
fasten thetn to tlic wall with wall hooks. Coat the wall and sluds 
with a good layer of pitch and lar mixed, so that there is absolutely 
no leakage of air or moisture possible lhtous\v rt. IAavX '.wv';- 
raeh matched boarding horizontally against \\\i! %U\4?., ViJiCw.*. 



334 



RBFKIGEKATION. 



care to have them tight againat each other. Nail twOcply hunlat- 
ing paper of a superior quality against the boards, the joints 
well overlapping, as well as the comers, and make all jqutts 
with good paint. See, also, that there are no holes in the p^^ .. 
Only when good air-light and water-tight paper is clamped tightlj 




between two boards can a reasonably light air space be expected. 
Against this paper nail another layer of Ti-inch matcheil finished 
boards, also horizontally, breaking joints. Fig. 6. This is done 
because when boards are laid crosswise, and they shrink, open- 
ings will be formed where the joints cross, and the paper will 
be exposed and not properly clamped. Fig. 7. 

There is now an air-tighl space as good as wc can make. 
But the air in this space is not yet si ill or confined air, 
which is required for a good non-conduclor It can be made so 



-^ 



„./^ 



by pulling cross partitions in the space, made of rough boards 
oi any thickness, and which need not be filled very accurately, 
though it will be belter if they arc reasonably light. These 
cross boards s/iould be provided at least, every 18 inches, better 
crery ij inches, and need only be spiVei Wi *t s\.iiii '\\«Mt 




REFRIGERATION. 



croH bOflia will prevent any circulation o( the air in the air 
qiacft ks this air circulation would increase with the height of it, 
Ifl^En it mostly lo feet, on the principle of a chimney, only, 
'lin this case, the circtilation of the air is'cauEcd by the cooling 
of the air at the top by the cooling pipes located there, which 
cooled air will then drop, being heated by coining in contact 
with the warmer part of the insulation, and thus a circulation 
would be started. This should not be. By dividing the whole 
height of the air space into as many spaces as passible, this 
circulation is reduced to a minimum. Pig. 8. 

5. Insulalion of a brick wall tvitli wood and two air spaets. — 
gainst the insulation just before described, again lace uprights, 
and against these one layer of boards, paper, and boards in the 




Pfcllc^jie ^' 



same manner, the air space lo be four inches lor the first, as well 
as for the second space. This insulation can be called hrst 
class. Fig. g. 

FLOOR INSULATION. 

I, Iron Beams and Concrete or Brick Arches.— PiW the space 
over the archos with a mixture of cinders and cement, up tu 
a little above the level of the beams, say, one inch above, and 
put two inches of good asphalt on top of it. The arches below 
must be protected, also, and especially the iron beams, as they 
will transmit cold freely and will sweat. 

An -expensive way, bu.' uiiduiihtcdiy the best, is to suspend a 
fila« ceiling below the arches by hangers and bearing bars of 
iron, the false coiling itself consisting of hollow bricks filled 
with pitch. This gives a firsi-class air space between arches a.«d 
faUe ceiling, and an almost perfect pilcV\ a^acc wi a.tt4 ^faos^ "C^e. 
boSow dies. The pitch should not on\y fiU ftve lA\e.», V-av oi■J<i^ 



336 



REFRIGERATION. 



them. The flooding with pitch can be done from above before 
the asphalt and filling is put on, and filling holes can be left 
for putting in the pitch, which can afterwards be ceme'hted 
over. Figs. lO, iia, lib, 12, 13. 

As shown in Fig. iia, hangers are masoned in the arches, and 
in Fig. lib hangers are fastened to the beams at such distance 




Figs. 10-14 — Iron Beams and Concrete or Brick Arches. 
Fastening the hangers. 

from each other that each length of pipe, which may be one 
inch diameter, will carry the tile for its whole length without 
sagging too much, being supported at one end by the socket 
into which it is screwed, which again is held by the hanger. 
The socket must be so much wider than the hanger that it 
can be taken hold of with a pair of pipe tcmgs. 

The upper side of the tiles near a hanger is shorter than the 
lower one, receding on both sides sufficietnly to allow room for 

a o 



E 







Figs. 10-14 — Ii^on Beams and Concrete or Biick Arches. 

hanger and socket, while the lower side is full size, so as to form 
a tight ceiling. The tiles should be carefully joined, and pointed 
with cement, so that the pitch, which is afterwards poured in. will 
not leak through. 

The pipes acting as bearing bars are provided with light 
oj'cces of bund iron screwed to them ^ot Vvo\A\w^ vW V\W^ in 




REFBIGERATIO 



337 



I pofition. It will be seen that the tilea belonging 
n be slipped over il before the final hnnRer 
djuslcd, and if the beaiing bar is not made too long, and wit! 
t iag too much by the weight of the tiles, the hanger can 
eaiily be slipped on, and a little sagging adjusted by screwing 
np the nut in hanger Fig, lO, and tightening the bolt in Fig, 
1 the latter case, the ends lapping over the beams 
must of necessity be made tapering to accommodate the shape 
of the flanges of the beam. When the last tile has been slipped 
on the respective bearing bar and the hanger adjusted, the 
locket, which is right and left, connects the two adjoining bars. 



jOfLM 



|P*^| 




The last bearing bar, near the opposite side of ihc room 

j where the laying of tiles was commenced, must be shorter by 

i jnst the width of one tile, so that the tiles can be slipped on 

and & little bracket formed underneath by leaving a course of 

bricki or tiles out of the wall and putting il in when the laft 

tile has been put in place. Fig. 14. 

When the whole false ceiling is completed the pilch is poured 
into the openings provided in the arches until it tafdy covers 
the top of the tiles. No iron will then penetrate the ceiling, 
which is absolutely air-tight. The holes for tilling are closed ■ 
with cement, the filling put on the arch, and the asphalt floor 
msdc 
a, Iran Seams and Arches, /iijufalion of Wood Below V\ve 
CtSiiif. — The arches are again covered w'lV^v tmitta ««■«.& 



338 REFRIGERATION. v 

with cement, till the beams are covered, and a two-i^ch fi|pfcr'* 
floor laid on top. Then pieces of wood are wedged llj%ke- 
tween the beams for which the comer of the arch must be Sr * 
out a little. The pieces can be inserted easily and made tight 
by putting them in at an angle, then turning them till thcj 
are vertical to the beams. They should be fitted tight, and 
hammered into place, so as to form a secure basis for nailing 
the boards to it. 

Then rough one-inch matched boarding, paper, and again 
finished matched boards are fastened to it, as described for the 
single air space insulation for the sides. This will form one 
good air space, and can be improved by adding another, say, 
two-inch, air space to it, as in the double air space for insulation 
of sides. Fig. 15. 

The ceiling thus formed should be varnished, to preserve it. 








Insulation cf wood beh: w ilif ceilinir. Wooiltn beam? and wooti floor above. 

3. JToodcn Beams and IFood Floor Aboz'i-. — The floor should 
be laid last. The beams should be provideil with cleats (Fig. 
16), to siipp<^rt the false ceiling in the middle, which consists 
of rough matched board, paper, and rough matched board, se- 
cured to the cleats and laid in the same careful manner, as 
described in the side insulation, and the pai>er turned over at 
the cornels. Then a heavy floor should be laid and either 
calked or covered with a layer of asphalt, which adds to the 
insulation. Below there should again be nailed rough board, 
paper, and fini-^hed board.=;. in the usual careful manner. This 
will furnish two good air spaces. 

Should the floor be already made, and it be de.^irod to insulate 
it well, then a second layer like the first one should be added 
below, with, say, two-inch spacing pieces between the two 
floors. Fig. 17. 

7. fioor ll'hi'fi on the Ground. — A solid foundation is the 
first thing ro i^t secured. It the grout\d '\s cVan 01 so\\\ %tv»\w^, 
a thin layer of concrete should be pYOV^OieA, ^ccot^wvv^ \q >^^ 



REFRIGBR'VTIOK. 



339 



Wdght tU floor has to carry Then a layer of cinders mixed 
«mKcement as much as six mches and finally a layer of 
isphalt not tinder three inches as the two 1< wcr layers do not 
afford rauch protection against the penetration of heat from 
the groui d and the asphalt has to do nearly all the work 

The ground perhaps has only 65° Yet having an inexhaust- 
ible supply of heat at this temperature and being in close con- 
tact with the floor gord protection should be afTor la I the floor 
in order to get good results in cooling the cellar This is why 
the old style 01 undcri,round cellars has been abandoned. 
Formerly when temperatures of only 43° wtre had diid espe- 
cially where the grcund wis cooler as in the East where Ihc 




temperature of the ground is usually 56°. or tn Gerinanv, where 
the temperature is still loivcr, it vas advisable to build cellars 
nnderground. Bill not so at present. 

Where there is loose ground, and it is not desired to build 
a heavy concrete fuiiiid;ition. woockn sleepers can be laid, and 
heavy flooring on (op of tlicni, then an air space or two. formed, 
as described before, by two layers of board ami one uf paper. 
The only danger in that case is that the wood may rot from 
below, and it should, iherctore, be at lea-;t well iniprcRnaled. or, 
better still, ihc sleepers should rest on piers made of lirick 
or cement, girders being laid upon lhei;i. on which fiuallv U\«. 
sleepers rest, and the space below shouM Vie "KftW Ntn<\\a.\ti, \^> 
prevent dnnipncss Iroiii accumulating. Gooil AtivwiVi.': vsi'a.^'^ 
mIio be provided. 



340 



REFRIGERATION. 



ICE BOXES. 
In building ice boxes, the same principles hold good & tpt 
cellars, with the exception that we have no walls to insntete,- 
but must (orm them. The box should consist of three par- 
titions, formed of two layers of board and one layer of paper, as 
described before, only that in order to save space, ihinner wood 
can be used, and the air space reduced to two inches or less, 
if absolutely necess^ir}'. However, the wider the air space, up 
to four inches, the bi:tter the protection. Care must be taken, 
though, to build the box so that every part of it is actually 
protected by two air spaces, that the paper is overlapping well 
on joints and corners and all laps made with suitable paint. 
Especial care must be ^ivcn to the doors. They should be welt 
fitting and have good fasteners. It must also be borne in mind 



■G^L&S 




that the (Icors should not be loo large, and as many compart- 
ments as po.ssible be provided, because the openinp of a door 
admii.! a large amount of warm air each lime, the amount 
being greater in proportion to the increased size of the door and 
I he cocnparlinent. 

Floor and ceiling should be just as well protected as the 

sides, the box lined with galvanized iron, and properly drained. 

A stationary box can be nuiUe very well with pitch insulation 

by [iiaking a single layer of boards on the inside, which, when lined 

with tin or galvanised iron, is suRicicntiy tight, and one layer 

of boards tightly fitu-d on ihe outside, whiili. aftrr tillirg with 

pitch, is cvwTtd nUh a second \aycv of tinishcil m-.itched boards 

^:i(J i-.irnishfil. The i.ilch should (lieii Vie a\ \ku<,\ v'tiitt \i»^«» 

rii/cA-. If ,/;;, Ij,,^ „m5( jj^ moved al Vimvs, v'toc v'v^^cV ti»^ 




crack by th0 box being sligloly changed in shape, and in ihal 
MM itcff'better lo employ air spaces. But no other material 
idlpliTa be put tn the air spaces. 

An ice box with companinetiis is best built with a pipe cham- 
ber on top, the floor of which is made of wood, covered with 
galvanised iron, to prevent dripping, and well drained toward 
a pipe leading out of tlic box, forming a gooseneck, so as lo 
allow the water to get out, but keeping in the cold air. 

From this coil box two flues, extending the whole width of the 
b03c, should lead down lo the top of the lowest compartment. 
conveying the cold air to each compartment, the inflow to he 
regulated by shutters. This will give the desired temperature 
for each compartment, which can be kept at different tempera- 
tures, if desired. 

Ceiling and underside of shelves should not be lined to pre- 
vent dripping, but varnished. 

Fig. 18 represents a side corner. Fig. ig a top and bottom 
comer, and Fig. 20 a general arrangement of ice box. with 
several compartments and coil chamber. 

FREEZING TANKS AND BRINE TANKS. 
The sides should be insulated with an air space next to the 
tank, to prevent the pitch coming in contact with the very cold 
sides of the tank, and to afford a chance for ihe escape of brine 
if any should be spilled or leak from the tank. Over this air 
Space should be constructed a pitch space, and again an air 
space on the outside. It tmist be understood that since very low 
temperature prevails in the tank, belter insulation is needed 
than for walls of rooms. Instead of the pilch a second air space 
can be substituted, making in all three air spaces, ihe iron of 
the tank, which should be well painted, forming one side of 
the inner air space. 

The covers, loose ones as well as tight, should he formed of 
three layers of board, with two layers of paper between. 

The bottom insiiblion should be made like the floor of in- 
sulated buildings erected on the ground, only an air space be- 
ing, perhaps, added to iirovide for (he lower temperature of the 
brine. The tank should be tet on one-inch wooden strips and un- 
dercast with pitch. This will bed the tank well, prevent rastici^ist 
the bottom, and lead off. by means o£ a dtam ?\^ ^\*.\v ^ow*,- 
o*rfc *// bn'ne which accidentally or by \ta.V.ag,t tci\\tt\.^ -aV^'o 



but vvbhn 



342 REFRIGERATION. 

INSULATION OF PARTITION WALLS Il^^rELLARS 

If both adjoining cellars have nearly the same tempera! 
kind of material will do, and no insulation is necessary, but 
on one side of them is a warm room or stairway, the same care 
must be taken to insulate them as the outer walls. Under no 
circumstances should hollow bricks only be used, and if the 
difference in temperature is not very great, they can be filled 
with pitch, and will then be foirly well protected. 

Under no circumstances should sawdust be put on a floor 
above a cooled room, as is frequently done. The moisture of 
the atmosphere will penetrate it, and when the moisture strikes 
that part of the sawdust which has the temperature which u 
the dew point of the air, it will condense, make the sawdust 
moist, and convert it into a good conductor, besides spoiling 
the floor. This can be easily proven by examining such layer of 
sawdust, which has been used for a summer, at the end of the 
season, when the weather is Still hot. The sawdust will in such 
case be found very wet. 

INSULATION OF COLD PIPES. 

The same considerations prevail here as in the protection 
of cold suriaces. But care should be taken never to cover the 
pipes when they arc cold or sweating, as this will spoil the 
insulation right at the start. 

Any kind of insulating material can be used, for instance, felt, 
magnesia, or paper cells, anything, in fact, which is a non- 
conductor, as air spaces cannot well be built around the pipes, 
and it is therefore just as cheap to use a tilling material. The 
chief consideration here is again that the insulation is air and 
wLter-tight on the outside. Covering the material with good 
canvas well sewed on aiwi coated with three coats of good elastic 
paint, will make the insulation nir and water-tight. Especial 
care should be taken to get tight finish for the ends. It is 
likely that a puncture of the canvas will occur, which would 
spoil the whole insulation under the same cover. It is therefore 
better not to take the insulating material very thick, but to make 
two. or still better, three distinct air and water-proof insulations, 
one over the other. If the first one is punctured and spoiled, 
the rest remain intact, and no harm is done, while the punctured 
/aver still affords a //ttle protection. a\l\vou%\v \t%^ v\v;iTv ow^ not 
ijpunctured. 



r 

REFRIGERATION. 343 

The pipe^hould first be well painted. A Ur paint is best 
Jpr thi^Kfrpose, if the smell while putting it on is not objection- 
ij|lc.'<^'hen a layer of felt or any other good non-conductor 
""' ihould be wrapped tight around the pipes and tied with wire. 
O^per wire is considered best for this purpose. Over this, a 
layer of good insulating paper, as tar paper, which is pliable, is 
laid, and then the whole coated with one or two coats of good 
elastic paint. Then again felt or other insulating material is 
wrapped tight with copper wire, still another layer of tar paper, 
and the latter coated with paint as before. It is best to tie the tar 
paper also, as it will give a more compact i^isulation, not so 
easily destroyed by knocking against it. If it is not thought 
necessary to add another layer of felt and tar paper, :hc canvas 
should be put on tight and well painted, as explained. 

Another form of insulation, and the best where it can be 
used again, is made with pitch. The pipes are layed in boxes 
Upon rests giving at lea^t a three-inch space from outside oi 
pipe to inside of box. The box is closed tight with a lid. and 
pitch poured in. This insulation can easily be removed by open- 
ing the box and knocking or melting out the pitch, and when 
the pipe is repaired, closing the box and putting in hot pitch, 
wbich will join the new and the old insulation. This process 
can be assisted by slightly warming the box on the outside 
where the insulation is to be joined. 

If pipes are laid under ground, the box should cither be made 
of cast-iron or impregnated wood, and the wood should be at 
least two inches thick. Clay pipes can also be used (o lay the 
pipes in. 

If the pipes are above ground, galvanized pipes made of thin 
iron can be used and the cold pipes held in place therein by 
wooden, or any better, insulating material which can be found, 
as a spacer. Pitch is then poured in through openings left for 
this purpose. The single lengths of pipes are joined by soldering, 
and special form pieces made for fittiuRs. This insubttloti can 
also be easily removed and repaired, and is the very best, pre- 
serving at the same time the cold pipes and saving ihoir paint. 



The best method is to use material which caw tt, ■3.^\\t&. 
In a plastic stale, in sufficient thickness, a\\4 vVctv Vo ^\i.-iVyA 



344 REFRIGERATION. 

the outside of the parts in question as thoroughly % Dossihie 1^ 
painting or by putting on air-tight plaster or placing cMms ovfS 
it and painting well, always bearing in mind that the otatlMt 
must be air and water-tight. 

WATER COOLING TOWERS OR GRADIR WORKS. 

Where water is required for ammonia -or steam condensers, 
and the well supply is insufficient, or where it is too expensive 
to use city water, the only help is to erect a water cooling tower. 

The only natural cooling agents are water and air. To use 
air directly for condensing purposes would need too cumber- 
some an apparatus, and be too expensive in first cost. But we 
can cool the water first with air, and do it cheaply and effi- 
ciently, the water in this case not being wasted, but used as a 
medium to carr>' the heat of condensation to the air. 

The principle of the cooling tower is to allow air and water to 
come into close contact and to exchange heat thereby, and, fur- 
ther, to evaporate a small part of the water, the air absorbing 
the moisture, and the heat necessary to evaporate this part of 
the water being abstracted from the remaining water, cooling it 
in this manner lower than the air could do by contact alone. 

That part of the water which is evaporated must be replaced. 
But since this is only from 5 to 10 per cent, according to the 
temperature of the water entering the cooling tower and the 
capacity of the air for taking up moisture, the amount required 
is small, and if the well does not furnish it, can be bought from 
the city, and yet considerable money saved by the erection 
of a gradir works. 

CONSTRUCTION OF COOLING TOWERS. 

The construction of the cooling towers varies. That coolmg 
tower is the best which will give the best chance for evaporat- 
ing water. This can only be done if the water is retarded as 
much as possible in its downward course and not mixed with 
the air, but the air allowed to pass over the surface of the water 
only. For steam-condensing purposes this evaporation is not 
so important, as the temperatures of the cooling water required 
for this purpose need not be so low as for condensing ammonia, 
where a difference of a few degrees in the cooling water cuts 
a big hole in the coal pile. 



REFRIGERATION. 345 

The gcttfTral construction of cooling towers is a cylindrical 
., .cOr M|nre enclosure, made of wood or iron, containing means 
ii tO' ^tribute the water and to retard it in ita downward course, 
and a large fan for blowing air in tlie cppofite direction over 
the water. A good cooling lower is made of a square box of 
white pine, well painted on the inside, and filled with one-inch 
boards of cypress, arranged far enough apart to allow free 
passage of the air. On top are placed iron gutters which receive 
the water and distribute it through pipes to the gutters provided 
for each portion. In order to retard the water as much as pos- 
sible, the second row of partitions is arranged perpendicularly to 
the upper one, and so on, each row being again provided with 
gutters so as to distribute the water well. 

In this manner the water will always run in a thin Rim over 
the partitions and have the best chance to evaporate. This cross- 
ing of the partitions has another advantage, viz., (hat it forms 
square openings for the air to pass, and spreads the air, sup- 
plying each particle of water with air. 

The fan is placed in an extension built to the structure at the 
bottom. 

Another kind of cooHng lower is made, where cither gal- 
vanized iron tubes of short length and about four inches diam- 
eter are placed- in the cylinder forming the tower, so as to break 
joints, or pipes made of clay of .ibout the same dimensions as 
the iron pipes are used. The latter will last longer than the 
iron pipes, but arc considerably mure expensive and heavier. 
which is a consideration when the cooling lower is placed on 
the roof. 

Some builders put wire screens in the structure, which will 
soon rust out and make the water unfit for boiler feeding. 

All these towers use ians. But there are some made which 
are open all around and utilize the natural draft of the air, in- 
stead of a fan. 

The towers which employ tubes or wire screens, with sprink- 
ling devices instead of gutters, cannot be expected to furnish 
•uch low temperatures as towers with vertical partitions and 
gutters, since in the first case the water and air is thoroughly 
mixed and little chance for evaporation given, while in the 
second case all facilities for evaporation are aKoiAti- 




S TOWEKS. ^ 

A loo-ton reFrigerating maehioe wMild rtqiiirt a coolittgjowor 
of 2Cia X 1440 = 288,000 gallons per day, which rcquiri^s, a tTn' pf 
mat feet diameter, maldns igo Tevolntions, and reqairing » 
borsc-power to drive it 

The coat, complete, will be in the neighborhood o[ ta.000. It 
will reqaire, if used for cooling water for ammonia condenien, 
about 5 per cent of jSSjooa gallona a day, to nuke up for enp- 
oration = 14^400 gallons. The 12 horse-power, if a small engine 
for driving the fan is used, costs about 73 ponodi of coal per 
hour, and if Ihe tower is erected on the roof, so that the water 
inns I7 granty to the ammonia condensers, the pumping will 
not cost more than to pump the water from the well, as the extra 
height the water is to be pumped is mote than made up by 
the depth from which the water is generally pumped if taken 
from a well. 

These figures wilt suffice to calculate whether it pays to buy a 
cooling tower or not. 

The life of the cooling tower must also be considered when 
figuring on the investment. Iron towers with galvanized iron 
tubes cannot last long. The tower cannot be repainted on the 
inside without great cost and without ruining the tubes. It will, 
therefore, rusl through quickly, as will also the ^lubes. On the 
other hand, wood, especially cypress, will last (or a long timC. 

The tower can be erected on the ground instead ot on the 
root. But in that case the ammonia condenser floor must he 
located high enough to allow the water to flow to the gradir 
work by gravity. A height of about 35 feet is required for this 
purpose, otherwise the water must be pumped twice. 

punps. 

CENIBIFUGAL PUUPS. 

These pumps are usod when large quantities of water are to 
be lifted to moderate height, that is to say. not to exceed zS 
feet. They are cheap pumps, but must be run very fast. 

A pump of this kind, delivering 200 gallons to a height of 

50 feet, makes 1.200 revolutions per minute, and a pump of the 

same capacity, lifting the water 30 feet, makes i.ooo revolutions. 

TAcj' require for this 4.25 horse-power and 2.55 horse-power, re- 

spectiiely. A pump lifting 1,000 gaWons yi Veev TOaV^w qao 

rrvoluiions and requires 25 horse-powM. 




ROTARY I 

Xb^^punips have two interlocking wheels, one of which has 
-« projection engaging the other, which has a recess to suit, 
and thus discharging what has been in the recess of the one 

These pumps should be run slowly, lo make them last long 
and to prevent noise. Fifty revolutions is a good speed for 
them, but they can be run up lo 200 revolutions. They are 
cheap pumps, are driven by a belt, and are made in capacities 
o( 8 lo 25 gallons, which capacity they have when making 50 
revolutions, or, they will discharge 30 and 90 gallons per min- 
ute, respectively, when running at their maximum speed of 
200 revolutions. They will lift water very little; it is best to 
have the water flow to them. They will discharge water 13 to 
15 feet high. The pumps are very cheap, and where power to 
drive (hem can be had easily, they are preferable. 

POHLE AIR LIFT PUMP. 

This apparatus consists of an air compiessor, an air tank, and 
an air discharge pipe, located either inside the water discharge 
pipe, which also must be provided, or between w-iler discharge 
pipe and well casing. The water discharge pipe and the air 
pipe should reach down the well casing so far that the length 
under water is twice the length of the water discharge pipe 
over the water in the well, that is lo say. if it is desired to lift 
water 66 feet above the level of the water in the well, the two 
pipes must reach at least to [32 feet below tlic level. 

The principle of ttiis apparatus is that there must be such 
pressure carried in the air tank that the column of water pressing 
against the orifice of the water discharge pipe, in this instance 
132 feet high, will more than coiinterbalance il. otherwi.^ie the nir 
would escape without doing work. The pressure, therefore, must 
be not f|uile fis pounds, as (-5 pounds' prcBsurc is alviut «iuiva- 
lent to the pressure exerted liy a column of water I,i2 feel high. 
If compressed air is discharged into the orifice of the water 
discharge pipe 13^ feet undvr the level of the water in the well, 
this air mixes with the water and forms a column of a mixture 
of both air and water, which is jgH feet high, which mixtucc 
will reach the upper outlet of the water i\sc\\aT%t v^Vt M\i -wX"^ 
Bov oat. 




The air in the water will < 
in short intenrala, and not u a steady stream, but s 
so for all practical purposes. It is better, however, to ifforldt; 
a water discharge tank holding a good snpply, so that any inter- 
mption in the working of the apparatus will not stop the water 
supply for the biewery. 

Where the conditions ate favorable to the employment of this 
land of apparatus it should be used, as it is 'economical. No 
pnmp rods and working barrel are buried in the well, in bet, all 
parts which must be attended to are above ground. It has 
been found in several cases that wells which furnished plenty of 
water, but could not be pumped sufficiently with a deep-well 
pump, after being worked with the air lift, furnished twice the 
amount of water that they did before. 

Where foul or thick water is to be pumped and more than 
36 feet lifting done, this system is advisable. An air compressor 
is provided, located on the ground, and two large tanks placed 
so that the fluid will fill them by gravity. The tanks arc pro- 
vided with floats, actuating a valve motion, which opens or cuts 
oflf the air supply, and check valves are secured to the tanks to 
admit the water when it has been forced out of the tank and 
the latter connected at the top with the outside, to let the com- 
pressed air out, which still fills the tank. 

While one tank is filling, the other is discharging. In this 
manner the fluid docs not come in contact with any delicate 
machinery, and cannot injure il, whatever the nature of the fluid 
may be. Furthermore, by this process, the fluid can be lifted 
to any desired height, while the machinery is located above 
ground and easily accessible. This apparatus is used in mines, 
but can also be used to empty cisterns or cesspools, and can be 
started and stopped automatically. 

PLUNGER PUMPS. 

Thi;^ is the simplest kind of pump made, having the least 
number of lalvcs am! parts, and being very easy lo keep in 
order. These pumps are generally used where the clearance 
is no object, for pumping liquids. It can also be constructed 
to have only an equal clearance to a piston pump, but in this 
case a piston pump is preferred, because it is just the con- 
struction made regardless of clearance that makes the pun^ 
so simple, as the vaJie chamber is sctevici Vo vXvt ^incv ^^\i»- 



PUMPS. 349 

der, apd-'each valve is in a separate casing, covered wilh a lid 
which can be removed by loosening one bolt. 

These pumps are used where high pressures are wanted, but 
if constructed with clearance, should not be called upon to lift 
the water, as this would be unsatisfactory, owing to the large 
clearance. This pump will also move heavy liquids better than 
a piston pump. 

MEMBRANE PUMPS. 

If heavy liquids are to be pumped in smaller quantities, or the 
liquids contain acids which should not come in contact wilh iron 
or brass, the compressed air system would not be suitable, and 
membrane pumps are a very good means to accomplish what is 
wanted. 

The pump consists of two parts, a plunger pump charged 
only once with water, which water presses a diaphragm against 
one and the other inside surface of a lens-shaped vessel. The 
diaphragm is clamped between the two halves of the lens- 
shaped vessel, the water being on the one side and the fluid 
on the other side of the diaphragm. The fluid follows the mo- 
tions of the water, which is withdrawn and discharged alter- 
nately into this vessel by the motion of the plunger pump. 

The vessel is provided on the fluid side with a discharge 
and suction valve, which admit and discharge the fluid alter- 
nately. 

This apparatus is cheap and gives good results. The rubber 
diaphragm requires replacing from time to time. 



These pumps are mostly built as plunger pumps. Since it 
is necessary to place the working barrel far below the surface, 
such submerged parts should be made just as simple as passible. 
The plunger is connected to the steam cylinder, which is erected 
above ground, by long piston rods, making the whole sy-^iteni 
very cumbersome and getting out of repair frequently. If the 
working barrel is very deep in Ihe well it is not easy for the en- 
gineer to repair it. If the conditions required for an air-lift pump 
do not obiain, there is no oilier way than to use a deep-well pump. 
These pumps can discharge water to any tcawi'c\a\>\t WxiA. 



V 



: double-"' 



These pumps arc now universally used. They : 
icdng and fanilt u single ud duplex pmnps. In acmt cue> 
even triplex pomps are nud^ mostly in case of power pomp* 
provided with sears. The Talve chamber in these pomps is 
generalljr locatcdton top of the respectiTe crlinder, and the vthres 
therein placed in two stories, the suction valves below and the 
discharge valves above. This arrangement enables the eii|p- 
neer to take out the discharge valves first, and, throogh tbcir 
seats, the suction valves, which are made a little smaller, to 
allow their passing through the seats o[ the upper valves. Tins 
also makes it possible to use man; smalt valves And avoid 
the noise big valves would make when seating. 

The water piston is genei^ly connected directly to the stem 
^aton by the same piston rod, which is called a direct-acting 
pump. The steam valve, usually a piston valve, is connected to 
the pump piston rod by a suitable lever motion, to allow the 
steam to enter and to leave the steam cylinder at the proper 
time. This arrangement makes the stroke of the pump variable, 
as the adjustment of the valve lever motion determines this 
stroke, and though ever so nicely adjusted, the stroke varies 
almost with every revolution. This reduces the capacity ol 
the water cylinder and, still more, the efliciency of the steam cyl- 
inder, as the increased clearance wastes much live fleam. That 
is why such pumps, especially when small, possess such low 
efficiency, using about 120 pounds of steam per horse-power 
per hour, while a small Corliss engine produces the horse- 
power with 40 pounds of steam. If attached to the pump with fly- 
wheel. If that is done, the stroke will be positively equal 
(or every revolution, and the smallest possible clearance can 
be given to the water and the steam cylinder. 

The direct-acting pump has, however, many advantages, which 
often more than counteract ih; loss in efRckncy, vi».. smaller 
first cost, simpler construction, making it possible for a laborer 
to handle it, and the possibility of regulating the revolutions 
at will. 

If, instead of the Corliss engine, a slide-valve engine is con- 
nected with a pump and a flywheel added, the economy will 
Ae greater than if directly connected, and yet the vump is not 
e expensive nor the hattdVing awA ttftiAatwift -nunc 



J PUMPS. 351 

LvRl^ pnmpi are often built with Corliss compound and 
condensing cnKines, and instead of the flywheel, an air balance 
is used, insuring full stroke. There is economy in the use of this 
pun^ though it is very expensive. 

ABKAHCEMENT AND CONNECTION OF FUUPS. 

The most economic and best way, if if can be done, is lo 
collect all the pumps into a room near the engine house and 
to give the engineer sole charge over them, all pumps to be 
belt driven and connected by belt to countershafts. 

Such countershafts should consist of two li ng, conical drums, 
placed close together, one of them sliding with jls bearings in 
the frame holding both drums, and pressed against the other 
by strong springs or weighted levers, with an endless belt be- 
tween them. This belt hangs loosely around the lower pulley 
and can be shifted by a shifter from one end of the conical 
pulleys to the other. This belt makes the connecrion between 
the two conical pulleys and connects at one end, the point o( 
the driven conical pulley with the butt end of the conical pulley to 
be driven, thus giving a large change of speed to the pulley to 
be driven. The driven conical pulley is keyed to the same 
shaft with a pulley connected by belt to the main counter- 
shaft, and (he conical pulley to be driven is keyed on the same 
shaft with a pulley which is connected with the pulley on the 

All the speeds which are possible with a direct-acting pump 
can be had with this countershaft, and if the engineer is con- 
nected by electric signals with the man requiring the use of 
the pump, he can regulate the speed to suit all purposes, stop- 
ping and starting the same at a moment's notice. i( a signal 
for preparation has been given and ihe engineer has answered. 
Such an arrangement would allow the use of a large compound 
condensing Corliss engine, which would utilise the steam with 
the greatest economy, save many repairs and time of ihe en- 
gineer attending lo pumps, while the life of the pumps would 
be at least twice as long as otherwise. 

Another iniporlanl circumstance is the annoyance of having 
to lead steam pipes a long way. cspeciaW^ Wom^V t<ir,\ti t^- 
lars. Water purips. particularly, which have tVtvT w^^^X-j ■>^'i'" 
t&e engine room, arc cheaper to conned, as maV^^A ci\ > %V<i*f 



35* PUMPS. k. 

an cxhanit iind a suction (ripe, onlr one disduirge^}l^,.tt 



If the pnmp is needed clo>e to the pUce where the pnmphig 
is done, an electric pump, or a pnmp driven by compressed 
air, should he nscd, the air compressor being located in the 
pnmp room; and only one compressed air pipe leading to the 
pump from the pump house. This will give an advantace 
over steam pipes, because the air is not hot and cannot lose 
energy like the steam, by condensing in the long pipes, and 
furnishing wet steam. 

Fnmps for brine and water should be br^ss lined and fitted. 

COUFUSSKD AIB PUMPS. 

These most be flywheel pumps, as the clearance in the air 
qrlinder must be reduced to a minimum to get good effideacr 
from it. The air compressor must have a water jacket to re- 
move the heat of compresuon, and internal water injection is 
often resorted to for cooling the compressoi still more effect- 
ively. 

If it is desired to cool the air still further, this can be done 
by tending it through a pipe cooler, over which either water 
of ordinary temperature is showered, or, the cooler can be 
built like a Baudelot cooler, and water circulated over it, the 
same water to be used over and over again. If slill lower 
temperatures are required, brine can be used as the circulating 
medium instead of water. 

The air pump must be provided with a pressure regulator 
which keeps (he pressure at the desired figure, independent o( 
how much air is used. 

COMPRESSING AIR BY L-SIKC WASTE WATER. 

In a brewery which has a refrigerating machine, there are 
generally large quantities of clean water running away from 
the ammonia condensers, which water generally lias a fall of 
35 feet, and can be used to compress air without the use of a 

If, for instance, a lOO-ton mactiine is on hand, it uses 200 gal- 
lons a minute, and the water falling 35 feet, represents power to 
ihe amount of nearly two horse-power. Two air-tight tanks 
ar^ provided and fitted with safety valves, to \je s*^ »■>. ^'oe v^tv 



PUMPS. 353 - 

sore n^ired — which cannot be more than about 15 pounds 
iriieh the fall is 35 feet— and two floaU are so connected inside 
the tank with valves that they allow the flow of the water when 
required, and, when filled, open the water outlet and an air 
inlet at the top. While one tank is filling and compressing the 
air, the other is fmi^tying out the water and filling itself with 
fresh air, jmd is ready as soon as the first tank has discharged 
all its compressed air, to supply compressed air also. The air 
must be discharged into a receiver to collect any water which 
may have been carried with it, and to equalize the pressure. 
This tank ihould also have a safely valve attached. Such ap- 
paratus would furnish about 26 cubic feet per minute of 15 
pounds' pressure, without any cost for power. If the water 
is clean, there can be no objection 10 using the air for racking 
b«er. Another advantage is that this air will have the tempera- 
ture of the water, coming in close contact with same. 

SIEAU EJECTOR. 

This is a very useful and cheap instrument, and easily con- 
nected, where it can be used. It will heat the ejected water 
somewhat, since the steam must condense to do the work. The 
lifting of the water is done by the vacuum created by the con- 
densation of the steam. 

To take water out of a tank or cistern, it is veiy handy. It 
will lift small quantities 30 feet liigh. but should not be ex- 
pected to work against picssurc. It is especially adapted to 
cases where a means of lifting water must be had quickly and 
where ordinarily such apparatus is not required. 

STEAM JET PUMP. 

This pump is very handy and cheap, and also easily con- 
nected. It will start with 10 pounds' steam pressure, and will 
lift water 10 feet high with a steam pressure of 80 p-"mds. It will 
discharge the water 40 feet high. 



BREWERY BUILDINQS. 



Following is given sample speci6catioiia for a meditiai-siKd 
brewery, abridged from > set drawn up by a brewer? ucUlcct 
of noie. It is intended oolj as a sample, to afford a general idea 
of the requirements sa well at to call attention to details tiut 
might otherwise be neglected. What suits one locality may not 
suit another. There are considerations of size and shape of lot, 
magnitude of the plant, building materials, labor, climate, etc., 
which will necessarily modify plans in each individual case. 

Speciticalions are always made out with reference to plans 
drawn. Where the words "as shown" occur in the following. 
It is intended to convey the need of referring the contractor to 

EXCAV.^TION. FILLING. CONCRETE WORK. MASONRY 
AND BRICKWORK. 

Exca^'ate ground according to plans and sections, dig trenches 
for footings of all walls, piers, etc. 

After foundations are in, refill, ram heavily and puddle with 
water all fillcd-in material. Ground lloor must be left in pr<^wr 
shape lo rtecive the floor. Fill up where necessary and leave 
the ground for fifteen feet all around the buildings in proper 
shape, slanting easily. All superfluous ground to be carted away. 

All fnunilalions must be started on natural ground. The 
foundations for all walls, piers under columns, etc. (concrete 
fiiundalions). shall be made of concrete up to Datum or o-linc, 
and of sizes as shown by drawings. 

CONCRETE. 

.Ml materials used for concrete must be measured by struck 
bushels, or barrels, and not by shovel. 
Concrete la lie prepared in the foUowiTis manw^T-. Otvc oart 
of imported German Portland cement {.DicVct\k,K, Cv 
3M 



BREWI£RY BUILDINGS. 355 

StettiB>- must be mixed in a box, 6rst, dry, with zK parts of sharp 
and clean sand; then water to be added, just enough to make 
the mortar resemble damp earth, and well mixed. Then five 
pans of broken stone to be added, and mixed again. Stones 
must not be larger than to pass a i%-iDcb netting. Mortar must 
fill out all empty spaces between broken stones. Lay the con- 
crete in six-inch layers, ram heavily with a heavy ram. A film 
of thin mortar must cover the stones after ramming. 

For concrete foundations above natural ground construct heavy 
boxes to receive ihc concrete and give foundation proper shape. 
The concrete work must be carefully protected against the influ- 
ence of the weather. The top of concrete must be leveled off 
with Portland cement mortar, mixed in proportion of one to 
two and one-half. 

For all sewer and other pipes required contractor must leave 
openings in concrete or brickwork, and cover same with 12 inch 
thick stones or arch them ovci. 



( STONES. 

Dimension stones must be laid on top of concrete and solidly 
in a floating bed of cement mortar. Top and bottom of dimen- 
sion stones must be practically smooth, and be rammed down 
with a heavy wooden instrument. The lower courses of dimen- 
sion stones under columns may be in two pieces each, but the 
balance of courses to be of one piece each and of even thickness. 
The stone under foot-plate must be well bush-hammered, to give 
the plate a solid bed. Dimension stones under walls must meas- 
ure the entire spread of foundation in one direction, in the other 
not less than three feet. All the spaces between dimension sloncs 
must be well filled with concrete. 

RUDOLE STONE WALLS. 

Rubble stone walls are to be started on top of concrete work. 
Stones must be laid in courses of even si;cc and not less than 
B inches thick. The first course 'lying on concrete must consist 
of stones going all through walls in one piece, and this must be 
repeated in the fourth course, that is lo say, one course of di- 
mension, rubble alternating witli three courses of comtiion. 
rubble work. 

Walls mast be well bonded and joints caTc^MW^ \rtdV.«'(v. "^w 
wm//s on both sides, and wherever thej come m cciwvw.^ ■^' 



356 BREWERV BUILDINGS. 

ground, plaster them with ccnent mortar specified for C 
All exposed rubble stone must be range work made of select 
rubble laid in regular courses. Where stone walls show above 
ground tbcy must be neatly pointed up with mortar. 

Mortar for rubble stone work, except for pointit^ and plaster- 
ing, to be composed of one part of imported Qerman Portluid 
cement and two and one-half parts of sharp and clean sand. 
Contractor to furnish sample of stone: 

BRICKWORK. 

The footings on lop of concrete must be of best hard burned 
brick in level courses. The brick must be laid wet if laid in warm 
or dry weather, and dry, if laid in cold or damp weather, with 
absolutely solid joints, leaving no empty spaces in wall whatever. 
This may be accomplished by grouting every course, or by d^g 
shove work; the outside of the work being laid all headers and 
no course projecting more than about 1% inches to I'.'i inches be- 
yond the one above it, except for piers, under columns, etc., 
where Ihe projection will be % inch to I inch. 

Base plates must be blocked up at the corners to pro[>er height, 
then close up the sides with clay, and fill the joint wiih German 
Portland cement mortar, mixed one to two and one-half. Foun- 
dation walls above footings to have a header conrsc every fifth 

Mortar for brick footings and fotindalion walls up to eighteen 
inches above ground line to be made of one part of I.f>nisville ce- 
ment to three parts of clean, sharp sanU, both to be measured by 
struck bushels or barrels, and thoroughly mixed dry before 
adding water. 

Brickuurk above foundation ■oralis lo be l-uUl. Mortar lo lje 
made of nine bushels of good, strong lime l'> one yard of clean, 
!-liarp sand. To fifteen parts of this mortar add ^jni- part of Louis- 
ville cement. Brick discharging arches lo Ik; built over all opt-n- 
ings where no iron lintels arc used. 

WIktc firewalls are built above the roof, lay two-inch by fonr- 
inch pieces in walls, so thai bottom of piece will he three inches 
above roof boards. This lo be omitted where w.^ll aliove roof 
exceeds a height ol ten feet. 

A// joists or M-aU plates must be set on waW^ w«\w\\\ \.\t«:VL. 
W. eicn il brick have lo be split for l\\c ?utv"?:e. M\ ■BsNt 



IIREWCRY BUILDINGS. 357 

^om to be set and no wallinK up of beams to be done before 
uichors are in right place, according to iron diagram. 

Brickwork around colunitis in walls to be anchored to columns 
with U-inch copper wire. 

Brickwork for SmokrUack. The inner shell must be well tied 
to outer one, every four feet in height up to where the round 
part starts. After that the shell must be tied where rings are 
placed. Inside of chimney must be lined with firebrick for a 
height of twenty feet, startiiig the firebrick eighteen inches below 
the bottom of smoke opening. 

Floors to be arched between the steel beams with four-inch 
brick arches hid in PortUnnd cement mortar. Build up stag 
walls in haunches of arches eight feet apart and nine inches wide 
to top of beams and across level with top of arch, forming 
beads, so as to prevent beam from giving, or being pulled out 
of plumb when strain is put on lie rods. Arches to be leveled 
off to top of beams with concrete made of sifted cinders and 
German Portland cement, mixed one to six. Soffits of all arches 
must be neatly pointed up, except those over fermenting and 
settling tub room, which will be plastered. 

All enclosing walls of stockhouse in all stories, excepting the 
rice storage and ventilation floor above settling tub room, the 
racking room and hop-storage room, to be furred or lined with 
an eight-inch brick wall, put i^-inch from the main wall. The 
Space between main wall and furring wall to be poured full with 
hoi pitch. Care must be taken that when pouring pitch into that 
space the brick lining will not bend out or cave. For this reason 
. only eighteen inches of lining is to be built at one time and then 
the space is to be filled as slated. 

Brick layer to wall in the galvanized iron strips which hold 
the lining. Strips to be two inches wide of No. i6 galvanized 
iron, reaching eight inches into main wall and tour inches into 
lining, and long enough that they can be bent up two inche<i at 
each end. In the hori,ron(al direction strips must be two inches. 
and in the vertical direction eighteen inches, apart, placed stag- 
gering in wall. 
V^'"' Hollow tiling ihe walls of the above-mentioned rooms. The 
walls to be painted one good coat ol mcWci a^^WN^. at>4, 'j^.Oft, 
MBd then lined with one row of thrce-incVi \\o\\o'« U\cs". ft^'^^^ '"=*■"' 
B tpace ot two inches and put on anotbcr low ol iX^ttt-'wAi. ^ 



358 BREWERY BUILDINGS. 

km tiles. Space between the two rows of tOes to be filiSI*1i^ 
mineral wool (or other insnlating material). Hollow tiles oseA 
must be good, hard burnt, of uniform color. Each tile must be" 
clamped to the adjoining by galvanized iron damps (No. 20 
iron), and the tile row next to wall to be fastened to wall by 
spikes in every second course. The outer row of tiles must be 
clamped to the inner row; clamps to be formed so as to act as 
separators at the same time. All tile work to be laid in stroog 
approved domestic cement mortar, neatly pointed up, except 
in fermenting and settling tub rooms, which are to be plastered 
with one good coat of plaster, composed of four parts lime mor- 
tar to one part of imported Portland cement. Cross-walls in set- 
tling tub room to be lined only with two-inch mineral wool and 
four-inch hollow tile and plastered. 

IRON AND STEEL WORK. 

All castings shall be of tough, gray iron, free from injurious 
cold shuts or blow-holes. Tops of foot-plates and bottoms of 
columns must be turned off. Bottom of lowest column must 
have lugs to correspond with lugs on foot-plates and be firmly 
bolted to foot-plates. Columns to be straight and sound with all 
lugs, brackets, caps, moldings, etc., as per drawings. 

All wrought iron must be tough, ductile, fibrous, smooth and 
free from cinder pockets, Haws, buckles, blisters or cracks. All 
beams must be of steel, straight and of sizes and weights as per 
corresponding diagram. All work must receive a good coat of 
mineral paint before delivery. 

Holes to be punched in all beams three inches from ends 
which rest on walls. All splice plates for girders must have 
four bolt holes, those for floor joists two bolt holes. Stringers, 
brackets, posts, railings of stairs to be of iron or steel. 

Elevator enclosure to be of 5-32-incb wire, i^^inch mesh, with 
i^-inch channels, or grooved iron for frames, well fastened to 
walls and guy-post. All doors to swing or to be sliding, con- 
structed strong and similar to enclosure with approved locks. 
All lintels over openings must have wall anchors. 

CARPENTER WORK. 

All lumber to be thoroughly seasoned and sound, common 
'^'oe, free from sap, cracks, loose or lat^e VnoVs ot ^\v>j oiORfci 



BREWERY BUILDINGS. 359 

defects that will injure the strength. All lumber must be dressed 
where exposed to view. All straps, splice plates, anchors, stir^ 
4ftips, etc., for connection of woodwork, also all spikes, nails, 
bolts, screws, locks and all hardware to be furnished and fitted. 

All centers for arches over openings must be set one-half inch 
higher than frame to take the weight of the wall from frame. 
Lay two-inch by four-inch scantlings in firewalls only three 
inches above roof boards for fastening of roofing felt. Build 
gables behind all ventilators, ventilation pipes, etc., to lead the 
water to the downspouts. Carpenter to furnish and hang the 
wooden centers for brick arches between the steel floor beams 
and remove them after arches are sufficiently dry. 

All openings in mason work, if not otherwise specified, must 
have yellow pine lintels six inches high by the required width, 
resting on walls at least four inches. All joists from nine feet 
to twelve feet span must have one row of cross-bridging. Joists 
from twelve feet to eighteen feet span to have two rows of 
cross-bridging and above that three rows. 

Bridging to be made of good, sound two-inch by four-inch stuff, 
well fitted at the ends and solidly nailed in place with two ten- 
penny nails at each end. Where joists are planed, planed bridg- 
ing is to be used. Frame out for ventilators, ventilation pipes, 
scuttles, etc., or wherever framing is required. All headers and 
trimmers must be double, thoroughly spiked together and well 
framed and hung in extra heavy iron stirrups. Every fifth joist 
must have strong pin anchors, pin not less than fifteen inches 
long and straps extending well into wall. Ends of joists must 
butt against each other over girders and every pair must be 
spliced by two-inch by twelve-inch by three-eighths-inch wrought 
iron splice plates with two spike holes for each end of joist. 

Floors, ceilings, sheathing of roofs, etc., must be firmly spiked 
or nailed to each joist or rafter. 

Doors and Windows. All window and door frames must 
be surfaced all around, as they will be primed all 
around. AH door and window frames to be set in 
place by carpenter. All window frames and sashes must be of 
thoroughly seasoned pine. All windows must have window 
stools where practicable. Windows in cold rooms to have triple 
sashes and plank frames, which must begin iowx \TvO[vts ^x ^v^^eX 
laches from outside of walls as may be pTON\d^^, ^vA \y^ "s^X 




j6o 

^' f 

Ouongk mdls ud hollow tik ladar Suba M be riMMhH ' 
ttuck, made to iwioc u ■bown on dnwinB. Center autt*- idltt jk 
be tmnged for double ^sxins. All jointa b cl W Mii viaMK ^ 
Enmei and walls mnit be canlked with mineral wool (or otfacr 
tnaolating matnial), and made «> air-URbt ai poaiible, and then 
■Iripi nailed over joists. All other windows to have box franxi 
and iK-inch uahea with check-iipped meeting rails. 
. Hnltion windows to have molded mullion posts, transom faana 
transom sashes, etc Heads of all circnlar. scmi-drcnlar or Kg- 
ment windows, to be square inside. Transoms to he seon-ctr> 
cular or segment all through walla. Sashes to be hung with 
weights and best braided cotton cords, and to have extra stronc 
axle pulleys and extra strong sash locks and lifters. 

All outside doors to be aU iochea tbick, made in two thicknesses, 
well glued and screwed together, paneled, upper panels ar- 
ranged for glass. Door frames must be 2% inches thick, starting 
four inches back of face of wall, paneled and molded to corre- 
spond with doors, all with transom bars, mullion posts, transom 
sashes, etc., complete. Each wing of the doors must be hung 
to three extra strong wrought iron, black japanned five-inch by 
five-inch loose joint butts. Doors must have extra strong three- 
tumbler mortise locks top and bottom bolts, etc., ^■omplete. Tran- 
som gashes to be of same thickness as doors below and hung 
with strong black japanned wrought iron hinges and have the 
required transom lifters of the strongest make. 

All thick or insulated doors must be made as follows ; Scven- 
eighths-inch by 3^inch matched and dressed flooring, double 
building paper, T6-inch flooring, ili-inch by i^-inch strips, six- 
tecn-inch centers, then Ti-inch matched flooring, double building 
paper, and 'K-inch matched flooring, all solidly nailed together. 
Doors to be hung to extra heavy black japanned ice-house T- 
liinges and have proper locks. Insulated doors must have groove 
cut all around and a rubber tube fastened into it to keep the 
space between doors, frame and floor tight. Door frames for all 
insulated doors must be s% inches thick and reach all through 
wall and hollow tile lining where not otherwise specified. 

All doors not before specified, in refrigerator, boiler and wash- 
house, must be made in two thicknesses of %-incli by j^inch 
matched ffooring with double layer building pa^T between and 
*^« and rail complete Doors to be hung to «?/i.-\wAv Vj ajl*.- 



BREWERY BUILDINGS. 361 

iadi-'llhck japanoed loose joint butts and hare all required iockt, 
qW: Alt doors in brew-house, not specified before, mast be iH 
fBchca thick, five panel O. G. hung to three 4l4-inch by 4U-inch 
bUck japanned loose joint butts, and have strong mortise locks, 
etc 

Sliding doors to be made of two thickaesses of' 1% inches for 
■tiles with %-iiich by j^itinch matched and beaded floorings for 
panels. 

The doors of stock-house, wash-house and brew-house, having 
iron jamb protectors two feet six inches high, to be made so that 
frame will be flush with protector when in place. Frames to be 
screwed lo protector with stove-bolls before being set. Doors 
in stock-house to be made as specified for insulated doors,, slide 
or swing. When sliding they should be hung with weights lo 
wire and running over heavy steel anti-friction pulley, polished 
brass wheel, heavy strap hinges to be used for insulated doors 
snd the same Co be boiled Co doors. Oak sills to be five inches 
and full width of wall with i^ineh projection and properly 
washed aiid seated. 

Coal shutters in boiler house must be of two thicknesses %-inch 
b!y 3'/^inch flooring, with two-ply building paper between and 
have proper stiles and rails. The box window frame in boiler 
house must be made large enough lo receive the coal shutters, 
which must be hung in same manner as sashes in the same 
frame; the coal shutters to slide in iron jamb protecCors between 
the two sills which arc to be of tour-inch oak. All doors must 
have oak thresholds. All stiles and rails of doors and shutters 
to be of thoroughly seasoned pine, panels of well seasoned pine. 

Scantling in hollow tile partitions for fastening of door frames 
must go up to ceiling. 



Tower of bretu-house to be constnicted as shown on plans. 
Wall plates will be six inches by eight inches, well anchored lo 
walls with %-inch diameter ancliors. 

Bttild two trusses for tower, made of double two-inch by twelve- 
inch truss rafters, and double lwo-ii:ch by ten-Inch cords, well 
spiked together. Intermediate rafters will be V'no toOml^ 'Vi-i t^^V 
inches — sixteen-inch centers. Frame ouV iot l-Vt "Mvcvic*^ *^^ 
baiidroofg over same as shown. The otViet ea.tt oi toq^. «''« '^■^'■■* 



362 BBEWEBY BUILUNGS. 

honse to be co mLtu c t ed of tfarec-hich br tta-iaA wMtM 
planed jobtt, plincd d^iteea iachet on niiten. 
to be u ^edfied before. JmaU to rest four incliM on wilb m 
give same proper intch for gnvel rooL Roof over bicw-bone^^ 
incloding lower, to be sheathed with onc-incb bj fi ¥e- i ndi 
matched and dressed flooring, dressed side laid down. 

Build a two-foot by two-foot six-inch acuttle on one tide wiA 
light, but strong scuttle cover and hung on strong wroi^fal inH 
japanned hinges, and have all necessary fastenings complete; 
also provide neat, light and strong ladder to scnttle. 

Uath-htb platform muBt be made of three-inch by auc-incA 
dressed and matched flooring, planed to be turned down and wd 
bolted to top flange of ten-tncb steel beams with %-inch bofcs. 

Bmild Malt Bin j4t Shomi, Support for hopper bottom of mdt 
bin to be constructed of ten-inch by ten-inch timbers for girdrra 
and posts. Joists for bottom to be three inches by twelve inches 
on centers, and sheathed with three-inch by six-inch matched 
and dressed flooring. All woodwork must be solidly and com- 
pletely framed together with all necessary irons. Bin walls to 
be made of crib-work, constructed of two-hich by four-inch scant- 
lings, surfaced on all sides, well spiked together with 4^incb 
and four-inch wire spikes mixeil, put in zigzag, sixteen inches 
apart. All crossings must be spiked with 4^-inch spikes. Bin 
rods and ladder irons will be furnished by another contractor, 
but must be put in place by carpenter. Spout openings in bottom 
of bins must be made in the most careful manner. Cover of bin 
must be made of two-inch by six-inch planed joists, placed 
eighteen inches on center, and nailed underneath with 'K-inch 
matched and boih sides dressed flooring. The lumber used for 
construction of bins must be thoroughly seasoned and dry hem- 
lock, and without any bad knots and other defects. Bin partitions 
must be perfectly plumb out and inside. Provide a trap door to 
each bin in floor of tower where shown with strong hinges and 
connect to wooden shaft going down into bins. Stairs will have 
iron stringers and railings furnished and put in place by another 
contractor, but carpenter must construct platform and furnish 
and solidly screw to iron brackets on stringers 1%-inch sound 
white oak treads. Platforms must be made in strongest manner 
0/ three-inch by six-inch planed joists secvitri-j ia^^tntd to iron 
stringers and covered with two-inch by io\ji-'TOt\i TOa.\tii*.4 ^\«ait 



BREWERY BUILDINGS. 363 

oak -flooring dressed on both sides. All required hardware to 
t^Ice the carpenter work complete must be furnished and put in 
'^'^Scc. Carpenter ipust build partition for office and closet and 
also brewmaster's office of two-inch by four-inch studs, sixlcen- 
inch center, sheathed' on brew-house side with %-inch matched 
flooring. Put shelves and ceiling into closet. Around Baudelot 
cooler, both sides to be finished with neat cornice panels, mould- 
it^, etc., plain but tasty. Baudelot cooler partition to have slid- 
ing sashes below and above platform. Doors to be sash doors. 
Posts, stiles, panels, rails, moldings, etc., of partitions to be of 
the best quality yellow pine. 

Uardviarc. AH required hardware to be imitation bronze (or as 
selected). After the cooler is erected, build platform, using four- 
inch by sixinch joists, planed four sides and floored with two- 
inch by eight-inch planks, planed four sides and laid with one- 
inch space between them. 

Rice Tub Platform. Build steps and platform for rice tub, as 
will be directed or as shown. 

Floor in oiHce to be made of four-inch by four-inch sleepers, 
Iwo-foot centers, sbcathcd with one-inch matched hemlock, then 
double tar paper and %-inch matched maple flooring. 

Ventilator over b-cw house to be built as shown on drawings in 
Strongest manner of Iwo-inch by four-inch studs spiked to roof 
joists and double two-inch by four-inch plate below the two-inch 
by four-inch ventilator rafters. Ceiling joists to be two inches by 
six inches. Rafters to be covered in same manner as roof joists. 
Ventilator to be sheathed out and inside with one-inch by six-inch 
matched and dressed fl 00 ring and have wuidows as shown. 



KEntlCERATOR 01 

Girder supporting part of stockhouse roof to be ten-inch by 
twelve-inch, Georgia pine planed with anchor and fastened to 
columns with heavy lag screws. Roof joisls 10 be three inches by 
twelve inches, planed and sized, placed eighteen inches on centers 
and two-inch by four-inch planed cross-bridging. Roof joists to 
be sheathed with one-inch by six-inch matched and dressed floor- 
ing, dressed side down. Provide five wooden stoppers for three- 
inch hose thimbles. Provide boxes ot Iwo-iTvcV ^Mw.i ■iVa'i. 
eight inches l>y eight inches in clear t\iiotts^ wa.\\^ d \cxTO«v';\tv'i. 
rotm, at shoyrn. to let out the carbonic aciA %a^. Tv^\ ^^^^^^ 



364 BREWERY BUlLDtNCS. 

for same. Furnish and put in treads and platform for fUus 
from fermenting to settling tub room, as described for brcp 
house. Build two scuttles two feet by two feel six inches, tweW'^ 
roof over vcniilatinE floor of settling tubs, and one. in lower 
roof over rice storage room with light, but strong, covers, hung 
on strong wrought iron hinges, and have all necessary fasteniiqt 
complete. 

BOILEK HOUSE. 

Build ventilator over boiler house as shown on drawings, in 
the strongest manner. Bottom plale to be of double two-inch by 
four-inch, screwed to beams with 9fi-inch bolts. Studs to be two 
inches by four inches, with double two-inch by four-inch ptate be- 
low. The two-inch by four-inch vcmilalor ratter braces to be two 
inches by four inches, ceiling joists 10 be two inches by six inches. 
Rafters to be covered in the same manner as roof joists over brew 
house. Vcnlil.itnr to be slicalhed out and inside with one-inch by 
six-inch matched and dressed flooring and have windows as 
shown. Ventilator will be shealhcd witli iron outside and inside. 



Root joists to be supported by two trusses. For si7cs of tim- 
bers, etc., sec drawings. All timber must be perfectly sound, 
thoroughly seasoned Georgia pine, free from Iitosc and large knots, 
cracks or other defects that will injure their slrcrgih. The nec- 
essary iron rods, washers, etc.. will be furnished by another 
contractor. Spikes and nails to be furnished liy carpenter. The 
trusses must be put together in the most careful and substantial 
manner and properly put in place. Bi'll a lliree-inch by eight- 
inch dressed limber lo members of trn-^cs, ns shown, to support 
roof joists. Bulls to be furnished by carpenter. Roof joists to 
Iw two inches hy eight inches placed righleen inches on centers. 
Ceiling joists to be two inches by six inches, eighteen inches on 
centers. Fonn a truss between rngf and ceiling joists of one-inch 
by four-inch stuff, as shown, every third joist. Studs for vcntila- 
o be two inches by four inches, iviih double two- 



inch by four- 
rafters. Braces to be tw 
iwo inches by six inches. 
Rafters ol vemiintor. i 
s^me manner as root joij 



below ihe two-inch by four-inch ventilator 
two inches by four inches. Ceiling joists 



■ BREWERV BUILDINGS. 365 

of YMitilator, as well as exposed parts of trusses and the ceiling 

jo^ts, to be sheathed with one-inch by six-inch matched and 

*'l!pessed flooring. Ventilator to have windows, as shown. Stairs 

to wash house to be made in same manner as brew house stairs. 

Girders supporting roof joists to be twelve inches by fourteen 
inches, planed, and to he connected with straps, as shown, where 
they butt against each other above column. Roof joists to be three 
inches by twelve inches, planed, placed eighteen inches on centers. 
Sheathing to be one-inch by six-inch matched and dressed floor- 
ing. 

Shipfing plalform to be built along brew house, as shown on 
drawing, in the strongest manner. Brackets to be constructed 
of eight-inch by eighl-inch and four-inch by eight-inch pieces, rest- 
ing on projecting stones and lirnily anchored to walls. Joists to 
be three inches by eight inches, floored with Georgia pine planks 
three inches thick and spaced ^-incli apart. Build stairs on both 
sides of platform, as shown, 

Slocb hotise parlition between racking room and chip-cask 
cellar, to be made of two-inch by four-inch studs, placed eighlcen 
inches on centers, flatways and sheathed on both sides with T^-iiich 
No. 1 common matched and dressed flooring. Provide two doors 
in partition made of double %-inch m.itched and dressed stuff, 
put together with double tarred paper between flooring, hnng to 
2ti-tRch frame, with proper butts and trimmcl with suitable 
Strong latch and pull. 

PAINTING. 

The contractor for painting and gla;ing nnisl provide and 
use all the necessary materials of every description, including 
glass, lead, oil, putty, varnish, sandpaper, ladders, scaffolding. 
ropes and all other things necessary for the perfonnancc of the 
work and do the same in a substantia! and workmanlike man- 
ner. All materials used must be of the best qnaliiy for their 
respective places. Clean off all woodwork before painting. Sand- 
paper smooth, prepare all parts properly before painting ihe 

AH knots, sap spots and other detects m wooi-wOTV i\\v\«i. ^«. 
cowered wi'ih a sfrong coat of sheUac \>«Votc ?.t\.UT.^ ftv-^ ^■**- 



366 BKKWKRy BUI 

coat. All planed inside and outside woodwork, includios f wini 1. 
which must be primed on all sides, all doors, sashes must*'ie- 
cetve two good coals of hard oil finish. Tin roof, gutters. do«n*«' 
spouts and flashing must be given two coats, the first ooat to be 
of mineral paint and to be put on after it has rained on the roof. 
Colors to be as directed by the owners. 

Painter must read over galvanized iron and carpenter Specifi- 
cations to see what work to include, and these spedfkations an 
to be considered a part of the specifications for painting. 

GLASS AND GLAZING. 

Furnish and put in place all required glass. Glass to be No. 
AA, double thick American glass, well bedded in putt;, sprigged 
and puttied up. All glass must be left clean and wliolc on com- 
pletion of the job. 

ROOFING. 

Cover the root boards with four-ply and one dry thickness 
of roofing felt in the following manner: Felt to be evenly and 
smoothly laid and cemented between cath sheet llic full width 
of lap iviih bcsl roofing asphalt, nioppi-d solid and covered with 
clean screened gravel, well embedded, not less llian ?i-inch thick. 

Roof must be guaranteed tor five yoars and al! defects arising 
froni poor workmanship or materials corrected wiihout charge 
or delfiy. On some of the buildings roofs will. lia\c to be cut 
in many places to allow ventilalion pipe:'. e:c., 10 be put in 
place, and contractor must iii.ike all necessary repairs for this 
porjfOie without charging anything e.\tra for it. 

HOLLOW TILE. 

All tht tile used must be good, hard-burned, hollow liles of 
luiiform color. They must be laid in good, sound bond, and the 
hollow spaces of tiles mn-t be virticai. Each lile must be 
clamped to its neighbor by galvani?fd iron clamps, and llic row 
next to wall to be fastened to wall by sjiikcs iti every second 
course. The ouicr row of tiles must be d.imped 10 ihe nearer 
tow. and clamps must be so formed as to also act as separators. 

.■Ml the tile w-ills must be laid in strong. dA.,n.?:ic cement inor- 
lar and be neatly pointed up in rooms whkU "nM tywi. V« ^'■''Stercd- 
fn fermenting and settling tub room tftes vcVW W \A»^\'^^'''^ *''A 



BREWERY BUILDINGS. 367 

mtut have rough lurface, all others to have smooth surface, 
bat contractor to confer about tliis wiih owners. 
, ' Chip-cask cellar, racking room, stock cellar, fermenting 
celUr: Double three-inch tile, two-inch air space. Settling tub 
room xnd hop storage: Triple three-inch tile, double two-inch air 
■pace. Mill partition : Single six-inch tile. The roof over boiler 
bouse will be covered with three-inch book tile between T-irons 
in same mortar as specified before. T-irons will be furnished and 
laid by another contractor. 

Titei which are not plastered on the exposed sidf should be 
glued. Air spaces should be filled with pitch. 

Separate bid to be given on filling the air space with insulat- 
ing material selected. 

TINNING. GALVANIZED AND CORRUGATED IRON 
WORK. 

All the tin used to be Carnmet brand, ten ounces to the square 
foot, well painted on underside before laying. All flashing to 
be done against walls, vcniilators, pipes, etc., in the most care- 
ful manner, so that roofs be absolutely waltrtight. Where down- 
spouts empty on lower roofs thirty-inch by thirty-inch striker 
plates must be placed on root and the pieces must have elbows 
on lower end. All down-spouts must lie made of No. 24 corru- 
gated galvanized iron. Where down-spouts connect to sewer 
extra heavy cast-iron pipes are to be used for the last ten feet. 
They must be well secured to. but not against, the walls, and be 
properly calked into sewer. 

Tin off roots of venliblors over ice machine house, brew house 
and boiler house. The mullion posts and sills lo be covered 
with galvanized iron No. 2Z. Molrlings.to be of galvani^ccd iron 
No. 24. All surfaces to be covered with corrugated galvanized 
iron No. 22. Cover the inside of iHiiler house ventilator with 
corrugated galvanized iron No. 22. Provide neat galvani:!ed iron 
cornice above windows and neat molilings around ventilator 
opening. Cover the pendant roof over shipping plalforin with ror- 
Tugatcd galvanized iron No. 16. The tower roof and dormer win- 
dows must be covered with best black slate. 

Two ventilation pipes of No. 16 galvanized iron for ^V.'Jk.V, 
houe, sixteen inches' diameter each, wittv Vwo cas^.-wow fet*^?. ^^.^ 
att-iron frames, doors eight inches bj c\ft\\\. "vfttVtt "w "^^"^^ 



368 BREWERY BUILDINGS. 

cellar, as shown. Two-inch by three-inch angle Iran collxr oa 
pipe in each floor and on roof. Two rcntilaiion pipes for Ikif 
room and ventilation floor to be twenty-four inches' dianletefV*' 
made of No. 16 galvanized iron. All these pipes to hare damper on 
ends and ventilator heads. Furnish and use the necessary gar 
ropes for same. Three ventilation pipes for top floor of stock 
house, as per diagram. Three scuttles, each two feet by two feet 
six inches, iwo in stocic house, one in tower. 

Two six-inch down-spouts for brew house, two six-inch diun- 
eter down-^pouli for wash house, two six-inch diameter down- 
spouts (or machine house, one six-inch diameter down-spont for 
boiler house, two six-inch diameter down-spouts for stock bouse 
and one five-inch diameter down-spout for stock house. Every 
down-spoul to have ten-inch by len-inch wall box through thir- 
lecn-inch wall with conductor head, overflow, etc., complete. 

Shcalh outside of malt bin with corrugated galvanized iron 
No. 22, galvanized iron to extend to walls. Galvanized iron 
must be lightly fastened to brick walls. Trapdoors above bins 
must be tinned. 

PLU.\IBIXG. 

All soil pipes must be four inches' diameter, extra heavy cast- 
iron tarred pipe, well coated on l>oth sides nnd of i!ie best quality, 
with all proper finings. .Ml pipes must be put up in the best 
and strongest maimer with iron hooks .ind stays, set up plumb 
and true, and the joints calked with oakum and melted lead. 
.•\!1 necessary elbows. Y-branclies. etc., mii-^t be furnished and 

.Ml cesspools must be constructed so as to secure water-tight 
conneciions with floors. • 

All connections lo sewer must be made with met.il. well caulked 
with oaknni and asphaltum or pitch. The soil pipes must have 
proper connections to cesspools and reach proper dislancc aht'vc 
roof. Above rnof, starling at bottom o£ roof joists, llic four- 
inch pipe must be increased to six-inch pipes. .Ml soil pipes in 
brew b"usc must have Y-branclies ciRliieen indies imder each 
t'.fior llicy pass for the reception of overllow? and wastes from 
brewery ulensils. Required are the foUowinj; soil pipes; 
Br.-n- //iVisi: — Two stacks of (o«r-\ncV\ v*?"^^- cuVewAvn^ (kjto 
seiit-r up through root. 




BHBWERY BUILDINGS. 



Slodt HMue.—Thne stacks of four-inch soil pipei, extendins 
Erain Mwer up through roof. 

•Wash Hotue.—Oat stack of four-inch soil pipes, extending 
from sewer np through roof. 

Ifachm* Hotut. — One stack of four-inch soil pipes, extending 
from sewer up through roof. 



ncbes by n 


ine inches, with 


inches by i 


line inches, with 


ispools, nin 


e inches by nine 



Required are the following cesspools : 

Brew HoMse. — Platform elevator pit, one (i) cesspool, nine 
inches bj nine inches, with bell trap. 

First floor, two cesspools, nine inches by nine inches, with 
bell traps. 

Second floor, two cesspools, nine inches by nine inches, with 
bell traps. 

Mash tub platform, one cesspool, nine inches by nine inches, 
with bell traps. 

Third floor, one cesspool, nine 
bell traps. 

Fourth floor, two cesspools, nint 
bell traps. 

Stock House. — First floor, two c 
inches, with bell traps. 

Racking room, one cesspool, thirl 
with bell traps. 

Second floor, two cesspools, 
bell traps. 

Third floor, two cesspools, r 
bell traps. 

Fourth floor, three cesspools, 
bell traps. 

Woih House. — First floor, two cesspools, thirteen inches by 
thirteen inches, with bell traps. 

Second floor, two cesspools, nine inches by nine inches, with 
bell traps. 

Mackme House. — First floor, four cesspools, nine inches by 
nine inches, with bell traps. 

Second floor, two cesspools, nine inches by nine inches, with 
bell traps. 

BMer House.— Two nine-inch by wnc-iwAv tcs^yi**^- -»C\*^ 
belt traps. 



n inches by thirteen inches, 
ic inches by nine inches, with 
: inches by nine inches, with 
nc inches fay nine inches, with 



37^ BREWERY BUILDINGS. 

CEMENT FLOORS. 

All the floors must be given the proper pitch by contractor, alU | 
grading or filling which may be necessary to bring the groawT 
to proper grade must be done and the ground must be solidly 
rammed down to make a solid foundation for the floor. Under 
the concrete a layer of cinders solidly rammed down most be 
placed by the contractor in specified thickness. 

All traps and cesspools must be set in proper height and place 
and the floors must be laid even, smooth and without any budcles 
or hollows and properly pitched toward gutters or cesspools. 
Around all walls, piers, columns, openings, etc., floor must be 
turned up at least one inch. Gutters must be properly formed 
where shown on drawings. The gangways must be high in cen- 
ter and slope to gutter and the edge of gutter toward gang- 
way must be % inch lower than the edge toward casks. Con- 
crete must be prepared in the following manner: One part of 
imported Portland cement and three parts of sharp and clean 
sand must be mixed, first dry. then water to be added, just 
enough to make it resemble damp earth, then add about six parts 
of broken stone not larger than to pass through a one-inch diame- 
ter ring. All must be thoroughly mixed. No ocean sand must be 
used, sand to be entirely free of salt. Concrete must be well 
rammed and fill out all spaces between the stones, and a film 
of thin mortar must cover the stones after ramming. The fin- 
ishing coat must be made of one part of imported Portland ce- 
ment and one-half part of clean sharp sand. Where no stone 
sills are provided, floors must be laid between openings. 

The ground floor to receive throe inches of cinders, five inches 
or three inches of concrete and a finishing coat one inch thick. 
The floors of ventilating lofts above settling tub room and hop 
storage to be laid with concrete made of sifted cinders and ce- 
ment in proportion of six parts sifted cinders to one part of im- 
ported ^Portland cement and to be eight inches thick over eye 
beams. 

First floor of stock house to have three inches cinders, five 
inches concrete and one inch finish. First floor of brew house, 
ice machine house and boiler house to have three inches cinders, 
three inches concrete and one inch finish. Ceiling of hop storage 
room and ceiling of settling tub room to have eight inches cinder 
concrete. Office floor ^ three inches cinder and \owt mcVv^s cvwdjer 



I 



BREWERY BUILDINGS. 37I 

concrete between four-inch by four-inch sleepers placed two feet 
on /Centers. 

PLASTERING. 

All tile walls and brick ceilings which are to be plastered will 
receive one coat; plastering must follow the curves of the brick 
arches. Surface must be rubbed to even surface. All corners 
and angles must be plumb, square and true. 

The mortar used for plastering must be made from one part 
of imported German Portland cement and four parts of good 
strong lime mortar. Contractor must find all necessary scaffold- 
ing, ladders, etc. Only sweet water sand to be used. All rub- 
bish belonging to plasterer must be removed on completion of job. 

Partitions of office and brcwmastcr's office to be lathed and 
plastered two coats, one of hair mortar and one finished as above 
described, and walls and ceilings of these two rooms to be plas- 
tered on brickwork. 

ASPHALT FLOORS. 

Gjncrete must be well rammed down and mortar must fill all 
spaces between stones. A film of thin mortar must cover the 
stones after ramming. Where no stone sills are provided floor 
must be laid between door-jambs, without extra charge. All 
cesspools to be set in proper place and made tight. Floors must 
be even and smooth and have proper pitch to cesspools. Gutters 
to be properly formed and cesspools to be set in right place. 

Floors must be turned up around walls, columns and openings 
at least one inch. Where the difference in connecting room is 
not above four inches contractor must provide easy inclines for 
the doors. Examine building plans and execute in accordance 
therewith. 

Floors, three inches concrete, one inch asphalt. Extra concrete 
under Baudelot cooler, beer tank and water tank. In mash tub 
platform, double tar paper, two inches concrete, % inch asphalt. 

Wash house floor, three inches cinders, four inches concrete, 
two inches asphalt. Hop storage, four inches cinder concrete. 
three inches concrete, one inch asphalt. Floor above, % inch 
asphalt. 

Natural Rock Asphalt. — Asphalt is a natural product, a bitu- 
minous limestone in which carbonate of lime and pure mineral 
bitumen are intimately combined \iy natural ^^cuo.^, \>cvt \k\Qk^<^\- 
tion averaging from six per cent bitumen and OA V^"^ ^^^"^ ^'*^ 



37^ BREWERY BUILDINGS. 

bonate of lime to twenty per cent bitumen to eighty per ceol ctr- 
bonate of lime. Bituminous rock asphalt is found in Kentadjv 
Utah, California, Limmer, near Hanover, Germany, Lobsannii^. 
Alsace, Neufchatel, Switzerland and France. Mineral bitumens 
are found on the British Island of Trinidad, West Indies; Ber- 
mudez in Venezuela; Barraquilla in Colombia, Central America. 
Bitumen, or so-called maltha, is also found very extensively in 
California. 

Bitumen to be good should be free from dross, non-evaporating, 
and contain no oil that will evaporate at 400 degrees Fahrenheit, 
and at 70 degrees Fahrenheit have the consistency of beeswax. 
Refined Trinidad pitch will always contain from 20 to 30 per 
cent of fine clay, nevertheless it is preferable as a fluxing ma- 
terial for melting natural rock asphalt mastic than some other 
short-6bercd bitumen chemically purer. Bitumen and mineral 
pilch arc interchangeable, but asphalt stands alone. 

The largest deposits so far known on the American continent, 
covering an area of some twelve miles square are situated in the 
Indian Territory, Arbuckle Mountains, the center of the conces- 
sion being Brunswick Station, three miles east of Dougherty, 
Indian Territory, on the Santa Fc Railroad. 

FLOORS OF BREWERIES^ STABLES, DRIVEWAYS, ETC. 

Under usual circumstances, one inch of rock asphalt, laid 
over a three-inch concrete foundation, will stand ordinary traffic 
for many years. 

For wash houses and racking cellars, a thickness of 1% inches, 
laid over a four-inch cement concrete foundation, is advisable. 

For residence cellars and floors, for light business purposes, 
%-inch asphalt, laid over three inches of concrete, will make 
an everlasting floor, and will cost only a trifle more than a 
floor made of cement. 

A square foot of asphalt one inch thick weighs about ten 
pounds; % inch thick, about 8Vj pounds. 

Advantages. — The chief good qualities of a first-rate asphalt 
mastic are its utter impcrviousness to water or dampness, and its 
elasticity, which prevents cracking, especially from the influence 
of frost. From a sanitary point of view also the advantages of 
an asphalt pavement are incontestable, for it possesses great anti- 
septic properties, and owing to its having no joints it is im- 
ptissible for pnrtides of animal or vcgclaVAe \w;v\.\cx Vo Vod^e in 



BREWERY BUILDINGS. 373 

crevices and putrefy. It greatly promotes cleanliness, as it can 
be easily washed, and for this reason it is invaluable in brew- 
eries, hospitals, morgues, slaughter houses, stables, waterclos- 
ets, etc. 

INSULATING INSIDE WALLS OF COLD STORAGE, 

STOCK HOUSES, ETC. 

The contractor of insulation work will include in his bid the 
coating, as indicated on plans. For all inside walls the material 
for this work shall be cither Trinidad or bitumen asphalt. This 
material is to be heated in regular asphalt kettles and applied to 
the walls while hot. The walls to be cleaned with a steel broom 
and all loose mortar, etc., to be removed before the coating is 
put on. ^ 

Contractor will not be allowed to carry on this work if walls 
are wet or damp, which will prevent the asphalt from binding to 
the walls. Contractor may use in connection with the above ma- 
terial a pure grade of bitumen for fluxing. The mixture should 
be prepared by competent laborers who have had experience in 
this line. The contractor shall see that a uniform mixture is 
kept for the full completion of said work. The coating to be of 
such consistency that when the temperature of the cellar is about 
at freezing point or under, the asphalt shall have sufl&cient 
elasticity, and that in case a higher temperature is kept up in the 
different rooms it remains of the same hardness. Nothing 
but experienced labor will be permitted on this job. and the con- 
tractor will be required to furnish evidence of the laborers so 
employed in this work, of their qualification, and to discharge 
any such person or laborer from said building if so requested 
by the owner or superintendent in charge. 

MISCELLANEOUS SPECIFICATIONS. 

As the specifications for following would be different for the 
various appliances, etc., to be installed, and as each manufacturer 
requires different conditions for operating or installing his de- 
vices, it is practically impossible to compile a general form of 
specification. The following items are, therefore, only such as 
apply generally, and are in nowise complete. Foi ^wOcv ^^nvl^^^ 
etc^ complete specifications are usually submilttd V*'^ \>cv^ ^\^^\«^n. 
iudden and vary much from each other. 



374 BREWERY BUILDINGS. 

REFRIGERATING MACHINE. 

All work called for in these specifications, or that may Ht 
necessary to make a complete plant, according to latest practice 
to refrigerating engineers, whether specified or not, must be fur- 
nished by the contractor, and all work and materials most be 
of the best for the purpose. Contractor must examine building 
plans and execute all work in accordance therewith. Plans and 
specifications are intended to co-operate. 

MACHINES. 

Furnish and erect on the foundations built by the owners, ac- 
cording to plans and template furnished by the contractor, the re- 
frigerating machines required. The machines are to have con- 
tract capacity when running at ordinary speed, which in no case 
must exceed (contractor mention speed) revolutions per minute. 
Foundation bolts to be furnished by the contractor for this work. 
State size and style of engine intended to drive the machine, also 
horse power required for operation of each. 

CONDENSERS WITH PAN. 

Ammonia condensers must be of the atmospheric style. Con- 
densers must be figured on the basis of one section per twelve 
tons, each section to consist of twenty-four two-inch 
pipes, each twenty feet long. Elach section to be provided with 
stop valve on the inlet and outlet. Pan for condensers to be 
made of V4-inch steel and twelve inches high and of suitable 
size. Provide slotted pipe gutters. Pan to have large strainer. 
Condenser room is located over ice machines. 

AMMONIA PIPING. 

The following rooms must be cooled by the direct expansion 
system, and contractor is to furnish and erect all the necessary 
first-class piping to keep the rooms at a temperature of 32 to 38 
degrees Fahrenheit all through the year. Rooms to be cooled arc 
as follows: Chip cask cellar, racking room, stock cellar, fer- 
menting room, settling tub room, hop storage room, ice storage 
room. 

Pipes in fermenting room must all be hung in the aisles and 
a)ong the walls and none over tubs. Pipes in racking room and 
Jmp storage must all be hung along lV\e v^aW?*. xV wooden gutter, 
'ned with galvanized iron, must be pTOvxAeA ww^^^t \\\t \C\^«&Vbl 
p storage. 



BREWERY BUILDINGS. 375 

BAUDELOT COOLER. 

■ The Upper part of the cooler will be made by another contractor. 
The lower, or ammonia, part of cooler must be made by the re- 
frigerating contractor, with necessary fittings for direct expan- 
sion. This lower portion must correspond in pattern to the pat- 
tern used by the coppersmith. Wort must be cooled from about 
75 degrees to 38 degrees Fahrenheit in two hours. 

ATTF.MPERATORS. 

Attemperators of the swivel pattern, made of one turn of two- 
inch pipe, must be furnished and connected to fermenting tubs, 
and the swivel joints placed outside the tubs, so that any leakage 
will not run into the wort. The brine, or sweet water, for all the 
attemperators to be taken from the attemperating tank furnished 
by owners. All connections to be made complete, including 
attemperating pump, rubber hose, valves, piping in tank, etc. 

AMMONIA. 

Contractor must furnish the ammonia for the first charge of 
system. Contractor must also furnish all the carpenter work 
that may be necessary in the erection of this plant, and clean 
out all rubbish made by him. He must also furnish two sets 
of foundation drawings and one set of pipe connection drawings. 
All ammonia and attcmperator connections must be made by the 
contractor, but owners will make all steam and water connec- 
tions. The temperature of the condensing water must be figured 
at not less than 75 degrees F. Contractor must state in his pro- 
posal the amount of water and coal used daily. Condenser pres- 
sure must not exceed 180 pounds, with the expansion pressure 
at 30 pounds per square inch. Around all moving parts of ma- 
chines brass rails must be erected. Contractor must guarantee his 
entire work and material for one year and make good any de- 
fects found in that time. After the machines have been tested 
and performed according to contract they must be neatly painted 
as may be directed by owners. Contractor must furnish a com- 
petent engineer for thirty days at his own expense to run the 
machines and instruct the man the owner may em^lov ;i.s» <txvs^\- 
nccr. He must supply a complete set oi >wTev\c\\e?» ^v\^ ^v^^ q>\>r^ 
toab that may be of special use. 



376 BREWERY BUILDINGS. 

MACHINERY AND MILLWRIGHT WORK. 

All of the machinery furnished to be of the best quality and pot 
up substantially and in workmanlike manner. AH of the work 
done to be of the best workmanship. All the machinery put up 
to be set in running order without any extra charge, complete in 
every respect and to be of the best improvements. All imperfect 
work or materials to be removed. All required timbers for 
posts, bridge tees, supports for hangers and other machinery to 
be furnished, as well as all required bolts for proper securing. 
All lumber to be of planed, clear white pine, dry and free from 
large knots, holes and windshakes. All pulleys for double belts 
to be flanged inside. All hangers and bearings to be self-oiling. 
All shafts to be of turned steel. Pulleys to be turned true, ImI- 
anced and painted. All hangers to be of extra heavy double 
braced pattern, fastened with strong bolts and cast-iron washers. 
All bearings to be babbitted with genuine babbitt metal. All 
machinery must be guaranteed for one year. State time you will 
need for setting up above machinery from day you receive the 
order to commence. 

STEAM ENGINE. 

Furnish and erect on the foundations built by the owners, 
according to plans and template furnished by the contractor, the 
(here specify the size and kind of) engine. Strong driving pulley 
on side. Foundation bolts must be furnished by contractor. 
State the size and make of the engine you intend to furnish. 
Furnish and set in place also one upright steam engine for wash 
house, and bring this engine in right speed connection with main 
shaft. 

MASH R.\CK. 

Furnish and set in place one right-hand improved hydraulic 
mash machine, with grains remover and step for bottom and top 
bearing. The step at bottom to be furnished to the tankmaker, 
who will put the same in. Deliver and set up one hydraulic 
pump in connection with rack. The upright shaft to be of steel. 

RICE RACK FOR RICE TUB. 

Furnish and set up in place one right-hand rice rack, with step 
for bottom and top bearing. The step at bottom to be furnished 
to the tankmaker, who will put same in. 

MALT MILL WITH WLE.U 

-Furnish and set in place one iron t\otv-ex^\os\\^ tv«\\. xoS\. 
Furnish on top of mill one reel, comp\ele, as s\vo>Ntv oiv ^twi- 



BREWERY BUILDINGS. 377 

iilgs, including driving shaft, bevel wheels and tight and loose 
polleys, dust chamber, etc., as usual. Provide magnets above 
mill to keep iron nails, etc., out. 

MALT ELEVATOR. 

The elevator legs and head (if of wood) to be made of i^-inch 
finished clear white pine, screwed together, and put in on every 
joint one iron plate two inches high; make the legs perfectly 
malt tight. 

GRAIN CONVEYOR. 

Conveyors must each have one extending shaft with tight and 
loose pulleys. 

SHAFTING. 

Shafts, hangers, pulleys, collars, wall boxes, pillow blocks, miter 
wheels, bevel wheels, friction clutches, etc., to be specified in de- 
tail I 

SPOUTS. 

Provide swivel spout from malt elevator to malt bins and 
also to the feed hopper above reel and from malt mill to meal 
scale hopper, and from this hopper to mash tub, made of No. i8 
galvanized iron, the latter to be provided with meal-tight slide 
and operating lever. The spouts from and to meal scale hopper 
are not to be fastened on to hopper, but made meal-tight by rub- 
ber. Provide spout from outside of building with feed hopper 
on top to malt elevator and make this removable. Provide the 
spout from grain valve to grain conveyor from galvanized iron. 
Provide cast-iron outlets for the two malt bins and connect to 
malt elevator. Have tight slides in these outlets and arrange 
transmission for opening these slides from the mill room up- 
stairs. 

SCALES 

For meal hopper will be furnished by another contractor, but 
unloaded from car, erected and connected complete by millwright. 

FINALLY. 

All cutting through floors and all walls to be done by the con- 
tractor of machinery, and sll millwright work. Furnish and put 
up all necessary posts, timbers, planks, etc., for hangers and 
supports for conveyors and provide the required belts and stirrugs 
for same^ all materials to be of the btsl ^\\3lb\\Vv ^^^ ^^'bVOs.-jcy^ 
workmanship, and the whole machinery lo W ^vA. >^V '^"ci %oo^ \v>J^- 



378 BREWBRY BUILDINGS. 

ning order before same will be accepted Provide cast-iron 
belt thimbles wherever belts pass through floors. The contractor 
shall be strictly held to do such work and to use such materials 
as above specified, and in cases where the drawings are figured 
the figures are to be taken in preference over what the scaling 
may show. He shall be further held to remove all improper 
work or materials upon being directed to do so by the superin- 
tendent or owner. The superintendent shall be at liberty to 
make any reasonable amount of alterations in the construction 
or execution, and will appraise and settle the cost of such in- 
creased and diminished work, which will be allowed . by the 
owners or the architects. It is strictly understood that the job 
must be delivered in running order and everything furnished and 
used by contractor for this purpose without any extra 
charge whatever. Owners will furnish the keg scrubber, 
shaving wash machine and filter mass wash machine, but con- 
tractor to submit separate bids on these machines, put up com- 
plete with belts, etc., in running order. 

COPPERSMITH AND TANK WORK. 

AH the materials used in the construction and completion of this 
job must be of first-class quality and all work done in good, sub- 
stantial and workmanlike manner, and everything to be done 
and furnished to make a perfect and finished job to the true in- 
tent and meaning of drawings and specifications. All the work 
to be erected complete and in running order in the brew house. 
All necessary openings to be made in all tanks which may be 
required for steam, water or other connections, even if rot 
specially mentioned hereafter and flanges of proper size to be 
furnished and put on. All copper must be of the best Lake Su- 
perior quality, well hammered and finished. All brass must be of 
the best metal and well finished and polished. All steel must 
be flange steel. All handling, moving and raising of tanks which 
may be necessary in the execution of other branches of the work 
to be done by the tankmaker. Contractor must also examine 
building plans. Give separate prices for each item and state the 
time it requires for setting up the work complete from date the 
order for erection is given. Also state the time it takes to get 
the materials ready for setting up from date of the closing of 
Mtf contract 



BREWERY BUILDINGS. 379 

FOUNDATION WORK FOR MACHINES. 

Do all necessary excavating which is required according to 
plans and refill when foundations are in. Superfluous ground 
to be distributed on premises. Concrete to be made of one part 
of Portland cement, three parts of sharp and clean sand, and 
six parts of broken stone well mixed and rammed. Bricks used 
. in foundations must be extra hard burned brick, laid in Portland 
cement mortar, composed of one part of Portland cement and 
three parts of sharp and clean sand. Ice machine bolts and 
template will be set by another contractor; shafts of bolts must 
be walled in loose, leaving four-inch by four-inch holes around 
same, and after machines are set on foundation, all bolt holes 
must be poured full with clear Portland cement mortar in liquid 
state. t 

Foundations for pumps, heater, etc., to be made of brickwork 
in the same way. All necessary capstones for foundations to be 
furnished and set. Plans for this work will be furnished by 
the different contractors. 

PIPING. 

STEAM PIPES. 

Make proper sized connections from steam drum across boilers 
to engine and ice machine. Run pipe up through brew house, 
branch off to hot water tank, kettle, mash tub and rice tub, make 
all connections to pumps and place a valve at each branch. Pro- 
vide ring around outside of mash tub and make inlets into tub 
with check valves. On brew kettle two-inch regulating valve, 
one-inch safety valve, %-inch vacuum valve, and a steam gauge. 
Condensation from brew kettle to go through a steam trap to the 
receiving tank in boiler house. Make steam connection to copper 
coil in hot water tank, condensation also to go to receiving tank, 
but without trap. All the pumps to be set up and connected with 
the proper size of pipes as required for respective size of pumps 
and valves to be placed at all pumps. Make also steam pipe con- 
nection to suction and discharge of beer pumps for cleaning out 
purposes. Run steam pipe to wash house. Branch off to keg 
washer, shaving washer, filtermass washer, combination cock as 
will be directed. 

EXHAUST PIPING. 

Provide 077e main exhaust pipe. ConneeV \\\t ^y.\v^w%V q>\'^^V5» '^^ 
engines, and collect exhaust from aU puw^^ \wVo \^. "^X^^^ N-^^'t 



380 ItKEWKfty BUILIMKGS. 

at all connections. The mam cxhaurt pipe to be connected to - 
heater, also to the steam condenser in ice plant, and to toil in 
hot water tank: From heater m» galvanized iron pipe to out- 
side of building and place exfaanst head on top. Make drip and 
Uow-off connections to iron blow-off basin. Connect blow-off 
from boilers to this basin and nm four-iach cast-iron ^pe to 
next catch basin. Make the proper drips for engines and pun^s. 
WATiK rats. 
Connect the discharge from boiler feed pump to heater and re- 
boiler complete. Form a discharge header of fonr-inch openings, 
one for each boiler, one for hot water tank, one for reboiler, each 
with separate valve. From these openings mn pipes separately 
to points named. Place safety valve near heater, connect com- 
plete, put on water gauge, overflow and vapor pipe. Connect suc- 
tion of boiler pump to water main, and to receiving tank. Con- 
nect the water pump and provide full-sized standpipc to top floor 
of brew house, also make connections lo all water tanks. Leave 
opening at each floor, with cock for hose connections. Make 
connections lo water tank, underlet (pfaff),.rice tub and water 
part of Baudclot cooler. Discharge water from Baudclol cooler 
into hot water lank and make provision also to run it into sewer. 
Put standpipe in stock house connected to water tank and pro- 
vide cocks for hose in each floor. Connect water pipe also 
to beer pumps in order lo force up Ihe last beer in pipes. Beer 
pipes lo be put logether with flanges, sO ihal they can be taken 
apart and cleaned. Connect one beer pump to grant and discharge 
into mash tub and also into rice tub, so that the water sprinkled 
over grain can be used for ihe next brew, aiid tiiakc suction 
to Baudclot cooler pan and discharge to settling tubs. Conned 
suction of large beer pump to hop-jack and discharge into beer 
tank. 

HOT WATER CONNECTIONS. 

Run pipe from hot water lank to mash tub pfaff. also to rice 
tub and ovcrsprinkler in mash tub and hop-jack. Make proper 
sized discharge from rice lank to mash tub with gate valve. Con- 
nect waste and overflow from all brewery tanks to soil pipes. 
Put up Ihermomeler on hoi water tank and ma>h tub. Provide 
scaies with fivimmcrs on water tanks. Furnish and erect one 

artesian or sliatlow well pump, as wiU be 4\Ttc\.e4, it\4 nu^ce. 

"roper connections to ammonia condensers. 




BREWERY BUILDINGS. 



Connect the suction pipe of air pump to outside of building and 
the dischai^ to chip cask cellar, and provide regulating vatve. 
Uake all necessary steam and water connections. to the artificial 
ice plant 

PIPE COVERINC 

Cover sides and bottom of the steam brewing kettle, sides of 
mash tub, rice tub and hot water tank, with the selected insulating 
material in the best approved manner. 

AH live steam pipes, elbows, etc., to be covered with sectional 
covering. Give prices for covering of tanks per square foot, and 
for pipe covering per lineal foot for the different sizes of pipes. 
LIGHTNING RODS. 

Contractor must give estimate on rods, 16 in thick, of solid 
twisted copper wires, and also on copper covered rods with iron 
or steel centers, not less than % inch diameter. Sections of rods 
must be screwed together with good copper connections, so as to 
make it continuous, and wherever branches are made a copper T 
burr must be used. All points must be of the bayonet pattern, 
gold-plated and platinum tips. All fasteners to be of malleaUe 
galvanized iron. All insulators to be of glass and large enough 
for the rod to pass through. Where rods enter the ground they 
must be encased in il4-inch gas pipes, not less than six feet 
long. Ground rods must be placed in trenches and extend not less 
than ten feet from building, and then penetrate the ground not 
less than ten feet perpendicularly. There must not be more than 
five points to one ground rod. No holes must be cut in roofs, 
bat ro<1s fastened to walls as much as possible. Where it becomes 
necessary to cross the roofs, two-inch by four-inch crosses to be 
used and fasteners and insulators placed on same. To tin and 
slate roofs fasteners must be screwed carefully, flashed around 
and solder run all around fasteners to make it perfectly water- 
tight. 

APPLIANCES AND APPARATUS. 

Specifications for following are obtained from their manufac- 
turers: Elevators and conveyors, pumps for boiler feed, racking 
off, mash tub vorlauf, cellar pumps, wort pumps, etc., hopper 
scales, belts, kettle, mash tub and support, copper false bottom and 
grant, hop-jack, rice tub, hot and cold water tanks, beer taat tix 
surface cooler, Baudelot cooler copper p»n., tiio^ii%^, -vi^v 
Aoiise and pitching machines, boilers and V>e»\.«ft, e:^««\«'i. \^■6^■' 



CHEMISTRY. 



Cfiemistry is that science which treats of such changes in bodies 
a; pcnnanently affect their properties; that is, produce new bodies. 
Chtmislry is generally divided into ;' 

"Synlhetica!" chemistry, which teaclies how the compound 
bodies are built up from simple bodies, and 

"Analy:ical" chemistry, which teaches how to decompose 
bodies into simpler substances. 

From ancient times the question has been debated whether 
matter could be divided into in6nitcly small particles, or only to a 
limited degree. We have no means of deciding such a question. 
It is, however, assumed that matter cannot be divided beyond 

"Atoms." To a particle of the smallest size in which mailer 
can exist, the name of atom has been given. 

''Molecules." Two or more atoms, held together by a force 
called "chemical affinity," constitute a molecule. 

"Masses." Two or more molecules, held together by a force 
called "cohesion." constitute a mass. A piece of chalk is a mass 
made up of billions of molecules, and each molecule of chalk is 
made up by the union of five atoms of three dilTcrcnt kinds. 
Matter, therefore, is made up of atoms, molecules and maises. 
Atoms do not exist alone. If an alom is separated from one 
molecule, it immediately joins other atoms and produces new 
molecules. 

"Compound Bodies" and "Elements." If all the atoms in a 
molecule arc of the same kind, the molecule is said to be a 
"simple" or "elementary molecule;" if the atoms arc of different 
kinds, ihc molecule is said to be "compound." Subst.inces whose 
molecules arc compound are called "comi>0'™*l jubilances." Of 
this kind arc most substances lound in t\a\«Te, is -KMei, ^V<yn.*\, 
38J 



CHEMISTRY. 383 

ntt and all the different substances that go to make up plants and 
animals. Substances whose molecules consist of only one kind 
of atoms are called "elements." Most of these are in combina- 
tions ; few only are found free in nature (native). Of this kind are 
carbon, sulphur, phosphorus and various metals, as gold, silver. 

Of these simple substances, or elements, a liKle over seventy 
are known. Many of them are very scarce and of no practical 
value. The most important of the elements are enumerated in the 
table on the next page. 

The elements, either by themselves or in a variety of combina- 
tions with each other, constitute the whole visible world. The 
variety of objects in nature is, therefore, more apparent than 
real. The air is a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen; water is a 
combination of oxygen and hydrogen; all plants and aninials 
are largely made up of four elements, viz., carbwi, oxygen, hydro- 
gen and nitrogen. 



CHEMICAL COMBINATION AND MECHANICAL UIXTVItE. 

In a mechanical mixture the several substances of which it is 
composed may be present in any ratio. Sand and lime may be 
mixed in different ratios, copper filings and iron tilings added 
together in varying quantities, and afterward the several sub- 
stances may be separated by mechanical means. The lime may be 
sifted from the sand, the iron filings withdrawn from the copper 
by means of a magnet. 

A chemical combination is far more intimate and of a different 
nature. If two substances enter into a chemical combination, 

atoms of the other substance into a molecule of a new substance, 
which has properties entirely different from those of the two 
original substances. 

If powdered sulphur is mixed with fine iron filings, the result 
is a mechanical mixture of sulphur and iron. With the help of 
a magnifying glass we can detect particles of iron and particles of 
sulphur in the mixture, and the iron can easily be separated from 
the sulphur by mechanical means. 

If, however, this same mixture is heated, then the suI^Kim to-sSv^ 
and is tliereby brought into closer contact "wifc ftw.'vt<w\, ot« ^\5«^ 
of sulphur lakes hold of one atom oi iron aT\4 iw^^ » ■rorfv>yL\* 



384 



CHEMISTRY. 



TABLE OF THE MOST IMPCHTTANT ELEMENTS^ WITH SYMB0L3 mM 

ATOMIC WEIGHTS. 

Name of Atomic 
Element — Symbol. Weight 

Oxygen O i6 

Hydrogen H i 

Nitrogen N 14 

Carbon C u 

Sulphur S 32 

Chlorine Cl 35.5 

Iodine I 127 

Bromine Br 80 

Fluorine F 19 

Phosphorus . . . . P 31 

Silicon Si 28 

Boron B 11 



"■ Mon-metallic Elements. 



Name of 
Element — Symbol. 

Potassium K 

Sodium Na 

Lithium Li 

Calcium Ca 

Barium Ba 

Strontium Sr 

Magnesium . . . .Mg 

Aluminum AI 

Beryllium Be 

Thorium Th 

Zirconium Zr 

Name of 
Element — Symbol. 

Iron Fe 

Manganese . . . Mn 

Chromium Cr 

Uranium U 

Cobalt Co 

Nickel Ni 

Zinc Zn 

Lead Pb 

Copper Cu 

Bismuth Bi 

Mercury Hg 

Silver -Ag 

Gold Au 

Platinum Pt 

Tin Sn 

Arsenic As 

Antimony Sb 



Atomic 
Weight 
39.1 
23 
7 
40 

137.4 
87.6 

24.4 
27.1 

9.4 

232.5 

90.6 

Atomic 

Weight. 

56 

55 
52.2 

239.4 
59.0 
58.8 

65.4 
207 
63.6 

210 
200 
108 

194.8 
119 

75 

I2p 



Light Metals. 



Heavy Metals. 



CHEMISTRY. 385 

of ft'^iew substance, called "sulphide of iron/' which resembles 
neither the iron nor the sulphur. In this new substance neither 
sulphur nor iron can be detected by any mechanical means. 

A chemical combination differs from a mechanical mixture in 
this, that the two or more substances which constitute a chemical 
combination unite in certain invariable ratios. Thus we find that 
if sulphur and iron combine, 56 parts by weight of iron unite with 
52 parts of sulphur' to produce 88 parts of sulphide of iron. 

If more iron is added, it is left out of the combination, and 
retains its original form. The fact that different elements unite 
in certain ratios only, has led to the acceptance of the theory of 
the existence of atoms. 

ATOMIC WEIGHTS. 

Atomic weights are the weights of the atoms of the different 
elements, compared to the lightest atom of them- all, that oi h^-' 
drogen , the weight of which is called iCAn atom of iron is 56 
times as heavy as an atom of hydrogen, and an atom of sulphur 
32 times the weight of the hydrogen atom, hence the atomic 
weight of iron is said to be 56 and of sulphur 32. If sulphur and 
iron unite, one atom of iron combining with one atom of sulphur, 
the weight of the iron is to the weight of the sulphur as 56 is to 
32; that is, in a combination of this kind, between sulphur and 
iron, every 56 pounds of iron and 32 pounds of sulphur make up 
88 pounds of the compound. 

SYMBOLS. 

Instead of the full names of the elements, symbols are generally 
used to represent them, being, in most cases, the first letters of 
the Latin equivalents of their names. 

NON-METALLIC ELEMENTS. 

Oxygen. Atomic weight, 16, Symbol O. 

Oxygen is the most important of all elements. It sustains ani- 
mal life and all ordinary combustion. In a free state, that is, not 
combined with any other clement, it is found in the air of which it 
constitutes one-fifth part. Pure oxygen is, like air, a colorless, 
odorless and tasteless gas. Bodies which burn in air, burn with 
much greater energy and brilliancy in pure oxygen. 

Oxidation, — If a substance burns, or undergoes combustion, 
it unites chemically with oxygen. The butul Vk>^^ \^ ^;iA^ VCk\^^ 
"oxidized. " Tlic ordinary burning o£ coa\ tnaxV.^ ^ Ocvtvcvv^^ v^vcv- 

25 



386 CHEWSTBY. 

Unation between tbe coal (or carbon) and oxygen. TM-oev 
body which results is called carbonic add gas. The fact that tUa 
new body is a gas, makes it appear as if the coal had been de- 
stroyed in burning. Snch is, however, not the case. Every par- 
ticle of the coal is found, after the burning, in the carbonic acid 
gas produced by comboation. Every la poands of coal give ^4 
pounds of carbonic add gas. 

"Slow Combustion." — Combustion is not always accompanied 
by great heat and light. Coal (or carbon) can bum at a low 
temperature as completely as at a high. Respiration in animals 
is combustion of (his type, daring which the carbon in the blood 
is burnt at a temperature of 98* F. It is this slow combustion that 
generates heat in the animal body. 

Oxygen being present almost everywhere, acts upon nearly all 
bodies, producing modifications. The decay of plants, the cor- 
rosion of metals, are changes of a similar nature to combustion. 
HYtmoGEM. — Atomic weight I, Symbol H. 

Hydrogen, like oxygen, is a colorless, tasteless, and odorless 
gas. It is the lightest of all elements, fourteen times lighter than 
air, the weight of its atom is therefore taken as a unit. Hydrogen 
is not found in a free state; wherever it occurs in nature it is 
always combined with some other element. 

Such a combination is water, which is composed of I part by 
weiglit, of hydrogen and 8 parts by weight, of oxygen. An elec- 
tric current conducted through water will decompose it. At the 
negative pole of the battery, that is. where the wire from the 
7inc-plate is immersed in the water, hydrogen is generated, and 
at the positive pole, that is, where the wire from the coppcr-plate 
dips into the water, oxygen is disengaged. If the two gases are 
collected in graduated jars, it is found that the volume of hydro- 
gen is twice as large as that of oxygen. .\s equal volumes of 
gases under equal pri^ssure and at the same temperature contain 
equal numbers of molecules, it follows that water contains two 
atoms of hydrogen combined with everj- single aloni of oxygen. 

To express this ratio between the atoms in the different com- 
pound bodies, chemistry uses certain formula; in which each atom 
is expressed by the symbol of the clement. Thus the chemical 
formula of water is H:0, signifj-ing that twn atoms of hyilrngen 
■Te combined with one atom ol oxygen. T\\e aVomvc -JitA^VvH «f 
hj-drogcn being 1, and of oxygen \t. rtve toTmxAi Ava \nS\cA>» 



CHEMISTRY. 387 

thKnn a certain quantity of water, the weight of the hydrogen is 
to the weight of the oxygen as 2 is to 16, or as 1 ts to 8. Nine 
pounds of water, therefore, contain 8 pounds of oxygen and 1 
pound of hydrogen. 

Hjrdrogen gas burns in air with a pale, blue Hame, that is, it 
unitei with the oxygen of the air, and the product of the combus- 
tion is water. It can thus be said that water is burnt hydrogen 
in the same sense as carbonic acid can be said to be burnt coal. 
The two gases, hydrogen and oxygen can be mixed at ordinary 
temperature and kept in a vessel for any length of time without 
combining. That means that al ordinary temperature the mole- 
cules of oxygen and the molecules of hydrogen move around 
each other without any cliange taking place in either. But if 
the mixture of the two gases conies in contact with a Hamc, 
i. i., a burning match or an electric spark, the molecules in the 
immediate neighborhood of the hot body open up, the atoms of the 
oxygen and hydrogen molecules are set free, and two hydrogen 
atoms immcdialcly juin one oxygen atom, forming a new mole- 
cule, which consists of the two elements of hydrogen and oxygen. 
In this process a great deal of energy or heat is generated, 
which causes the next molecule to undergo a similar change, and 
10 the movement is Iransiuitted through the whole mass of gas. 
This movement is instantaneous. If a mixture of hydrogen 
and oxygen is ignited, an explosion takes place. If there is twice 
the volume of hydrogen as of oxygen, there will be produced a 
weight of steam exactly equal to that of the two masses of gas 
together. Two cubic feet of hydrogen gas weigh — at ordinary 
air pressure and temperature — about 0.173 ounces; one cubic foot 
of oxygen, under like circumstances, weighs 1.3S ounces, [f 
these two volumes o( the gases arc mixed and i);nited, and the 
resulting steam condensed, it will be found that the water weighs 
1.38 oz. -I- 0.173 oz., or I.S53 oz. 

A high temperature facilitates chemical combustion in many 
cases. Coal may. at ordinary temperature, lie exposed to the 
air for a long period, without undergoing any pcrccjitiblc ch^itific. 
But if healed to red heat it combines rapidly with oxygen, giving 
off carbonic acid gas. 

The solid carbon, by combining with OM^en %^«„ Ws.Ov.Wiw.iTO.nt 
a gas, whereas (he gra.scotis hydrogen, by cnmVmXwi •«\'Cft crt.-sW:' 
gas, turns into a flii/rf. 



388 CHEUISTRY. 

NmracEN. — AtcHiiic weight i^, Symbol N, ■- 

Nitrogen is also a colorless and odorless gas. Mixed with , 
oxygen it makes up ihe atmosphiire, which rcnsisls ot about % 
nilrogen and K oxygen, together with a small quantity of carbonic 
acid gas. Unlike oxygen, nitrogen does not readily enter into 
combinations with many other elements. In an atmosphere of 
nilrogen aloiie, there could be no combustion, as neither coal nor 
hydrogen, nor any of the metals, even it heated lo a high tempera- 
ture (as by 3 powerful electric current) will unite with nitrogen. 

For the same reason nitrogen cannot support animal life. In 
the process of respiration the nitrogen of tlie air taken into the 
lungs is cxh.iled wnchanged, only the oxygen being absorbed by 
Ihe body. If a large number of people are crowded in a room 
which is without ventilation, a feeling of suffocation is soon ex- 
perienced, which is caused by the decrease of oxygen. It the 
amount oi oxygen in air is reduced lo a ren.'iin limit, a candle 
will not burn in such an .ilniusphcrc. r.s the nitrogen cannot 
sustain combustion. 

Neverlliclcss, nilrogen enters largely into the composition of 
vegetable and, slill more, of animal >^u(ist.ince«. Plants and ani- 
mals are mainly composed of oxjgen, liydrngcii. nitrogen and 
carbon. Plants receive their oxygen ami hj'lrogcn from water. 
the c.irlK>n from the carlxinic acid of the air, and the nitrogen from 
a suhilnncc called "ammonia," which is a combination of hydrogen 
and nilrogen, and is ahvay? [irc-icnt in the ?i'il. 

When plants die and decay, these ,-ainc substances, water, am- 



gcii aiul !■ 



acid, are all rcKascd fr. 


1. the more compK- 


in the plant!, and rcii 


le their elemcntat; 


nia of the dying plant is 


to some extent ab- 


nd Rives ivmri^htnent to 


a new crop. After 


ve .lii.rived the soil oi 


lartr-.' share of the 


cd. the dctioicncy mun I' 


made up by intro- 


ncc lh.it is rich in ai;:m 


■nia. such as stable 


is also produced when 


cal i-i distilled for 


gas. Coal contain? snia! 


qu.iniitie.s ot hydro- 


and in ihi- h>nt t.t .h-;ill 


t\.n Ihiv unite and 


ihich c(.lle.-ls ii: the watc 


'.hr..ut:b which the 


led, Fr.-.ra thi' ^.™icv e 


^\\^(■i \\w \ai?.t«.^tt 



CHEMISTRY. 389 

UMer ordinary air pressure and temperature, ammonia is a 

. gu possessing a strong, puiigent odor. Water absorbs large 

quantities oi ammonia and acquires the odor of the gas. This 

solution of ammonia gas is called "ammonia water," or "aqua 

ammonia." 

UQUID AMMONIA. 

Ammonia gas can be condensed to a fluid by cooling it below 

—40° F., or by subjecting it to a pressure of 60 pounds per square 
inch at a temperature of 32° P. 1( this liquid ammonia is 
exposed to any temperature above — 40° F. or the pressure on it 
removed, it comes 10 a boil. If a thermometer is held in the boil- 
ing liquid it sinks to nearly —29° F. The heat consumed in 
keeping up the boiling is taken from the adjoining objects, which 
are thereby cooled to a low tcmpcrainr«. On this observation 
is based the use of liquid ammonia for producing artificial ice 
and for cooling purposes. 

When nitrogen and hydrogeti combine to form ammonia one 
volume of nitrogen unites with three volumes of hydrogen, hence 
(he chemical formula of ammonia is NHj. As the :itoniic weight 
of nitrogen is 14 and of hydrogen i, the formula also indicates 
that 14 parts, by weight, of nitrogen, combine with 3 parts of 
hydrogen, to create 17 parts 



Nitrogen can also be made to combine with oxygen, although 
with ditncully. If electric sparks are passed through a moist mix- 
ture of nitrogen and oxygen, these two gases combine with each 
other and the water into a substance called "nitric acid," a color- 
less corrosive t!uid. which dissolves nearly all metals. 

If a piece of copper is dropped inio nitric acid, red fumes are 
generated, the fluid assumes a blue color and after awhile the 
C(q>per has disappeared. If the resulting blue solution is evapof' 
ated slowly, blue crystals bi'gin to form. These crystals are a 
combinalion of copper and nitric acid. 



Such a substance as ts formed by tlic action of an acid on a 
metal is called a sail. A salt is l^amcd itom X\\c tiw.\,A ^tvi >\\?. 
Mcjd that enter into its make-iip, Th«s \\it a.\»\e. iM^t'iwA 
talt is called "nitrate of copper." 



3SK> CHEMISTRY. ^ . 

In Northern Peru are found beds of great extent, comiihf 
of a salt called Chili saltpetre. This salt is a combination of fH^h. 
metal sodium and nitric acid, and its chemical name is ''nitrate 
of sodium." This salt is used lor the manufacture of nitric add. 

Cakbon. — ^Atomic weight 12, Symbd C 

The element of carbon is found in a pure state in two distinct 
forms, as diamond and as graphite or plumbago. Ordinary coal 
and charcoal is carbon, a small part of which is combined with 
hydrogen and nitrogen, and mixed with mineral substances which 
remain behind as ashes, when the coal is burnt Carbon also con- 
stitutes a large share of all animal and vegetable matter. I! 
such substances, f. i., meat and wood, are heated in closed vessels, 
the volatile parts, such as water, ammonia, etc., are expelled 
and the charcoal remains behind. 

CARBONIC ACia 

If carbon is heated in oxygen or air, it bums, that is, it unites 
with oxygen. The new substance which is formed by the chemi- 
cal combination of the two elements, carbon and oxygen, is, under 
ordinary circumstances, a gas called carbonic acid. It consists 
of 12 parts, by weight, of carbon and 32 parts of oxygen. Its 
chemical formula is COs, expressing that one atom of carbon has 
taken up two atoms of oxygen. The coal tliat apparently disap- 
peared during combustion, has in reality formed a new body, 
which weighs more than three and one-half times as much as the 
coal. 

Carbonic acid, also called carbon dioxide, is a colorless gas, of 
an agreeable, pungent taste and smell. It is 1% times as heavy 
as air. The gas is very injurious to animal life, when taken 
through the respiratory organs, even if diluted with air. A 
lighted candle is instantly extinguished in carbonic acid gas, for, 
although it contains much oxygen, this oxygen is already united 
with all the carbon it can consume. 

Water of 63.5** F. absorbs a volume of carbonic acid equal to 
its own, whatever be the density of the gas. Under heavy pres- 
sure water can. therefore, be charged with large quantities of the 
gas (soda water). 

Carbonic add is found in the air in small quantities (4 volumes 
0/ carbonic acid gas in 10,000 volumes oi a\0 ♦ "^X^tvVs Vv^n^ the 
power 0/ absorbing this carbonic acid oi lV\e ^\t, ^tv^/vtv v\v^ %:>mv- 



CHEMISTRY. 39 1 

Ii^|Sr*<iissociating it, retaining the carbon and exhaling the 
.OKygen. As the animals inhale oxygen and exhale carbonic 
' add, the respiration of plants and animals is interdependent and 
reciprocally corrects itself. 

Carbonic acid is also generated in large quantities in the process 
of fermentation. The sugar in the wort is composed of three 
elements: carbon, oxygen and hydrogen. By the action of yeast 
the sugar is broken down, and part of its carbon and oxygen unite 
to produce carbonic acid. Thus fermentation affords an example 
of a slow combustion of carbon, a combustion without light, but 
not without heat, as the temperature of the wort rises considerably 
during fermentation. A small portion of the carbonic acid formed 
during fermentation remains in the beer, imparting to it the 
prickling taste and causing it to foam by escaping under reduced 
pressure. 

By great pressure and cooling, carbonic acid gas can be com- 
pressed into a liquid, colorless and lighter than water. If the 
pressure is released and the liquid allowed to be volatilized, in- 
tense cold is produced. 

Sulphur — Atomic weight 32, Symbol S. 

The element of sulphur is often found in nature in a free 
state, that is, not combined with any other element. 

If sulphur is heated without contact with air it melts at 232** F., 
and boils at 800** F. If the vapors are conducted into a cold 
place, it condenses to a fine flour called flower of sulphur. On 
the other hand, if sulphur is heated in air, it ignites and bums 
with a pale, blue flame. The sulphur disappears in a similar way 
as burning coal, and the reason is that here, also, the product of 
combustion is a gas. This gas has a strongly suffocating odor, 
and extinguishes a flame. The gas is called sulphurous acid. 

SULPHUROUS ACID OR SULPHUR DIOXIDE. 

The disinfecting property of this gas has been known from time 
immemorial. Being an acid, the gas can combine with several 
metals forming salts, and it is in this form that it is mostly used 
nowadays. These salts are called "sulphites," and the ones most 
commonly used arc "bisulphite of sodium," "bisulphite of lime" 
and "meta-bisulphite of potassium" (K. M. S., or "Kallutti Mata.- 
Svlphite"). Sulphiirous acid gas also \v2La \>\^^Ocvvcv% ^xq^^\<\^^\ 
used for Improving the color and kcepm^ ^w?\\V^ ^V V^^'s* '^'^v^ 



392 CHEMISTRY. ^ 

sometimes to fraudulently "improve" the color of damagea ^u*- 

Tey. A red colored flower, if exposed to the gas, is quid^ 

bleached white. 

SULPHURIC Acia 

With the aid of nitric acid fumes and steam, sulphurous acid can 
be made to take up more oxygen and changed to a new acid, called 
sulphuric acid, or oil of vitriol. Like nitric acid, sulphuric add 
is a very corrosive fluid, colorless, when pure, and nearly twice as 
heavy as water. It also dissolves most metals, forming salts 
that are called "sulphates." Iron, dissolved in sulphuric acid, 
thus gives sulphate of iron (green vitriol) ; copper and sulphuric 
acid give sulphate of copper (blue vitriol) ; lime and the acid 
form sulphate of lime (plaster of Paris, gypsum). 

Sulphur also combines with hydrogen, producing a gas called 
sulphuretted hydrogen, which has the odor of rotten eggs, and 
is generally contained in sewer gas. 

Chlorine — Atomic weight 35.5, Symbol CI. 

Chlorine is a heavy, greenish-yellow gas, strongly suffocating 
and poisonous. It combines with hydrogen into a colorless, cor- 
rosive gas, called "hydrochloric acid." Like sulphuric and nitric 
acid, it dissolves most metals and forms salts which are called 
"chlorides." Common table salt is a combination of this acid 
and the metal sodium, and the chemical name of table salt is 
chloride of sodium. The three acids, sulphuric, nitric and hydro- 
chloric (or, as it is called, muriatic) are manufactured in enor- 
mous quantities and used for various industrial purposes. 

Bromine — Atomic weight 79.96, Symbol Br. 

Bromine is a heavy brownish-red liquid, which at ordinary 
temperature gives off red vapors of a strongly suffocating odor. 
Combined with metals, this element forms salts which are called 
"bromides." Bromide of potassium is largely used as a nerve 
tonic. 

Iodine — .Atomic weight 127, Symbol I. 

Iodine is a solid body of a bluish-black color. When heated it 

boils at 347 • F. The vapor has a beautiful violet color. It is in 

many respects like chlorine and by uniting with metals produces 

salts that are caJJed "iodides." With the potassium metal it 

forms iodide of potassium, a salt that in apveaiT^wc^ \% n^xn much 

//X-e- common table saJt 



CHEMISTRY. 393 

A*soIution of this salt in water has the power of dissolving 
. -'4bdinc to a dark red solution, which is called "iodine solution," 
and is used to detect starch. If a drop of iodine solution is 
introduced into a cold solution of starch, a deep blue color is pro- 
duced by a combination • of iodine with starch. Very small 
amounts of starch in wort or beer can be detected by means of 
this solution. 

Fluorine — Atomic weight 19, Symbol Fl. 

Fluorine can hardly be isolated at all, as it attacks, and com- 
bines with, nearly all other bodies. It is very similar to chlorine, 
very poisonous and corrosive. With ammonia it forms a salt 
called "acid fluoride of ammonium," which is used as an anti- 
septic. The magnesia and lime salts being insoluble, the soluble 
fluorides may be used as boiler compounds. 

Phosphorus — Atomic weight 31, Symbol P. 

Phosphorus is a yellowish-white substance, very much like wax. 
It is very inflammable and poisonous. When heated it burns with 
a bright flame and unites with oxygen to a substance called "phos- 
phoric acid." Phosphoric acid enters into combination with 
many of the metals and the resulting salts are called "phosphates." 
Most of them are insoluble, like the phosphates of lime and mag- 
nesia; hence, the soluble phosphates, like that of soda, can be em- 
ployed as boiler compounds. The phosphates are taken up from 
the soil by the plants, and from the plants they pass into the bodies 
of animals. Phosphates are a necessary nutriment for both ani- 
mals and plants. They can be used to strengthen yeast. 

Silicon — Atomic weight 28. Symbol Si. 

The element of silicon is never found as such in nature. 
United with oxygen, however, it is a very abundant substance. 
and of great importance. All rocks and mineral masses of which 
the surface of the earth is made up, are largely composed of 
silica, which is the element silicon combined with oxygen accord- 
ing to the chemical formula SiOs, that is, containing 28 parts 
of silicon and 32 parts of oxygen. 

Silica is taken up by plants and is found in the straw and hull 
of grain. 

Boron — Atomic weight 11, Symbol B. 

Boron is contained in borax, a sa\l \oww^ *vc\ Kiv^., Sv^nx^x 
America, California and Italy. Ordmat^ >x>xa^ \^ ^ ^wc^a^s^a2C^si 



of aodinui and bonck add. It u largdr cm^oycd u a jfnamf- 

live for meats, fruiti, etc, for aoldering, for softening hariW- 
watCTs, and in place of so^ 

THE METALS. 

The Mcond and larger gnmp of dements, which are embraced 
[■nder the name of metals, is generally divided into two rls^tn, 
vie: "The light metals," of which the most important arc potas- 
sium, Eodinin, calcium, magnesium and aluminum, and "the heavy 
metals," the best known of which are iron, manganese, nickel, 
zinc, lead, copper, mercury, silver, gold and platinum. 

Of the light metals only magnesium and aliuninum are of con- 
siderable importance, in a metallic state. Potassium, sodium and 
calcium are mostly used in the form of oxides or as salts. 

The heavy metals, on the contrary, are of the greatest import- 
ance in the metallic state. 

LIGHT METALS. 
Potassium— Atomic weight 39.1, Symbol K. 

The metal of potassium is white and soft ; it is lighter than 
water, its specific gravity being only 0.86. Upon exposure to the 
air it combines directly with oxygen and forms oxide of potas- 
sinm. The chemical fonnula of this substance is KiO, indicating 
that two atoms of the metal unite wilh one atom of oxygen, or, by 
weight, 2 X 39-1 or 78.3 parts of potassium with 16 parts of oxy- 
gen. 

If potassium metal is thrown upon water it takes fire and burns 
with a purple flame. It is the oxygen of the water that unites 
with the metal; the hydrogen of the water is thus set free .ind 
ignited by the heat developed by the combination of the metal 
and the oxygen. The resulting oxide of potassium is dissolved 
in the water and when the water is evaporated there remains a 
white substance called potassium hydrate or, generally, caustic 
potash. As the potassium metal is oxidized both in the air and 
in water, it is kept in naphtha, a substance that does not contain 
any oxygen. 

Potassium forms salts with the different acids. The most 
important ol these are; 
"Carbonate of potassium," extracted Itom l\w a»\ves lA 9\m\%. 
The crude product is the pearlash, or crude iioWati ol (1 



CHEMISTRY. 395 

''Nitrate of potassium," or saltpetre, used in the manufacture 
cf " gunpowder. 
"Meta- Sulphite of Potas'^ium" used as an antiseptic. 

Sodium — Atomic weight 23, Symbol Na. 

The metal of sodium is in nearly all respects like potassium. 
It is a very abundant clement. Like potassium it oxidizes very 
rapidly in the air, takes fire when thrown upon water, and then 
forms "caustic soda." The most important sodium salts are: 

''Carbonate of Soda/' manufactured in great quantities from 
common salt. It is sometimes found in natural waters, which are 
then said to be alkaline. Such waters arc unfit for brewing. 

"Soda Ash" is a crude product obtained from the sulphate of 
soda used in the production of carbonate of soda, containing. 
besides carbonate of soda, also caustic soda, sulphate of soda, 
and common salt. 

"Bicarbonate of Soda," produced by charging carbonate of soda 
with more carbonic acid. 

"Chloride of Sodium," or Common Salt, which is found in nat- 
ure dissolved in the water of the ocean and also occurs in solid 
beds in many parts of the world. 

"Sulphate of Soda." often contained in water, acts as an aperi- 
ent (Glauber salts). 

"Sulphite of Sodium," a combination of sulphurous acid (50 
per cent) with sodium, and 

"Bisulphite of Sodium," containing still more sulphurous acid 
(over 60 per cent) are both used as antiseptics. 

"Phosphate of Sodium" is a combination of phosphoric acid 
and sodium. By adding caustic soda to a solution of this salt, 
another phosphate is obtained which is called "trisodium phos- 
phate," and is used as a boiler compound, or for softening hard 
water. Fluoride of sodium, carbonate of sodium (soda ash) and 
caustic soda may also be used for this purpose. 

AMMONIU.M — Atomic weight 18, Symbol NHi. 

Ammonium is not an element, but a compound body called a 
radical, which acts like an element. It cannot exist alone, as 
it would immediately fall apart into hydrogen gas (H), and so- 
called ammonia-gas (NHa). 
This radical (ammomum) combines vj\\.\\ ?ica^s ^\ci^^^.oxs% 
salts which, in many respects, arc simWaiT Vo VVv^ cciw^is^crcv^ 



3g6 CHBH ISTBY. ^ --^ 

ing salts of potauinm and aodiain. The moct common a win dli to n 
salU arc the following: ^W 

"Cbloride of Ammoniam," or "Sal- Ammoniac," obtained from 
the gas water of gas works. 

"Carbonate of Ammoniam,** or salt of hartstiom, obtained 
by the dry distillation of bone and other animal matter. &n be 
used to strengthen yeast. 

Calciuu— Abxnic weight 40^ Symbol Ca. 

Calctnm is one of the most abundant of the metals, but sever 
occurs in a free state. The metal is yellow, its specific g ra yilj 
1.58. When heated it bums with a bright light to a white pow- 
der, which is "oxide of calcium," or "burnt lime" (CaO). 
When this is moistened with water, it slacks with great violestce, 
giving off a large amount of heal and crumbling to a soft, white 
powder. This "slack lime" is a chemical combination of the oxide 
of calcium, CaO. and water, HX>, and its formula is Ca(OH)i. 
It is soluble in water to a certain extent, the solution being called 
"limewaler." 

Burnt lime unites with carbonic acid and produces "carbonate 
of lime," which, as limestone or marble, makes up wh<rie moun- 
tain ranges. It is slightly soluble in water. When heated to 
red heat the carbonic acid is expelled, and burnt lime is left 
behind. Although nearly insoluble in water, carbonate of 
lime is taken up by water containing carbonic acid. Since rain- 
water, falling through the air or passing through the soil, b 
charged with carbonic acid, most natural waters, like those of 
springs, rivers and lakes, contain lime. 

Such waters, containing large amounts of carbonate of lime 
in solution, are called hard waters. The lime in llic water is in 
the form of the bicarbonate, which differs front the carbonate by 
containing more carbonic acid. 

The property of water caused by carbonalt of lime is called 
"temporary hardness." since it can be diminished by boiling the 
water. If hard water is boiled one part of carbonic acid escapes 
from every molecule, changing the soluble bicarbonate of lime 
to the insoluble carbonate, which is precipitated as a whl'.c pow- 
der. Boilers in which such water is heated soon becimie lined 
ifilA .1 stony crust, generally called "boiler scale." 
"Sulphate of lime" is a combinatioTv oi Wttit aw4 wi\vVMf\t -wiA. 
">d is found in some localities in laige qvianttoes, coTO^mti «VOti 



CHEMISTRY. 39/ 

• 

waM* as gypsum. Plas'ter of Paris is burnt gypsum, or gypsum 
^ ffccd from water. When plaster of Paris is moistened it takes 
up water again and forms gypsum. Being slightly soluble in wa- 
^cr, gypsum is also found in many natural waters. 

''Bisulphite of Lime. When sulphurous acid gas is led into 
limewater, or milk of lime, it is speedily absorbed, thereby form- 
ing bisulphite of lime, which is a strong disinfectant. 

Magnesium — Atomic weight 24, Symbol Mg. 

The metal of magnesium is white and light of weight. When 
ignited it burns with a dazzling, bluish- white light to a white pow- 
der» which is oxide of magnesium. In a natural state magnesium 
often accompanies lime. Thus, it is found together with lime- 
stone as carbonate of magnesium, and in many natural waters as 
bicarbonate of magncsiuin, producing hardness like the lime 
salt. When such water is boiled, the bicarbonate of magnesium is 
precipitated and becomes carbonate of magnesium. 

Aluminum — Atomic >veight 27.1, Symbol Al. 

Aluminum is very abundant in nature. Combined with silica it 
forms many minerals, and it is a constituent of the various modi- 
fications of clay. The metal of aluminum is nearly as white as 
silver and very light, its specific gravity being 2.6, whereas that 
of silver is 10.5. It is not poisonous. Weak acids do not affect 
it, which makes it suitable for cooking utensils or receptacles for 
food and beverages. 

"Oxide of Aluminum," or the burnt metal, also called alumina 
constitutes the greater part of clay. 

"Alum" is a combination of sulphate of potassium and sulphate 
of aluminum. 

MISCELLANEOUS METALS. 

The elements of barium, strontium, beryllium, thorium and 
zirconium occur less frequently. 

"Barium" is found in nature as 'lieavy-spar," a combination 
of barium and sulphuric acid. Barium chloride is used by chem- 
ists as a means of detecting and determining sulphuric acid. 

"Strontium." The nitrate of strontium is used in the manufac- 
ture of fireworks. It imparts a red color to fire. 

"Thorium" is found as a rare mineral, combined \vitl\ <>\U<i'^. 
J* has lately been used for produciuR gVovi \\^V% V!^ ^'^-^'^^'^ 
IJigrhO, the mantles of which are comt^oscd \;\.T^iiVj o\ c>^\^si 's^ 
thorium. 



398 CHEMISTRY. 

HEAVY METALS. '*'- 

Iron — Atomic weight 56, Symbol Fc ^ 

Iron, the most important of all the metals, is very addom 
found in nature in the metallic slate. Combined with oxygen, it 
is fuuud everywhere. The reddish tints in rocks and soil arc al- 
most entirely due to iron oxides, nearly all natural waters contain 
more or less carbonate of iron; it is contained in plants and in 
the blood of the animal body. Pure metallic iron has a white 
color, is quite soft and tough; its Specific gravity is 7.8. 

Iron combines widi oxygen in varying ratios, and thus forms 
oxides of iron of diilerent compositions. The most common is 
the "ferric oside," which, when combined with water, is called 
rust. 

"Iron Ores." The oxides and the carbonates of iron are the 
natural products from which metallic iron is obtained. They 
are called iron ores. These ores are mi.\ed with coal in large 
furnaces and heated lo a high temperature. The coal, under 
such eircumslances, has the power of withdiawing the oxygen 
from the oxides of iron and uniting with it to carbonic acid 
The melallic iron, being thus liberated, mclis and finks to the 
bottom of Ihc furnace, whence it is drained off. This crude 
iron, which contains a good deal of carbon (from 2.5 per cent 
to 6 per cent), melts at a lower temperature th.in pure iron, and 
is called pig-iroii. or, after rcmelling. cast-irnn. 

Bar Iron. If the cast-iron is rcnielted and the larecsl part of 
the c.irl>on and other impurities arc removed by nxidation the 
resulting iron is called bar iron cr malk-aMc irnn. Bar iron is al- 
most pure iron, containinp rnly 0.2 lo 0.6 per cent carbon, .ind two 
pieces of it. when healed to while heat, can be haamiercd to- 
gether, which operation is called "welding," 

Sifcl. When bar iron is he.ited to full red heat, while in 
cnntacl wilh carlnin, it laVes up 0.8 (o 1,8 per cent "f carbon, and 
thereby Kvnnics harder, ll is changed into sled. Bc^-cmer steel 
is producoil by forcins air into mnlleii cast-iron. When enough 
of the carlioii of ihc cast-iron has been o.tiiH/iil, (lio curri'n; of 
air is stopped, and the molten mclal run info ingot-molds. 
IS'/icn .T/ce/ I,? ficaled to redness and then submerged in cold >va- 
fcr. It hcconics so hard that it scratdies gVass, \\ ^■iVtM.si \t> 
rcffncfi. nrii! allnncd to cool slowly, it a^wn \>ecoTO<:s aNTOo^V** 



CHEMISTRY. 399 

lofV as iron, and any degree of hardness, between these two 
tonditions may be attained (tempering). 

Iron combines with the acids and forms salts. The most im- 
portant of these is "sulphate of iron," commonly called green 
vitriol, or copperas, which forms large, green crystals. 

"Bicarbonate of Iron" is found in a state of solution in many 
spring waters. When such water ij heated or exposed to the air, 
the iron is precipitated as a reddish deposit of oxide of iron, 
commonly called rust. 

Nickel— Atomic weight 58.8, Symbol Ni. 

Nickel is a white, malleable metal of a high melting point, and 
a specific gravity of 8,6. It does not oxidize so easily as iron, and 
dilute acids affect it but litde. Consequently it docs not (arnish 
in the air, and sulphur fumes do not blacken it. Nickel can be 
welded wilh wrought iron, and such combination rolled out into 
very thin sheets. Iron can also be coated wilh nickel by the ordi- 
oaty processes of electroplating. Nickel electroplating was in- 
vented by Bottgcr in 184S, and has developed into an important 
industry. 

Zinc— Atomic weight 65.4, Symbol Zn. 

Zinc has- a bluish-white color and tarnishes sloi^ly in the air. 
The specific gravity of zinc varies from 6.8 to 7.2. At ordinary 
temperature the metal is brittle, but becomes malleable at 250° to 
300" F. At tliis temperature it is rolled into sheets, after which 
treatment it remains malleable when cold. At 410° F.. it be- 
comes so brittle that it may be powdered. It melts at 773° F., 
and at a bright red heat it boils, and, in the presence of air burns 
yrith a greenish flame to "zinc oxide," also called "zinc white," 
the "philosophical wool" or "flowers of zinc" of the alchemists, 
which is used as a pigment (enamel paint). Dilute acids dissolve 
line readily, and form salts, the most important of which is "sul- 
phate of zinc," or "white vitriol" ; "zinc chloride" used in tinning 
and soft-soldering copper and iron. "Galvanized iron" is iron 
coated witii zinc. 

Copper— Atomic weight 63.4. Symbol Cu. 

Copper is sometimes found in a natural state as metallic copper. 
It is of a yellowisb-rcd color, has a specific gravity of 8,9, and is 
very niallcible. Il is a very good conductor ot hci<. atii littLW'vt- 
it^. Copper iinilcrgms no change in dry aW, W^ to ^ mwa. ■a.^-- 
mospherc it is covered wilh a green coat. w\\\t\\ cow5\?.\% ^o^ '«''=*- 



400 CHBHISntY. 

most part of "carbonate of copper." DUute sulphuric and hjljfo- 
chloric acids act but slightly upon copper, whereas nitric acM> 
dissolves it readily. The most common salt of copper is the 
"sulphate of copper," commonly called "blue vitriol." "Verdi- 
gris" is acetate of copper. "Paris green" consists of copper, 
acetic acid and arsenious acid. 

Leab— Atomic weight 207, Symbol Pb. 
Lead is found in nature combined with sulphur in the so-called 
galena, which is the principal lead ore. Lead is a bluish-white 
nietal, very soft and plastic. The specific: gravity of lead is 11.35. 
It melts at 633° F. In ordinary air it tarnishes rapidly, but the 
thin coat of o.\ide increases very slonly. When heated to melting 
in the presence of air, lead rapidly absorbs oxygen and forms 
oxides of different composition. "Litharge" is an oxide of lead 
which forms dark, yellow scales, and is used for making lead 
salts, oil varnishes and for many other purposes. "Minium" or 

■ "red lead" is another oxide of lead, which Is used as a pigment 
and for making certain cements. Of the If.id salts the most im- 
poriaDt ?,re carbonate of lead or "white lead," which if used In 
paints, and acetate of lead which, on account of its sweetish taste 
is also called "sugar of lead." 

ME«Ct;RV — Atomic weight 200, Symbol Hg. 
Mercury, also called quicksilver, is liquid at all ordinary tem- 
peratures, and congeals at — 40° F. At 66j' F, it boils. The 
fpccifie gravity is 1359- II is used extensively in thermometers 
and barometers. 

Silver — .Atomic weight 108. Symbol Ag. 
Silver is found in nature in the metallic stale, and also com- 
bined with sulphur, chlorine .ind other elements. The greater 
[■art lA the silver is cxtmcted from its ores by smelling, or by 
extracting it with mercury, which dissolves the silver to a mix- 
ture called am.ilgam. Pure silver is of a nearly white color, 
very niallcablo. and is the best conductor of boat and electricity. 
lis specific gravity is 10.5. Silver docs not change in air or moist- 
ure, but hlackvn^ it the air contains sulphuretted hydrogen. The 
most iniport.int sails of silver are: -Chhiride of silver.'" in the 
//,3//i<7 .-.-Mie called '■born silver"; "nitrate of silver" al^o called 

'lunar c.iii.'iic." 



CHEMISTRY. 4OI 

4 Gold— Atomic weigbt 1967. Symbol An. 

Gold is also found in nature in a metallic state, often combined 
with silver, both in regular mineral veins in quartz and in the 
sands of many rivers. Pure gold is soft and can be hammered 
out into exceedingly thin leaves. The specific gravity is 19.5, 
It is perfectly unchangeable in air and moisture, no single acid 
attacks it, but a mixture of nitric and hydrochloric acids, called 
"Aqua rcgia," dissolves it to chloride of gold. 

Platinum — Atomic weight 197.4, Symbol Pt. 

Platinum is always found in the metallic state. Although one 
of the so-called precious metals, it lacks the fine color and luster of 
gold and silver, and is, therefore, not much used for articles of 
ornament. Nearly all platinum is made into chemical utensils,, 
for which it is eminently adapted, being infusible and not 
attacked by acids except by aqua regia. Platinum is used ex- 
tensively for scientific purposes. The specific gravity is 21.5. 

Tin — Atomic weight 119, Symbol Sn, 
Tin is mostly found as oxide of tin. Pure tin is white, soft and 
malleable. Air and water affect it but little. The specific gravity 
of tin is 7.3 and it niells at 45?" F. The metal rollpd into thin 
sheets and furllicr beaten out with wooden mallets is called "tin- 
foil." The ordinary ''sheet-tin" is tinned iron. Tin is also 
used as a protecting coating for iron and copper (tinning). 
Antimony — Atomic weight 120, Symbol Sb. 
Antimony occurs mostly in the stale of sulphide. The metal 
b bluish-wbile, and very brittle, and is an important constitiittnt 
of several alloys. Antimoiiial preparations arc used medicinally. 
the best known lidng "tartar emetic," a tartrate of potash and 
antimony. 

When two or more metals arc melted together the combina- 
tion is called an alloy. Few metals are used in a pare stale for 
industrial purposes as the pure nietals seldom have the ([ualilics 
necessary for special applications. Gold and silver in a pure slate 
are loo soft, and are, therefore, hardened by an addition of about 
a tenth part of copper. The most common and ii\i^ntVTkViV ■^\^^^■^■i 



402 CHEHrSTRV. 

Name— Composition — * 

Aluminum-bronze ...Aluminum and copper. 

Brass . .'. Copper with 28 to 34 per cent of zinc. 

Gun metal Ninety parts of copper and 10 parts of tin. 

Bronze Copper and tin in varying proportions. 

Pewter Tin hardened with a little antimony. 

Plumbers' solder Two parts of lead and one of tin. 

German silver One hundred p^rts of copper, tio parts of 

zinc and 40 parts of nickel. 

Britannia metal Nine parts of tin and one part of antimony. 

Type metal Three to four parts of lead and one pan of 

antimony. 
Babbitt mclal Eighty-three to 89 parts of tin. 8 to 4 parts 

of copper and S to 7 parts of antimony. 

THE CHEMISTRY OF CARBON COMPOUNDS 
(ORGANIC CHEMISTRY). 

Originally the term "organic chemislry" denoted the chem- 
isrry of substances generated in plants :>nil animals. When it 
was shown (hat many of thcc substances could he produced 
direotly from the dement?, the name of nrnriiic chtmiftrj' was 
replaced by the name of the "chcniiMry of c.nrbnn compounds." 
These conipoiui.ls slionUl nntnrslly he described in connection 
with the element o( carbfm. Bn( as they .irc very numerous and 
IKisscss peculiar inlcre'Jt to the brewer, it was considered best 
10 di'cu's then: separately. 

.■\n orf-iiiic substance, then, is r. carbon compound. Organic 
snhitanecs contain, for ihe w.i'H part, only a small number 
of elements. Some cnsist ur.ly of hydiomn and carbon, as 
coal-oil or .Vmtricaii peirolcum. Oiher?. stich as -ilcohol, starch. 
sugar, cnii.-ii'l of i.".rb in. hydriiRC;! and oxyjion. (.lihcrs, again. 
especially arjim.i! svibstaiiecs. eoniain ii'iir elinitnis. c.irbon, 
hydroL'en, o\yi;s,n. am! nitrogen, for instance, the nlhuniinoids. 

Rut. nhil,' the number .11 elements in i.rj;anie substances 
i-' small, the itnieturc of ihe nKikeulcs :s ofun very complex, 
tint i?. ihc I uii'ljer of ,i;oni: in each uioU.ul: is lar);c. For 
that r.-.isi'ii, liiey c.i'ily ch,iri;e t" les* ,-. t:;p!c.>: -nbstanccs. 
Thii'', the molecule '^f grape sugar is comp.^se'l of six atoms 
■•f i-nrbon. Mu/ii' r.f [lydrogcn and ri^i o\ i.>^\'A'". but if a solu- 
n'i'ii i-i (hi' •[i-;ii in Hater is niiscA w'AVi \>.-.\-\. \\\c s\vj-\^ ^w^- 
iiU- hrf:,k^ ,lov.ii. /..riuing two iivAeeMV-^ oi ^:m\...«V ^<\4 mA 



CHEMISTRY. 403 

* 

two^f alcohol, both the carbonic acid and the alcohol having 
. less complex molecules than the sugar. 

r 

ALCOHOLS. 

Originally the name "alcohol" was limited to one substance 
obtained by the distillation of fermented liquor, and termed 
also spirits of wine. At present several substances are known, 
whose molecules arc constituted in a similar way and which 
are also called alcohols. They are all composed of carbon, 
oxygen and hydrogen, but differ from each other in the number 
of carbon and hydrogen atoms that form their molecules. 

The simplest in composition contains but one atom of carbon 
in each molecule; the next in order contains two, three, four, etc.. 
atoms of carbon in each molecule. 

Methylic alcohol, or "wood-spirit," is the simplest member 
of the series. Its chemical formula is CH4O. The molecule is 
composed of one atom of carbon, four of hydrogen and one of 
oxygen, or, by weight, 12 parts of carbon, 4X1 = 4 parts of 
hydrogen, and 16 parts of oxygen for every 32 parts of the alcohol. 
This alcohol is obtained if wood is charred to make charcoal. 
The tarry liquid flowing from the retort contains small quantities 
of wood-vinegar and wood-spirit. The alcohol is separated from 
the fluid by distilling at low heat. 

Methylic alcohol is a colorless, thin fluid; in a pure state it 
is similar in odor and -taste to common alcohol, but coninicr- 
cial methylic alcohol has a strong, disagrcoablo, characteristic 
odor. It boils at a low temperature, namely, 152° F. It dis- 
solves pitch, shellac and volatile oils, liko common iilcohol, and, 
being cheaper, is often substituted for the other in the manu- 
facture of various articles. 

Ethylic Alcohol, or "Grain" Alcohol. This alcohol which was 
the first known and is the most important of the whole group, is 
most commonly designated by the simple name of "alcohol." Its 
chemical formula is CJIcO. or. by weight 2 X t2 = 24 parts of 
carbon, 6X1 = 6 parts of hydrogen, and 16 parts of oxygen for 
every 46 parts of alcohol. This alcohol is produced by the fer- 
mentation of sugar by yeast. The fermented liquid is distilled and 
a dilute alcohol obtained, the strength of which is increased by 
repeated distillations. 

Pure ethylic alcohol is a colorless Vu\w^<^^ <>^- Vnxv^V^^^"^^ ^■•\'^'^" 
and odor. It hsis a specific gravity oi 0.79. W. \^ ^^^^^^ X^'cCxVt^. 



404 CIIKMISTRY. 

and burns \\ith a palo-bluish flame without smoke. It boils at 
173° I^- when free from water; in a diluted state the boiling 
point is the higher, the greater the degree of dilution. It can be 
exposed to very low temperatures without congealing. It ab- 
sorbs water from the air, and can be mixed with water in any 
ratio. When so mixed a contraction of volume takes place, 
and, at the same time, the mixture becomes much warmer. Al- 
cohol dissolves many substances that are not soluble in water, 
such as shellac, pitch, oils, etc. 

Amylic Alcohol. In the manufacture of spirits from grain 
or potatoes, the cthylic alcohol is found to be accompanied by 
an oily fluid called fusel oil, or amylic alcohol. As the latter } 
boils at a higher temperature than common alcohol, it can be 
separated by distillation. Thus, separated and purified, amylic 
alcohol is an oily, colorless liquid cf a peculiar odor and burning 
taste. The vapor, when inhaled, produces coughing. It is not 
readily soluble in water, but floats on the surface like an oil. 

Glycerin or glycerol is an alcohol formed in small quantities 
during fermentation. It is a constituent of all fats and fixed oils, 
from which it is obtained when the fats are decomposed by an 
alkali, as is done on a large scale when fats arc saponified for 
making sc)ap. Glycerin is a colorless syrupy liquid, of a pure, 
sweet ta>to. foluhle in water and alcolu»l. Its specific gravity is 
\.2(\ and it Ivijls at 554 V. 

ORGANIC ACII^S. 

If two hydroRcn atoiii> of an alcohol au- replaced by one 
atom of oxyiien, ihe alc^^^hol is changed into an acid. Thus, if 
coninin:i alc« hoi i: diluted wi:h water and exposed to the air. 
oxygen is taken up by the alcohol, which is thereby changed 
to acetic acid, or vinegar. .A corrcspondinj^ acid can be pro- 
duced from every alcohol. Thus, methylic alcohol being oxi- 
dized produce? formic acid: ciliylic alcohol yields acetic acid; 
butylic alcohol !»uiyric acid; amylic alcohol, valeric acid. etc. 

In wort and beer several of these acids are found, and some 
of them are produced by the action of bacteria on the sugar 
of the wort. The most important of thc-c acids are: 

Acciic Acid. This acid, when diluted with water, makes 
common \i!ici:;ir. It is obtained by the destructive distillation 
n/ nond. Jn ihi< j^ r. » c c s s a s « ■ u r , \v ale \ v \\v vvi'^A . - '^wt Va^T , -a^A 
^m/c/i ^.7s. pn<:s over, while the c\\aTCo;i\ TC\^^;v^x^^ m \\\^ x^^tV. 



( 



CUEMISTRy. 405 

From this fluid the concentrated acid, often called "glacial 
. acetic acid," Is prepared. It congeals below 60° F. It mixes 
with water in any ratio, and when diluted has a pleasant acid 
taste. Acetic acid is also produced by the action of certain 
bacteria on a dilute alcohol, and is generally found in beer, where 
it causes the sour taste. 

Acetic acid is c.tpelled (rorn a solution like beer by boiling, 
and is called the volalile acid in beer. It combines with metals 
and forms salts, which are called "acetates." The most impor- 
tant nre: 

"Acetate of Soda," which forms large colorless crystals, read- 
ily soluble in water. 

"Acetate of Lead," which is formed by dissolving oxide of 
lead in acetic acid. This salt generally occurs in 
a crystalline mass, like loaf-sugar, and from this c 
and its sweet taste, is called "sugar of lead." 

Bvtyric Acid is formed by the action of the butyric ferment. 
It is 3 colorless liquid, having an odor of acetic acid and rancid 
butter. It is soiuetinics found in beer and old hops. 

Lactic Acid. This is the characteristic acid of beer, and, 
not being volatile, is also called the "hxcd acid" of beer. It 
is produced by the aclion of certain ferments on sugar. It is 
found in malt and in larger quantities in beer wort. The con- 
centrated acid is a colorless, syrupy nuld. with an iiite.'iscly sour 
taste. 

Tannic Acid is a solid body, readily soluble in water. It 
is found in many plants, such as hops and trees (oaks and hem- 
locks). It precipitates the soluble albuminoids when added lo 
such a solution ("breaking" of the worl). Succinic acid produced 
in small quantities during the fermentation of sugar by yeast 
forms small white crystals. 

FATS AND OILS. 
Under the name of oil is included a large number of bodies. 
differing in chemical compostlion and physical properties, pnch 
as tallow, fats, fluid fi.ted oils, essential oils, and the so-called 
.hydrocarbons, that is, the solid, fluid or volatile substances found 
in petroleum or obtained by destructive distillation. The oils may. 
therefore, be clas5ified as : 
/. Fixed Oils. 

a. Essentinl or Volatile Oils. 
S- Hydrotarbons. 



Fixed oils, also called fatty oils, are either of animal or vege- 
table origin. Those of animal origin are generally solid, and 
called fats, such as tallow and lard ; the vegetable oils are mostly 
fluid at ordinary temperature, such as cottonseed oil and linseed 
oil. 

They are all compounds of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen, and 
may be compared (o the salts of inorganic nature, in which the 
place of the metal is occupied by a substance called glycerin 
(see under ".■\lcohol") and the mineral acids are represented by 
organic acids, called fatly acids. The fatty acids of the oils and 
fats arc mainly oleic, palmitic and stearic acid, and the combina- 
tion between these acids and glycerin, generally called olein, palmi- 
tin and stearin, form, in varying proportions, the natural oils 
The oleic acid is fluid at ordinary temperature, the 
ind stearic acids are solid bodies, and such fats as 



ion) i 



and fats. 

chiefly consist of s 

mullon-sucl, arc. therefore, solid bodies, whereas oil? 

larger amounts of oleic acid are fluid. 

If the oils arc treated with an alkali (^ponilii 
instance, with caustic soda, in the presence of wat 
decomposed in such a way. that llic fatty ai-ids 
from the givecrin and coiiil.int «ilh the *.i.h. Tl 
of soda and fatly acids forms the ordinary soda 
soap ;" the corresponding soap of potash, being sii 
"soft soap." The nianufact luring of soap consists of the saponify- 
ing of UHi or oils with a solution uf caustic alkali. 

Tin- f.ils c.iii aUo be ..Icc.-nipoMd hy =10111 mvkr a pressure of 

being fr. 



, beef and 
containing 

tor 
the oils are 

cpa rated 

>r "hard 
called 



Th. 



i.ig ak- 






hibU' it 
nd disi 



.M a 



u'rally da^.-iticd a; ; 
■drying, coniainiiig 11 



I'. Dryilift nil?, containing hnnlein. f 
and hemp oils. 
T/ic drying nils absorb oxygen irom Uv; 



uhol. 
ether, W- 
iic gravity 
'I to 0.93, 

F almond. 

iich .IP linseed, poppy 



and I^ 



CHEMISTRY. 

tb^ non- drying oils also undergo changes when exposed tc 
that part of the fatty acids are set free, this being the c 
their becoming rancid. 



The essential or volatile oils are. *ith few exceptions, obtained 
from plants, in which they are found cither alone or mixed with 
resins, this mixture being called a balsam. By adding water to the 
plant, or part of the plant, and distilling, the oil is carried over 
with the steam. The turbid distillate separates gradually into oil 
and water. The volatile oils differ in composition from the falty 
oils. Many of them, as for instance, oil of turpentine, are com- 
posed of carbon and hydrogen only, while others, like hop-oil 
and "winlergrcen oil," also contain oxygen. Most of these 
oils, when pure, are colorless, and usually possess a powerful odor 
and a burning taste. Exposed to air, some absorb oxygen and 
change into solid resins, as, for instance, "hop-oil," which 
when it resinifies, develops valerianic acid, producing the disagree- 
able odor ebaraeterislic to old hops. The essential oils are nearly 
all insoluble or sparingly soluble in water, but soluble in alcohol, 
ether, fatly and mineral oils. Most of these oils are thin liquids, 
but some, such as oil of roses or attar of roses, are solids. Essen- 
tial oils arc used in perfumery, for flavoring liquors and other 
beverages. The aroma of spices, lea, coffee, wine, etc., depends 
greatly on the essential oils they contain. 

One of the most important of the volatile oils is the "oil of 
turpentine." which is contained in the bark and other parts of 
pines and firs, and coniferous trees geni'rally. It is obtained by 
distillation of crude turpentine, which is a nii.\liire of resin, oil 
of turpentine and water, exuding from the bark of the trees. Oil 
of turpentine is a colorkss. mobile li'iuid, with a strong aromatic 
odor. Being n sulveiit of fi.xtd oil and rc-ins it is largely used for 
making varnish. 

3- HVtJROCAHBONS OR MINERAL OK.S. 

The hydrocarbons are composed exclusively of carlwii and 
hydrogen, and are found mainly in crude "petroleum" and coal 
tar. The mineral oils used for illuminating purposes and as 
lubricants are chiefly obtained from crude ^itttoltwiv.. C^^^^"^ 
petrolciiin is n iialiiral oil. found m t'ne ea.x\.\\ a.X. NM-j\T\t *i.'^<>w> 
in many localities. The chief souTCca are \Qca,\ti vn x'ft^ "Vi'wwift. 



408 CHEUISTRY. ,. 

States and in the Caucasus, on the shore of the Caspian Sn. 
Crude petroleum is an oily liquid, the specific gravity of whicfi 
varies from 0.73 to o.g?, of a peculiar odor, and varying in color 
from straw yellow to brown- black. It is insoluble in water, 
slightly soluble in alcohol, and mixes in all proportions with 
ether, bisulphide of carbon and hydrocarbons. It also mixes 
freely with nearly atl fixed oils. Chemically it is a mixture of a 
number of various hydrocarbons, some of which are gases at 
ordinary temperatures, others fluids or solids. The different pro- 
portions of these various hydrocarbons determine the character 
of the natural oil, il being more or less limpid, according to the 
prevalence of light fluids or of the denser constituents. By careful 
distillation of the natural oil, the different commercial prodtKts 
are obtained. (For particulars see "Lubricants.") 

BALSAMS AND RESINS. 

Balsams are found in many plants, and are mixtures of rosins 
with volatile oils (essential oils) and some water. Tlic most common 
is the balsam that Hows from pine-trees, and is generally called 
turpentine. This is a mixture of oil of turpentine, a little water, 
and common "rosin" or "colophony." When heated, the oil of 
turpentine and water are expelled, and the remaining melted mass 
is the colophony or rosin. 

Common rosin still coniains some water and volatile oil. 
This conmion rosin, or colophony, mixed with sonie oil to make 
it less brittle, is "brewers' pilch." 

"Shellac" is obtained in a similar way from East India fig- 
trees. Dissolved in alcohol, it forms common varnish. 

"Hop-Balsam" or liipulin consists of the volatile oi! of hops and 
hop-rosin. The oil gives to the beer aroma and flavor, the liop- 
rosin imparts the bitier taste and helps preserve the beer. Hop-oil 
is only slightly soluble in water, but freely so in dilute alcohol. 
Hop-resin is somewhat soluble in water, and more io in a sugar 
solution. 

GEL.\TIN AND ISINGLASS- 

Animal membranes, skin, tendons and bones, if heated with 

water at a high temperature, dissolve more or less eomplclely, 

and the soliilions, when cooled, acquire a soft-solid consistency. 

These substances may be cut and dTicrt. ■y>c\A\'ni \\vu^ ^Vw sub- 

■ve Jcnoivn as gelatin, produced by tVic art\on ol XW Vw. >fi%\«x 



CHEMISTRY. ■ 4O9 

on the tissues. The jelly made from calves' feet and common 
glue are samples of gelatin, in different states of purity. 

Isinglass is prepared from the swimming bladders of fish, 
principally the sturgeon, or from the same material as gelatin; bj 
1 special treatment. 

A solution of gelatin, even if very much diluted, gives a pre- 
cipitate with lannie acid. This precipitate is white, curdy, and 
incapable of putrefaction, whereas gelatin iiscif, being composed 
of the same elements as the albuminoids, easily undergoes changes 
when not in a dry stale. 

Vegetable gelatin is similar in composition to the dextrins. 
It does not dissolve in cold water, but swells up and forms a 
Jelly. It is found in Irish moss. Iceland moss, etc. 

CARBOHYDRATES. 

The carbohydrates are substances composed of carbon, oxygen 
and hydrogen, having an equal ratio of oxygen and hydrogen as 
water; that is, twice as many atoms of hydrogen as of oxygen. 

While they are made up of the same elements as the alcohols 
and acids, their molecules arc much larger. The molecule of 
Starch, tor instance, has the composition diHuOa, or contains 63 
atoms; maltose is G=Hi,0,„ glucose C.H,.0., etc. They arc, 
therefore, easily split up into simpler molecules, and give rise to 
such substances as carbonic acid, different kinds of organic acids, 
and alcohol. Upon being heated with dilute ai,ids, such as hydro- 
chloric or sulphuric, they are all changed into that type of sugar 
which is generally called grape sugar or dextrose. 

CELLULOSE. 

The walls of all plant cells are composed of cellulose, and a 
large portion of the solid parts of all plants is built out of this 
substance. 

Pure cellulose is tasteless and insoluble in water and alcohol. 
Even boiling dilute acids and alkalies have but little effect on 
cellulose. Upon being boiled for some time with strong acids 
it is transformed completely into grape-sugar. The husic of the 
malt is mainly composed of cellulose which senses lo strain the 
wort when it is run off (brewers' grains). Cellulose is not coV 
wed blue by iodine. 



4IO ' CMEUISTRY. ^ 

STARCH. DEXTRIN AND SUGARS. 
Starch is a most important vegetable product, and pracDt, to a 
greater or less extent, in every plant, especially in the Kcdt. It 
is insoluble in cold water and alcohol ; it is tasteless and odorlcw. 
The relative nmounls of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen it con- 
tains are the same as in' cellulose. To the naked eye it appears 
as a soft, white, glistening powder: under the microscope it i* 
seen to be made up of small rounded bodies. These starch gran- 
ules vary both in form and siie in the different varietiei of 

If a mixture of starch and water is heated, the starch granules 
burst and disappear at a certain temperature, and a transparent 
paste is produced. This change takes place at different tempera- 
tures in the different types. 

Starch consists of two parts evenly distributed through the 
granule. One phrt. which may be said to be the skeleton of the 
granule, is called starch-cellulose, the other, starch-granulose. If 
starch in water is heated for some time with dilute acids or a 
solution of diastase, the granulose is converted into sugar and 
dextrin, but the starL-h-cellulose is left unchanged. The percent- 
age of St 3 rch- Cellulose is very small. 

If n soliitii'ii of iodine in iodide of potassium is admixed to 
starch paste, a deep blue compound results. Tht presence of nn- 
converled smrcli in a mash or wort can. t!jcrcfi)re, be delected 
by mean.J of the iodine solution. Tlw starch solution must, how- 
tver. W c-Id. as heat dispels the bliic o'l.-r. 

G/.v I ■',:,".■': '.'r anltn,-,! siarcli is fiu'id in \]w livert i>f ni.itnnials. 
It lorris a paste with colil water r.nd di?Mivei when heated. 
Etoiling Ticidj change it to grape-fugar. Iodine solution gives it 
a reddish-brown color. 

If a st:irch-p,i^te i= hcati'd tor some time under prcr^sure with 
a snuill quaiuily ni a diiuie acid, for iiiiiance, sulphuric or hydro- 
chlorii.-, . the starch paste will srain lose its cnn.=ist<,ni:y and turn 
thin. There has ta'^i-n place a modiricatitm 01 the March into a 
siilisiance called dextrin, which is a gum-like mass, soluble in 
ii.v.'ir ;)fiJ has an eqir.il perccTiliige ni catWn. fi-xv?.^<^ wvA \\fdro- 
sen. a.* starch. 



J CHEMISTRY. 4I 1 

The time required for this change depends on the amount of 
acid. If the mass be kept at a boil for a considerable time, the 
dextrin is gradually changed to grape-sugar, or dextrose. 

Catluiii, which may be compared to malto-dextrin, is also 
formed. 

Diastase effects a similar change in a starch paste, splitting the 
starch- molecule into simpler molecules of difFcrent kinds of dex- 
trins and sugars. 

About the number and composition of these split- products of 
starch, the opinions of the chemists disagree, which is explained 
by the difficulty of producing the various decomposition -products 
in a pure state. 

According to Brown and Morris the starch is gradually 
changed into several varieties of dextrin, such as : 

1. Ainylo-dexirin, which in its properties shows close re- 

lationship to starch and is colored blue or violet-blue 
by iodine; 

2. ErytkTO-dexIrin, which is colored red by iodine; 

3. Achroo-dcxlrin, which is not colored by iodine; 

4. Malla-dexiriii; 

5. Maltose. 

The three first-named dextrins are supposed to be unfermcnt- 
able, malto-dextrin and maltose fermentable. Maltose ferments 
rapidly during the principal fermentation, malto-dextrin slowly 
during aftcr-femienlalion. and the more completely, the nearer 
the composition of the malto-dextrin comes to that of mahose. 

Another theory of the ilecoiiiposiiion of starch by diastase is 
proposed by Lintncr and Dull. According to their view the 
starch is transformed into four dextrins. viz. : Amylo-dcxirin. 
Erythro-dextrin, Acliroo-drxtrin I, Achroo-dextHn U, and two 
sugars, isomaUose and maltose. 

Prior claims that the achroo-dextrin HI, found by him. is the 
dextrin that remains in the beer. 

As to the two different theories the most generally accepted one 
is that of Brown and Morris. Later experiments by Ling and 
Baker. Brown and Morris, Jalowelz and Ost show that isomaUose 
is not homogeneous, but a mixture of maltose and de.iJ.^\ii.^, ii'w\ 
iJiaf niallose is the only sugar formed \>y ftvc ac'C\Mi ci^ SviWi^^i <i"a. 



412 CHEUISTRY. ». 

SUGAKS. 
The chemical composilion of the different types of sugar is 
similar to that of cellulose and dextrin. The most noteworthy 
properties of the sugars are : Their sweet laste. ability to undergo 
fermentation, solubility in water and alcohol, and fadlitj of 
crystallization. 

DEXTHOSE. 

This sugar, also called glucose, grape — or starch sircar, is 
very common in many plants, as in the juice of sweet grapn. 
It also occurs in honey and in many animal liquids, as blood, and, 
pathologically, in urine. 

Artificially it is made from starch by heating with dilute sul- 
phuric or hydrochloric acid until the dextrin, which is the first 
product of the action of the acid on the starch, is changed into 
sugar. The conmiercial products of the conversion of starch, as 
glucose (syrup) and grape-sugars (solid) contain varying quan- 
tities of dextrin, dextrose :.nd water. 

Dextrose is not so sweet as cane sugar and is directly ferment- 
able. If yeast is introduced into a solution of grape-sugar in 
water, ihc sugar is split up into nearly equal quantities of alcohol 
and carbonic acid. This change is expressed by the following 
chemical formula : 

GH,:0, = 2 (CHcO) -f 2 CO;. 
Grape-sugar = 2 alcohol -f- 2 carbonic acid, 
or. by weight. i8o parts of sugar (6 \ 12 -i- I2 X i -p 6 X 16 
- 180), give iw parts of alcohol [2 (-• X 12 -f 6 X 1 -|- iC) 
r-f»-']- and8Sparl> of carbonic acid gas I2 (1 j -i- 2 X 16) =88]. 
Hence, ioo parts of sugar produce 51.1 pans of alcohol and 48.9 
parts of carbonic acid. The ainoums of alcohol and carbonic acid 
are not quite up to these figure? for the n-ason thai small quan- 
tities oF glycerin and succinic aciJ arc f>..rmcil by the action of 
the yeast on thf sugar. 

This sugar, also called levulo-ic. is found in iiiost =wect fruits 

mixed with an vqual amount of grape- suc.ir. It i^ supposed to be 

formed by the breaking up of the cane sugar of (he plant into 

S-r.ipc-siig.-tr anil fruit-sugar, the mixture oi vW \-Kn\ic\i\?. ^^^A 

fnrcrt sugar. Fruit-sugar is also toui\d in maW w Wi^W ^laskr 



t CHEUISTRY. 413 

titles. It closely resembles grape-sugar, but crystallizes only with 
difliculty from cold absolute alcohol, and is slightly more solu- 
ble in water, and ferments more slowly than grape-sugar. 

GALACTOSE. 

This sugar is formed together with grape-sugar when lactose or 
milk sugar is treated with dilute acids. It ferments slowly 
(Koumiss). 

SACCHAROSE, OH CANE-SUGAR. 

This sugar is found in the juice of the sugar cane, in the stems 
of sorghum, in the sugar beet, in the sap of trees, as the maple, 
and in many other plants and fruits. It is a product of a chem- 
ical change in the starch of the plants. If a solution of cane-sugar 
in water is slowly evaporated, the sugar crystallizes in large, trans- 
parent crystals (rock candy). If a hot concentrated sugar solu- 
tion is cooled, it changes into a solid mass of fine crystals (loaf- 
sugar). Cane-sugar is very soluble in water; the concentrated 
solutions are called syrups. A concentrated solution at ordi- 
nary temperature holds over 66 per cent of cane-sugar. Cane- 
sugar melts at a temperature of (about) 320° F. At a Still higher 
temperature it takes a brown color, and in that state is used for 
coloring liquors ("Sugar Color." "Caramel"). 

Cane-sugar is not directly fermentable, but, when boiled with 
dilute acids, changes into a fermentable f Jgar called invert sugar, 
which is a mixture of grape-sugar and fruit sugar. A ferment 
contained in yeast and called "invertnsc" also has the power to 
change cane-sugar into invert sugar. 

UALTOSE. 

If ground malt is mixed with water and kept at 3 temperature 
of 100° F. to 167° F., the diastase of the malt slowly changes 
the starch into dextrin, and a kind of sugar called maltose. When 
freed from the dextrin it can be crystallized in white needles. 
It resembles grape-sugar in many respects, but is not directly 
fermentable. A substance contained in the yeast, and called malt- 
are, changes it into grape-sugar. Maltose is also changed into 
grape-sugar by heating with dilute acids. 

LACTOSK, OR MlLK-StTGAR, 

This sugar is /blind in milk, the nutrilwc Na.Wt o\ ■»iV\<iv ^M'iS." 
depends upon this suffar. It forms sma.\\. \\Mi tvjSti*^, ■»>^'« 



414 CHEMISTRY. V 

are not very soluble in water, nor very sweet. It is DOt fer- 
mented by yeast, but under the action of lactic bacteria it is 
chained into lactic-acid (souring of milk). Dilute adds change 
lactose into grape-sugar and galactose. Milk sugar is used iu 
pharmaceutical preparations. 

RAFFINOSE, OS HELITOSE. 

This sugar is found in rather large quantities in Anitralian 
manna, in the sugar beet, the flour of coitoii seeds, and in barley 
and wheat during germination. Being more soluble than cane 
sugar, it accumulates in the molasses. Dilute acids split it up 
into grape-sugar, fruit-sugar and galactose. Yeast is also able 
to produce this change and ton sequent ly raffinose is fermentable. 



This sugar is a member of the group called pen la -glucoses or 
pentoses, because their molecules contain only five carbon atoms. 

Thus the formula of ar.ibinosc is QH„0.,. 

Arabinosc crj-stalli«s in shining prisms, is slifrhily soluble in 
cfld water, and has a sweet taste, though less than thai of cane- 
pitpar. Il is tint fermented by yeast. 

PECTIN Sl'BST.-\NCES. 
These suli-^inncr^ are closely relaii'il to ihc carbohydrates, though 
of much less iniportanci'. They are found, for instance, in apple 
and pear-juice. The iuii-e is boiled and filtered from coagulated 
albumen; to liie clear fihrate is added a mi.'^turc "f alcohol and 
hydrochlnric atid, which causes a jelly-like prccipitaie of pectin. 
Similar !'.-..|ies .ire alio found in barky, malt aii.l Wkt. the viscos- 
ity. p:il,T.c-fii!iit.s-i ;iiid fo.im-hiililiiig capacity i.f whwh was for- 
merly larRiiy as.-rilitd to tbc-e ?iili^ta!iC'\e. .md s.->inc ainhiirs still 
claim that i-;oi'^<ive ciarifio.ilion of Ivcrs hj tiniii;; or filtr.ition 
lends ;>"> i:rpair ihe=i'' v,i!iiaMe propenifs ct Kvr in aciimil of the 
rcn:ov.al of -.Ik-sc pectin? 

TORRHF.\CTIttN' OR RiW.STlN'ti TKi iiUCTS. 

Carbohydrates and. stil: n;cri\ albuminoid; are characterized by 

ihoir l.iree anil complicated miilecules which ari' tardily decom- 

poifil, Th.il ,1 liisi: t.'i'.inrature wi'l prMdiice ch.mgcs in these 

.-ii/i.-r.i/icir' /s. Ihcrct.Tc. r.> 111' v\pcirliii. li\ ihv vresei'.oo of mois- 

rirre llu-fe ch^iiecs begin al a Tinich 1>iwct ic.Ti^eTMWTc xVaiv wv 

Ae .t/zscnfc nf fii..F-,-(urc, i. c ii the caT\>o\««\iTi\';=- ^iv\ *^»a- 



J CHEMISTRY. " 415 

VfUoida are previously dried almost completely at a low tem- 
' perature. 

If malt with a certain amount of mtHsture is heated to from 
[40° F. to 160° F., it begins to emit a peculiar. a((reeable aroma 
and, at the same lime, the starch-body acquires a darker color. 

In order to produce a 6ne aroma the malt must, however, have 
grown enough, i. e., it must have a sufficient amount of diastatic 
power, which produces sugars in the presence of moisture at cer- 
tain temperatures. Without these sugars even a higher temper- 
ature will not produce an agreeable flavor. 

The bodies produced from sugars (especially from malto-dex- 
trin) at higher temperatures, are generally called caramel. If 
the temperature goes higher, the carame! gives rise to a substance 
called attamar, which has a bitter taste. At a still higher tem- 
perature the sugar, and, finally, the starch itself, begins to char. 

Another body that has been isolated from caramelized malt is 
mallol which, with ferric chloride solution, gives a purple color 
similar to that produced by salicylic acid in a ferric chloride solu- 
tion. 

If cane-sugar is heated to 320° F. it melts, and if the tempera- 
lure is raised to 390° F., it changes to a brown syrupy mass, solu- 
ble in water, but not cryslallizable. It contains caramel and as- 
samar, and has no sweet taste. It finds application in coloring 
fluids called "Sugar Color," or "Beer Color," 

NITROGENOUS ORGANIC COMPOUNDS.— ALBUMIN- 
OIDS. 

The .illnniiinoids (so-called from albumen, the while of egg), 
which are composed of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen, 
and a sm.-ill amount of sulphur, are the principal constitutents of 
the animal organism. They are produced, however, exclusively 
by the plants, and found chiefly in their seeds. When absorbed 
into Ihe animal organism, the albuminoids undergo a very slight 
modification, so that animal albuminoids have very much the 
same composition as vegelable. They possess a very complex 
constitution, the molecule of albumen, according to Licbcrkiihn. 
bi'ing Ct.HiiiN.hCS. Hence, their molecules readily fall into 
simpler molecules. This process, when broMs^V aViiAVj 'wa.o.ti^w.. 
is accompanied by the generation of gases, WVe twV3T\\t ^'^^^i- 
ammonia. and sulphuretted hydrogen, and '« twrnei v'*\Tt\-a.tv:\o^- 



4l6 CHEMISTRY. V 

Of the vegetable albuminoids some are soInUe in- water, othm 
are insoluble. ' 

The insoluble and soluble albuminoids of the grain hne been - 
the subject of many researches with very discordant resnlti. Of 
the different varieties of insoluble albuminoids may be mentioned 
gluten- casein, gluten- fibrin, gliadin and mucedin. 

The albuminoids of the malted grain, which are the inoit im- 
portant and most ■ interesting to the brewer, are extracted from 
the crushed malted cereal during the mashing procesi. Simnltane- 
ously with ihe solvent action of the water an enzyme called pcp- 
lase contained in the malt acts upon the albuminoids. gndnallT 
changing (hem in a manner somewhat similar to (he action of 
diastase upon Eta re h. 

The products of the action of peplase upon the albumiooids of 
malted grain are generally referred to four distinct groups, with 
different properties. The first group is called proieids. 



The proieids include nil >uch soluble nllnniiiiioids as become 
insoluble or. as i; is called, coagulate. ,it n lomperature above 
l6;° F. An example of ibis is sofn in the "break" of the wort 
during iKiiling. The proieids which remained in solution at the 
lower leniptraturc of the w.af^h. ^ctllc ■■r ei',iKulaic .is flahes 
in the IvOtllc al boiling leniperalurc. and are, therefore, almost 
complclcly removed from ihe wort. A very low (cmperatnrc also 
cau.tes ihe protcids lo become insoluble. They nre insoluble in 
alcohol, am! laimic acid prtcipit.ites ihem from a solution. 

The second group of soluble -ilbuminoidf is cilleil alhumoses. 
They are formed by the action •■i pcplasc upni! the albuminoids 
dnriufc the iierminatlnn and mashing processes. The albumoses 
arc not C'lagulateil by hc.iting iheir S'llution and, consequently. 
r.main in the wort, and as ihcy are not fcrmemcd by ihe yeast, 
]'»•=? over into the finished beer. Like the prolrid*. ihey .ire pre- 
cipitated by I.innic acid, and nre insoiuMe in alcohol. 



The third group of soluble albuminoids i^ cillcd peptones. 

T/icy .ire proiliiclf o/ (lie continued decwnvf'^il.i'^i^ o^ ^^"^ rfiVni- 

inittoids of mailed grain, tinder the inftucncc ol v^^"**- "^^^i 



CHEMISTRY, 417 

are not eosgulated by heat and are therefore present in the 
'finished wort. During fermentation they are, to a small extent, 
fermented by the yeast, but the greater part of the peptones enter 
into the finished beer. 
They are precipitated by tannic acid and insoluble in alcohol. 

AUIDES. 

The fourth group of soluble albuminoids is called amides. They 
are of much simpler composition than the albumoses and peptones. 
They arc not coagulated by heat, nor can they be precipitated by 
tannic acid or alcohol. 

The amides are to some extent taken up by the yeast and, 
therefore, partly withdrawn from the beer. 

The albumoses, peptones and amides are of the greatest value 
for the beer. Not only do they serve as a nourishment, but the 
palate- fulness and foam-holding capacity of the beer, as was first 
conclusively shown by the exhaustive investigations of Wahl, de- 
pend mainly on these bodies. The proteids, on the other hand, 
are ve'ry undesirable constituents of beer, impairing, when present 
even in small quantities, the brilliancy and durability of beers. 

ENZYMES, OR SOLUBLE FERMENTS. 
A large number of substances are found, both in the animal 
and in the vegelable kingdom, which possess the remarkable prop- 
erty of changing complicated organic combinations in the pres- 
ence of water into simpler ones without undergoing any appreci- 
able change themselves. Such substances are designated by the 
name of enzymes. In chemical composition they are similar to 
the albuminoids, of which they appear to be slight modifications. 
They are easily soluble in water. All of them have certain limits 
of temperature, outside which they do not act. A temperature 
of 167° F. destroys them, when in solution, the heat causing 
them to coagulate. In a perfectly dry slate they may be heated to 
218° F. and above, without losing their power. Alcohol precipi- 
tates Ihem from their solutions. The most important enzymes 
are the following: 

DIASTASE. 

This peculiar substance, which consists ot cm\»'[\, V-ji^wfit^, 
oiygra and nitrogen, occurs in germinating s«e4s. M v«v (iwi\v«% 
ra contact with starch at a temperature oi \oo° ¥, Wi \^'' "8-% ■*■ 



4l8 CHBUISTRY. « 

quickly changes the starch into dextria and sugar. It is iHi 
change of the starch into products soluble in water that con- ' 
slitntes th; conversion of the starch in the mashing proccM. The 
change of the starch is brought about without any change in the 
diastase, so thai a small quantity of diastase is capable of dung- 
ing a large amount of starch. 

By its mere presence, diastase causes the starch of malt to 
take up water, whereupon the starch molecule is split up into 
dextrin and a sugar called maltose. The chemical formnia for 
this change is : 

C«H.O» + H,0 = C„H=Ou + C.H»0,. 

Starch + Water = Maltose + Dextrin. 
Heating lo 167' F. destroys the diastase. 



This enzyme was found by Kj'eldahl in ungerminated barley. 
It differs from diastase in its aclron on starch in two respects. 
It acts only on soluble starch, whereas diastase will act on starch 
paste and make it fluid ; and secondly, the sugar formed by gly- 

case is de.\(rose and not maltose. 

This eniyme has the power of dissolving the cellulose of the 
cell-walls of ihe starch granulfs and thus liberating the starch 
and furnishing nulrilivc material fnr Ihe yi^ung plant. 

It is extracted with cold water from green malt. Raw oats 
contain it in still larger quantities. 

It is more sensitive to heat than diastase, being destroyed at a 
temperaliire of 140° F. lo 150° F. 



This is the best known en;jme of the yeast. Il can be extracted 
from dried yeast wilh water, precipitated with alcohol, and dried 
over snlphuric acid. Thus made it is a white powder. It has 
llic power of changing ihc imfermentabie cane-sugar into ferment- 
able dcNlrose and fructose, the mixture of which is called invert- 
sugar. 

Invcrlase does not act upon maltose. 

// iraj lon/f supposed that maltose was a A^etvVv Uixweurilite 
sugar. Later investigations by Lintnct hav« ¥X0'Jt4,\w'«««,ft«. 



J CHEMISTRY. 4ig 

lite maltose molecule is split up into two molecules of dexiroM 
br an enzyme contained in yeast, and to which the name maltase 
or glucase has been given. It is extracted by water from air- 
dried yeast. High attenuating types of yeast are claimed by some 
anthorities to contain an enzyme (glucase), which is not present 
in low attenuating types. This glucase is supposed to have the 
power of invertinK malto-dextrin to maltose or dextrose, hence the 
higher fermenting power of such yeasts. 

ZYUASE. 

This entyme has only lately been found in yeast by Buchner, 

and has the property of producing alcoholic fermentation, i. e., 
decomposing sugar into alcohol and carbonic acid, independently 
of the yeast cells. Its action is not inhibited by many substances, 
for instance, chloroform, wliich prevent fermentation by yeast 
itself. On the other hand, such by-products as glycerin and suc- 
cinic acid, which are produced during fermentation by yeast, do 
not seem lo accompany fermentation by zymase. 

A solution of zymase in water begins to coagulate when heated 
to 95° F. to 100° F,, and after separating the coagulum, the ex- 
tract has no further fermentative power. 



This enzyme which is contained in malt has not yet been 
isolated. It ads upon the albuminoids of malted grain, chang- 
ing them into soluble protcids, peptones and amides. Its action 
is promoted by the presence of a small amount of lactic acid. Ac- 
cording to Wahl and Nilson, it is most active at a temperature 
of 100° F. to 130° F., and is destroyed at 156° F. 
rrvALiN. 

liva of animals and may be iden- 



This enzyme was found as early as 1836 by Schwann in gastric 
juice, and he also demonstrated its capacity of changing indiffusi- 
ble albuminoids into simpler forms, capable of passing through 
the animal membranes. 

The enzyme is contained in glands of the mucous ifttwAn^ivt 
of the stomach of !hc vertebrate aniina\s, atvi \& a\so IomtAvcv 'Cn.t 
blood, muscles, and urine of the higher amma\s. Ye^^vt^'^* ^.O^vi' 



420 CHEMISTRY. i. 

only in the presence of x small amount of hydrochloric acid, wbA 
this acid is found in gxslric juice to an amount of o.a to 0.5 per 
cent Heating to 130° F. to 135° F. destroys pepsin. The p^ttii 
of oommcrce is a crude product. 

TKYPSIN. 

This enzjine is found in the pancreatic secretion of the higher 
aninuls. Its action does not depend on the presence of an add; 
00 the contrary, it acts best in aa alkaline solution, for instance; 
in the presence of carbonate of soda. It decomposes the albn- 
minoidi farther than pepsin, changing them even so far as to 
produce crystallizable amides. 

EUULSIH. 

This enzyme is found in the hitler almond. It acta upon a 
group of bodic^i called glucosidcs which arc esters of sugars with 
organic acids. Under the inducnce of eniulsin they arc split up 
into simpler substances among which dextrose is always fbnnd. 

DIAST.\SE .AND ST.-VRCH. 

Previous to i860 it was supposed ih.il dextrin was the first 
product resulting from the action of diastase on gelatinised starch, 
and that dextrin wns then converleil im.i siifiar. the starch mole- 
cule uniting with a molecule of water according in the following 
formula : 

C. H,. O. -t- H, O = Olii.O. 
Starch. Walcr. Sugar. 
The process of laking up water is Icriiiod '"hydraliiiii," The prod- 
ucts of hydration wi-igli more than the siibstaiitcs forming tlieni. 
Ninety (larls of starch, fur iiiMance. will iiirnish 100 parts of sugar 
(dextrose). 

Ill tW6o Mustdus .I'ivano.l the theory (.\i.ri.-ilen .kr Chemic 

und Phy.sik. 55. page 203) that dexirin im not an intcmiciliary 

product lielivocn Plarth and sns^r. hut thai ik-xlrii! and sugar 

are produced from plarch simuhani'oti-ly. either (hroiigh the action 

of acids or diastase. Thi? theory foimd general acceptance 

.imong chemi'ls. 

In /f<7» Schttart^er found (Journal fur Practische Chemie) that 

f/ie rcriipcraliirc .it hIijcIi inversion of sVaic\\ \w\i- ^\\?,a,T Wkcs 

place is of confi'dcrablc itilhiencc in diitermwi\ift \\ie T';\a\^wt fo- 



J* CHEMISTRY. 421 

:pot1iOD of sugar and dextrin produced, and that consequently the 
dKmical process of inversion did not always proceed as Musculus 
(appcMcd, according to the formula : 

3C. H,. O, + 2H, O ^ zG H„ O. + C H„ O. 
Starch. Water. Sugar. Dextrin. 

In 1871 Griessmayer discovered that among the products of 
hydration of starch are present two kinds of dextrin. A yrar 
later Brucker named one of these variations of dextrins "erythro- 
dextrin" (red dextrin), and the other "achroo-dextrin" (colorless 
dextrin), the first having the property of being colored red by 
iodine, while Ihe second remains colorless. 

In 1872, O'SuUivan, while engaged in the study of the action 
of fresh malt extract on the dextrins just mentioned, found that 
the sugar formed is not dextrose, as iiad been supposed up to 
that time, but another sugar, isolated first by De Saussure, as 
early as 1819, from the products of hydration of starch, but 
named "maltose" by Duhrunfaunt only in 1847. O'Sullivan was 
the first who informed us of the influence of temperature, time and 
concentration on the relative amounts of maltose and dextrin re- 
sulting from the action of malt extract on starch. According to 
O'Sullivan's investigation the relative proportion of maltose to 
dextrin is much higher in case inversion takes place at*a tem- 
perature below 145° F., than at about IS5° F. 

In 1878 Musculus and Gruber expressed the opinion that the 
Starch molecule is disintegrated by the action of diastase in suc- 
cessive stages. First a molecule of maltose and a molecule of a 
dextrin arc formed, having a molecular weight nearly as high as 
starch. This dextrin is in its turn split up into maltose and dex- 
trin of lower molecular weight, until a dextrin is formed on 
which diastase does not act imdcr usual conditions. 

In 1879 Brown and Heron made valuable contributions lo our 
knowledge of llie action of diastase on starch. They found, first, 
that diastase has no effect on unruptured potato starch; sec- 
ondly, that when starch was ground in a mortar with quartz, sand, 
etc., it was slowly transformed by diastase into maltose and 
dextrin at a low temperature; thirdly, that gelatinized starch is 
quickly liquefied in the cold, and slowly transformed into maltose 
and dextrin ; fourthly, that the action oj maW tulta.'A, a.\\.ct Ve-i\- 
mg, was materially changed as to its power ol \ivi«t=.\o^,'^'o-'^ ■wA 
as to its power of /iqiicfying starcli; fiUWy, \.W\. VV«. x*.**:^-*' 



423 CHEICISTRY. 

amoonts of maltose and dextrin formed below 140* F. wen 
about the same, while at temperatures above 140* F. the relative 

amount of maltose decreased and that of dextrin increased; 
sixthly, that at higher temperatures, dexirins are formed that 
are, as far as their molecular structure is concerned (erythro-dex- 
trin), closer to starch than those formed at lower temperatures 
(achroo-dextrins) ; seventhly, that the action of diastase is much 
retarded in alltaline solutions, while ery thro- dextrin is foimed 
at the same time. 

The experiments of Brown and Fleron, besides being of great 
practical interest, enabled them to formulate a theory which coin- 
cided with that expressed by hfusculus and Gruber. They regard 
soluble starch as a conipkx of 10 groups of Ci> H» Oi«. By the 
action of diastase one of these groups unites uiti) water, forming 
maltose, while the remaining nine are left as erylhro-dexirin. 
This, in turn, loses one of Its Cn H» O'lt groups by combination 
with water, forming maltose and leaving a dextrin with eight 
Cii Hs 0^< groups, etc. Brown and Heron assume, therefore, the 
existence of nine ditlerent dextrins. which goes to illustrate 
the exceedingly complex nature of the process of the breaking 
down of the starch molecules. 

In 1879 Hertzfeld (Inaugural Dissertation. Halle) found in the 
products of starch hydration a body which he described as being 
intermediate between achroo- dextrin and m.iltose. and which he 
termed mallo-dextrin. He assumed that it w.i; composed of two 
molecules of dextrin aud one of dextrose. 

The results of a number of experiments made by Brown and 
Morris, and communicated in 1S85 (Journal Chemical Society, 
1885. page 52;), and later (Trans. Lab, Club HI, 4, i8ga 
Brewing Trade Review, 1895) led them to enunciate the so- 
called malto-dexirin or amykiin theory of the hydration of starch 
by diastase. They view the starch molecule as composed of five 
dextrin molecules, four of which are grouped an'mid a central 
dextrin molecule. When acted upon by diasln'e llic four groups 
are readily split off and hydrated, yieldini; be-iiles maltose a 
number of niallo-dcxtrinf:. that is. bodies containing dextrin and 
niallosc in varying proportions, while ihc centrally grouped mole- 
ca)e oi de.vlrin is st.ible, that is, it undergoes hydration only with 
extreme difficulty. The clieinical equation ioi i.\\\^ ^lotes^ U the 
^//on-ing': 



CHEMISTRY. 423 

5 {C« H- 0„)- = (C„ H, 0,.)» + 4 <C„ H» 0«)« 
Starch Stable Subject to 

molecule. dextrin. hydration. 

The four dextrin groups take up water readily under the tn- 
flnence of diastase, yielding first malto-dextrins with a high 
amount of dextrin and low amount of maltose; this, in turn, be- 
ing hydrated to malto-dextrins with ever decreasing amounts 
of dextrin and increasing amounts of maltose, until 
finally maltose is reached. The first malto-dextrin formed 
would have one maltose molecule and nineteen dextrin molecules, 
the second two maltose molecules and eighteen dextrin mole- 
cule*, the last one nineteen maltose molecules and one dextrin 
molecule. 

According to Brown and Morris these amyloins or malto- 
dextrins are well defined chemical substances that are changed by 
the action of diastase into maltose, and are but slowly ferment- 
able, but the more readily so, the smaller the number of dextrin 
groups and the larger the number of maltose groups they con- 
tain, that is, the closer they approach in composition pure mal- 
tose. In practice, the nialto-dextrins remain intact during the 
^ncipal fermentation, but arc gradually split up during the sec- 
ondary fermentation, which, in the case of top-fermenting beers, 
like stock ale and stout, is carried out by wild yeasts. 

According to Lintner and D&ll (Berichte der deutschen Chem. 
Gesellschaft, 1893. page 2,^33), diastase splits up starch into the 
following six bodies: Amylo-dexIrJn (blue color with iodine), 
erythro-dexirin (red color with iodine), achroo- dextrin (no color 
with iodine) I and II, isomaltose, and maltose. According to 
their view maltose is evolved at once out of starch and not through 
the successive stages of dexirins and ma! to- dextrin. During the 
principal fermentation the maltose ferments, while during the 
secondary fermentation isomaltose, together with achroo-dextrins 
I and 11, slowly ferment, being gradually changed to maltose and 
dextrose by an enzyme contained in the yeast (yeast mallase). 

Prior (Bayerisches Brauer journal, 1896, page 157) discovered 
another dextrin which he calls achroo- dextrin III, and considers 
to be practically unfermentablc, and the one which remains in 
the beer. Prior's view is that the maltose, saccharose,, 'i«.*.\.\'iw:. 
and levuJose contained in the beer, are aU Tea4i\^ Vwuv^tiVM*. ■mA 
oafy small Quantities remain aiter Iht v'tv^^li'^ Vt\m<:ti.'i.a.'>iQ^ 



4^4 CHEMISTRY. 

while isoinallosc and the achroo-dexlrins I and II remain prac- 
tically intact during the principal fermenlation, but are graditallr 
hydrated, changed to dextrose, and fermented during the second- 
ary fermentation, achroo-dextrin III alone resisting the attack 
of the yeast. A similar view was also expressed by Krieger about 
■imultancously tviih Prior. 

The theories of Brown and Morris and Lintner have not as yet 
become reconciled, and iherc are observers, basing their views on 
original work, who dispute the validity of both, for instance, 
Schcibler and Mittelmaier (Berichte dcr deutschen Chem. Gesell- 
schaft, i8Q3, page 2,93a), and Ost (Chemikerztg., 1895, page 
1,501). Be this as it may, practical brewing operations may be 
understood and explained by either hypothesis, although as far as 
top- fermenting beverages, like stock ale and stout, are concerned, it 
■ecms as if the phenomena and the results of the methods of . 
mashing, as well as of those of the subsequent treatment of beer, 
called for the existence of malto-dcxirins in explanation. 

PEPTASE AND ALBUMEN. 



The inquiry into the interaction between peplase and the albu- 
men of barley or mall has not yet furnished so satisfactory re- 
sults as that relative to diastase and starch. This interaction 
seems to be of a still more complex naltire than in the case of 
diastase, a large number of diflffrcnt products resulting, most of 
which still awail characlerizalion. On account of the difficulty of 
their isolation and their evanescent nature these products have 
not received the allenlion of observers in the science of brew- 
ing that their importance as desirable or undesirable constituents 
of the beer seems lo merit. There consequently still remains 
much diversity of opinion regarding proteolytic action, as the 
hydration of albumen by eniymcs is termed, while some investiga- 
tors have gone so far as altogether 10 dispute the very existence 
of any proteolytic enzyme (peptase) in barley or malt. 

Since pcpiase has aft yd been isolated, the process of hydra- 
tion or peptonization by peptase must still be regarded as an hypo- 
thetical one. So many products are known lo be formed, however, 
during the germination and mashing processes, that are very 
similar to. if not idcnlkal with, those w\vic\\ tei^uU Uom the 
Jct/o„ of the enzymes like pepsin and ttjpsvn on awwwA iHmi- 



CHEMISTRY. 425 

mm nndcr similar conditions, that the existence of a vegetable 
catjme in barley and malt has all along been considered inost 
pndMblc. 

The nomenclature adopted for the animal albumens and the 
products obtained by the action of the animal enzymes, pepsin 
sod trypsin, on them, has, on account of this general similarity, 
been extended to the vegetable albumens and the products of the 
action of the hypothetical vegetable enzyme — peptase. Thus we 
have animal and vegetable albumen, animal and vegetable proteida, 
animal and vegetable atbumoscs or proteoses (as albumoses are 
also called), animal and vegetable peptones, animal and vegetable 
amides. That the vegetable albuminoids (this term comprises 
albumen and all nitrogenous bodies derived therefrom) must in 
every particular be identical nith those of animal origin is. how- 
ever, improbable, considering their very complex nature. So we 
need not be surprised to lintl some of the reactions thai character- 
itc animal nitrogenous bodies fail when applied to the vegetable 
substances, as has been shown to be the case of late by Lascynski 
and H. I^e, who found that certain tests which are used to de- 
tect the presence of animal peptones, when applied to wort, give 
negative results. Thai conclusions in this field of research should 
be made only nith great caution is proved by the fact that soon 
after these observers had expressed the view based upon their 
investigations, that peptase did not exist, Windisch proved con- 
clusively that germinating barley does develop a proteolytic en- 
zyme (peplasc), although he has tip lo this writing not yet made 
communication of its isolation. 

Until it has been isolated and its action upon vegetable albumen 
studied, we can only infer what the process may be like, by study- 
ing the known action of the animal enzymes, pepsin and trypsin. 
If an egg is boiled hard, ihc white of it cut up in small parts and 
grated through a sieve and placed in water containing 0.2 per 
cent of hydrochloric acid and a very small amount of pepsin 
added, and this mixture kept at 100° F. (30° R.) for a few hours, 
most of the albumen will be found dissolved, and the hitrale may 
be heated to 190° F. (70° R,) without producing coagulation. 
If heated above 190° F. (70° R,) to boiling point, or neutraliired, 
a coagulate forms which is composed of ayntomtv, cox^e^'^Qtv&Wi 
prohaWj- lo the brewet's coagulable proteiAs. O^ ftvt aSai\«\\wi\*A 
remaining in solution, part are precipiUted 'A tVt wAvftl^Qtv 'i'^ t^"^- 



426 CHEHISTKY. 

nraled with ammonium sulphate. The precipitaled anMunimnds 
are known as proteoses or albumoses, while the substances that 
remain in solution after saturation with ammonium sulphate arc 
called peptones. 

The peptones are not acted upon anj further by pepnn, but 
yield readily to the influence of another animal enzyme, trypsin, 
which changes the peptones into amides. Since germinated barley 
and wort contain large quantities of amides, as the composition 
of malt and wort shows, this indicates that there is quite an en- 
ergetic proteolytic enzyme contained in malt which carries the 
breaking up of the albumen to a farther stage than even pepsin 
is capable of doing. These various products, like proteids, albu- 
moses, peptones and amides, are not well defined characteristic 
bodies like maltose and dextrose, but each name comprises a 
group of more or less numerous bodies, each group being charac- 
terized by a similar behavior of each of its members toward 
reriain reagents and under certain conditions, just as is the case 
with certain products of starch hydration, like the members of 
the group dextrin, which are characterised as nn ferment able, or 
the members of the sugar group, which arc characterized as 
fermentable. 

As to the practical importance of these different albuminoids 
during the process of breiving and as constituents of the finished 
beer, little was known before the last decade. With the exception 
of the amides, which were regarded as valuable as furnishing 
the nitrogenous nutriment required by the yeast, the albuminoids 
as a body ivcre supposed lo exert a detrimental influence on the 
properties of beer, impairing its brilliancy and durability, and 
the English brewing chemists of to-day still bold the opinion that 
the aini of the brewer fliould be to reduce the amount of albu- 
minoids of the wort to a minimum. 

In 1893 (American Brewers' Review, iftlj. Vol. VII. pages 
185 and 201) R. Wahl read paper before the United Stales 
Brcwmasters' Association, to claim attention for the importance 
of the albuminoids of the beer, showing thai some of them, like 
proteids (those which are rendered insoluble by high or very low 
temperatures) may become obnoxious, but others, like the pep- 
lones. are conducive to palate-fulness and foam-holding capacity, 
wAz/e /Ac amides had long since been recognvtei as stT-jvo^ as 
nourisiintent lor the yeast. WahUs claim as lo i\w '"i'**- '='^ ** 



CHEMISTRY. 427 

peptones was based on (he simple experiment of preparing solu- 

(ioni of dextrin and sus^rs in difFercnt amonnts as well as so1u- 
tioDS of peptones obtainable in the market, charging these solu- 
tiotu with carbonic acid gas, cooling and pouring into a glass, 
when it was found that the solutions containing only 0.5 and 0.3 
per cent of peptones had a more creamy head of foam than the 
lolution with either 5 or 3 per cent of dextrin or sugar, while the 
(olution of 0.5 per rent of peptone was as full to the taste as the 
one containing s per cent of dextrin. Thus *as established for 
the first time the fact that peptones have a much greater effect in 
gtvinR palate-fniness to the beer than either sugar or dextrin, 
which latter substance had up to that time been supposed by all 
observers to be principally concerned in imparting foam-holding 
capacity and palate-fulness. 

In 1894 (American Brewers' Review, 1894, Vol. Vll, page S19>, 
Wahl and Nilson published the results of elaborate researches 
regarding the nature and importance of the albuminoids of beer. 

In this investigation the current division of the albuminoids into 
proteids, peptones and amides was accepted, the peptones includ- 
ing the albumoscs. By proteids were meant those albuminoids 
which arc easily precipitated in wort or beer by such processes 
as boiling, storage at low temperature and pasteurization, and 
can be analytically determined by precipitation with cupric hy- 
droxide or acetate of lead. The peptones include those substances 
which are not prccipitable by cupric hydroxide, but are pre- 
cipitated by phosphoro-tungstic acid or tannin, the remaining 
nitrogenous bodies being classed as amides. 

The following results were obtained (American Brewers' Re- 
view. Vol. VII, page s8o) : 

1. In different malt mashes held for an hour and a half at 68, 
77, 86. 100, 104, 113, 131, 149, 158. 167° F. (16, zo, 24, 30, 32. 36, 
44. 52, 56, 60° R.) it Mas found that the largest amount of total 
nitrogenous bodies passed into solution at 113° F. (36° R.),.but 
was very nearly the same for all temperatures between 100° and 
149° (30-52° R.). while above 149° the amount decreased rapidly 
with this temperature, 

2. It these temperatures were maintained for a longer period 
(three hours), the amount of tolal nitroRewiMS 'itAw'!. ™««.-i>5**i. 
31 temperatures below 149° F. (65° R.") , \ivrt ntA tf«v;<i. 



4X8 CHEMISTIty. 

3. Mashes conducted at low temperatures, that is, gs-w**" F- 
(38-33° R.). cODlain a much larger percentage of coagulabk alba- 
Diinoids than mashes made at a higher temperature (from 140- 
176' F.) {48-64° R.). This accounts for the fact thai worts 
prepared at low initial mashing temperature Vkill break better in 
boiling. The proteids. moreover, will be more completely re- 
moved (rom the wort by boiling and through storage at low tem- 
peratures, nnd beers with greater stability will result 

4. tn two mashes, one of which was produced by stirring malt 
into eight parts of boiling water and the other in water of 77° F. 
(20° R.), at which temperature they were kept for two hours, the 
following amounts of nitrogenous bodies were found in sola- 
Temperature ^Z'F. (20°R.) 3i2°F. (8o'R.> 

Albumen 0,467 0.323 

Proteids 0.056 

Peptones 0.129 0.179 

Amides 0.283 0,043 

Proteids in per cent of to- 
tal Albumen 12.2 

Peptones 27,4 80,6 

Amides 60,4 19.4 

Taking the albuminoids found after misiiiR malt with boiling 
water to represent those pre-exlstent in the malt, ibe result shows 
that the wort contains about double the amount when mashed at 
as low a temperature as 77° F, (20° R.) and nearly three times 
the amount when mashed at the temperature most favorable to 
the action of peptase. 

The soluble albuminoids pre-existcnt in the malt consist, for 
the gre.itcr part, of peptones, while those found in the wort 
formed during mashing are mostly amides, 

5. The concentration of the m.ish docs not exert any appreciable 
influence upon the amount of the albuminoids contained in the 
resulting wort within the ratios of malt to water of i to S and i 
to 2V4. (American Brewers' Review. Vol. VIII, page 641,) 

6. The proportion of amides to the total amount of nitrogenous 
substances rem.iins unchanged for difTcreul concentrations and 
tcnipcrniiiref, 

7- The nmount o! nitrogenous bodies ta\;eTi liom vVt ■«qi\ 4>m- 
I'ng fermentation by the yeast (American Btev;<rs,' B,c-i"\t'« , "^ o\. 



CHEMISTRY. 429 

, VII, page 72) varied within rather narrow limits (at a high tem- 
peniture and with powerful aeration), being an average of 30 per 
cent, independent of the m.ishing method, the density of wort or 
the yeast type (high or low fermenting). The loss of nitrogenous 
bodie* was largest in the amide group, and amounted to about 35 
per cent of all nitrogenous bodies. It affected the non-amides 
(fieptoncs, etc.) only to a limited extent, amounting to 2.7 to 4.6, 
or, on an average, 3.5 of the total nitrogenous bodies, 

8. Under the conditions prevailing in tow fennentation brewer- 
ies the losa of nitrogenous bodies occuring during fermentation 
is found to be very near the same per volume of beer or wort, 
whether the wort contains much or Utile nitrogenous matter, and 
is distributed approximately in equal shares among bodies of the 
amide group and those of the peptone group. 

In 1895 Erich corroborated the results obtained by Wahl and 
Nilson (Der Bierbraucr, 1895, page 162). He expresses the 
Opinion, based on his cxperimenis. that, as in gcrmiiialioii, there 
goes on in mashing a process of peptonizing of albuminoids, and it 
must be assumed that this peptonization progresses the further, 
the longer the tnash is kept at a temperature favorable to the op- 
eration of peptonizing enzymes. 

Hantke, in 1895, published (Brewer and Maltster, 189S. page 
1 148) investigations practically covering the same field and lead- 
ing to the same conclusions as Wahl and Nilson, without appar- 
ently having any knowledgi; of the work of those observers, since 
he took no notice of their publication over a year in advance of 
his own. 

' There still remained unanswered the question, which of the 
nitrogenous constituents of the wort possessed the greater power 
of producing foam. Windiseh (Wnchenschrift f. Braiicrei, 1893, 
P&gc 1.181) disputed that the peptones had any value in this re- 
spect, claiming this property for the albunioses. Windiseh 
founded a new mashing method on this theory (Wochcn- 
sehrift f. Brauerei. 1896, page 79, 1254, and 1897, No, 3), asiiuni- 
ing that higher initial temperatures, like those employed in Rug- 
land, would result in worts with larger percentages of albunioses 
and hence in beers with the highest degree of foam-holding ca- 
pacity and palate-fulness, which two properties atfe ^wie.t'iSi'^ 
supposed to go hand in hand. 
Krieger rejected the theory of both ^^Ja^\\ atvi ■^"m'Sxy*. »^ 



430 CHEMISTRY. 

claimed that the coagulable albuminoids formed during ferment- 
ation were responsible for the foam-holding capacity of the beer. 
(The American Brewer, 1897, page 246.) 

In ihc same year M. Henius and G. Thevenot (American Brew- 
ers' Review. Vol. X, page 409 and 410) made two brews in tbe 
experiment brewery of the Scientific Station of Chicago, one 
according to Windisch's method with high initial temperalnre 
{156-158° F., 55-56° R.), the other according to Wabl's method 
with low initial temperature (100° F., 30° R.), holding thit tem- 
perature one hour, the object being to ascertain which of the two 
resultant worts and beers contained the largest amount of foam- 
producing albuminoids. The analysis of the worts showed tbe fol- 
lowing figures : 

Amount of Albumen (N x 6.25) in 100 parts of extract 

Wahl's Windisch's 

Process. Process. 

Wort. Beer. Wort. Beer. 

Total Albmnen S-qS 5.03 5.01 4,08 

Albumen coagulable by boiling 0.23 0,24 0,15 0.17 

Albumen in cupric hydrate 

sediment 0.95 0.82 o.6q 0.57 

Albumoses 0.89 087 0-91 0.84 

Peptones 0.85 0,76 0,54 0.44 

Amides 4.01 3.16 341 2.63 

These results showed that if Ihc foam -holding capacity of beer 
really depends upon certain albuminoids, whether peptone* proper 
or albumoses. or both, a lower initial mashing temperature yields, 
at least practically, the s.ime amount of albumoses and consider- 
ably larger quantities of peptones for the wort than a high initial 
mashing temperature. The amount of amides, it will be seen, is 
also much greater, so that the low initial mashing temperature 
gives considerably more yeast food, llnrcovcr, the figures show 
that there is no breaking liown of the higher molecniar albu- 
minoids into those of lower molecular constitution in conswjucncc 
of lower initial mashing temperalnre, as surmised by Windiscli, 
otherwise the amount of albumoses in the wort made by W.ihl's 
method ought to be considerably less than in the wort made by 
the \\ indiscli method. 
In June. iSg-. W.tM published the tcsuU;, of investigations 
{American Brctvers' Review, Vol. X, page ^i) vi\aic 'h\ <i^4« 

I 



^^^^^ CHEMISTRY. 43p) 

to determine whkli dass of album inoids possesses the highest dc- 
gne of foam-producing power. For this purpose preparatiooi 
were employed containing albumoses, peplones and amides in 
different quantities. The solutions were diluted and shaken so at 
to produce foam, and the height and consistency of this foam 
and time before it collapsed were noted. Following were the 
resnltB: 

I. The relative foam -producing power of a body can be ascer- 
tained by violently shaking a solution, properly diluted, of this 
body and observing the height, fineness and stability of the foam 
thus obtained as compared with other foam-producing bodies. 

3. Among the substances examined, the albuminoids possess by 
far the greatest capacity for producing foam. 

3. Among the albuminoids, the amides and peptones have a 
much greater share in the production of foam than the albumoses. 

4. The coagulable albumen, or so-called protein, has no foam- 
producing capacity whatever. 

5. The foam produced by beating the white of eggs is not 
caused by the coagulable albumen but the non -coagulable albumin- 
oids. 

6. Assuming that the substances contained in wort and beer 
- and obtained from malt and other materials will act the same as 

the substances with which the above experiments were made, par- 
ticularly the albuminoids, as proteins, albumoses, peptones, and 
amides, it should be the aim in the preparation of beer to secure 
large amounts of albumoses, peptones, and amides, whereas the 
proteins must be considered as detrimental, since they can be 
precipitated and impair the foam-producing properties of beer. 

7. Among the albuminoids, the peptones arc the most valuable, 
for the reason that, like the amides, tbcy have an essential func- 
tion in the production of foam, but unlike the amides, are not re- 
moved from beer bv the yeast. 

In August, 1897 (American Brewers' Review. 1897, Vol. X, 
page 44), R. VVahl and L. Henius added further evidence going 
to prove the correctness of Walil's theory by showing that worts 
prepared by Wahl's method with low initial temperature, as com- 
pared to Windiscii's method with high initial temperature, were 
of superior quality for the following reasons : 

I. The Hort made with a low initia\ masVv ^ewv^xW-Vk^t W.\.wt&. 
quickly from the grains and was almost \in\\\»xA-, 



43a 

2. The wort made with a high initial temperature filtered slowly 
from the grains and was quile turbid ; 

3. The wort prepared with low initial temperature of mash, 
when shaken as above described, posiessed greater foam-produc- 
ing power, the bubbles of foam were much finer and the foam 
Stood much longer than in worts made according to WindiKh ; 

4. Being boiled, the Wahl wort broke or clarified excellently 
and almost immediateiy upon coming to a boil, whereas the 
Windiseh wort broke imperfectly even after extended boiling. 
On cooling the worts after boiling and filtering hot, it was found 
that they always became turbid on being cooled to 40° F. (3.5* 
B.), but broke gradually. The worts were kept at 40* F. (3.5* 
R.), and it was found that after the expiration of seven days the 
Wahl worts were fairly clear, whereas the Windiseh worts dis- 
played a pronounced haze, proving that the tatter worts contained 
a lai^r quantity of undesirable, more slowly settling, proteids. 
that is, such .is give rise to beer turbidities, than the former. 

Only a short time since. Windiseh succcedcJ iu proving the 
existence of a proteolytic eniyme, that is, peplase. in malt. Th.is 
enzyme, he finds, exercises its action upon such vcgelnhlc albumen 
only as has been rendered soluble by the process of germination, 
thus corroborating the views expressed all along by llie Scientific 
Station for Brewing of Chicago, which institution has bised 
many of its recommendations for the carrying nut of brewing 
operations on the results of (he experiments obtained in their 
laboratory and described above, 

Messrs. .A. Fernbach and I,. Hubert, on June 25. jooo, almost 
conlcmporanenusly with the paper of Windiseh and Schellhorn 
(Woehenschrift f. Braiierci. XV'II. pnge ,i,ij, and .American 
Brewers' Review. Vol. VII. page giV presented a note to the 
.Academic des Sciences, in which they stated, that they had proved 
the presence of a protcrlylic enzyme in malt from the fact (li.it the 
ecagiilable .^lhuminoids become ni'n-ci^ngnl;ilile when (tic extract. 
rendered absohilcly sicrilc by passing thronRh a Chanibcrland 
filter, wa": submitted (o auto-iligestion between ordinary tempera- 
tures ami 160' F. (57' R.). This eniyme is. according to the 
authors, capable of inverting .ilbumen. which .tubslanliates the 
j(cnrral juppcsitinn in regard to this enzyme. 
// itj.t nnly quite recently ihat unmaileil ceToaV;. -Ke^e \t«*.«'l «i 
/Air lali.^r.iiory of Wahl & Henius. v,i\\\ a \'w« e-l <\«:W^i™tov% 




: their employment in brewing increases the amount of 
tlbmninaids in wort or beer, and the peptase of the mall is 
capaMe of dissolving albumen from unmalted cereals ; incidentally 
also to determine the amount and quality of extract that various 
unmalted cereals will yield when mashed together mith malt. 

Samples of Minoesola, Wisconsin, Utah and Iowa barleys, and 
of wheat, rye, oats, Indian com and rice were analyzed in order 
to determine the quantity of moisture, nitrogen (a)bumen}, min- 
eral matter and raw fiber they contained. (See "Brewing Mate- 
rials.") 

Tbe results of these experiments may be summarized as fol- 
lows: 

I. Unmalted cereals, like rice, corn, wheat, barley and- oats, 
when boiled and then mashed' together nith malt according to 
the usual laboratory method, will yield amounts of albumen which 
*ary from one-quarter of i per cent of the weight of the raw cereal 
in the case of rice to about one-half per cent in the case of 
corn, and about iVj per cent in the case of wheat to 3-i2 P" cent 
in the case of rye, although the amount of albumen contained in 
the different cereals does not show very great differences. 

3. If the raw cereals are mashed without previous boiling and 
without malt, they yield practically the same amount of albumen 
as if they are mashed with malt, whether they are previously 
boiled or not. 

3. Little of the albumen thus coming from the unmalted cereals 
il coagulablc, that is, most of this albumen is to be classed as 
desirable albuminoids. In case of wheat, rye and oats, the worts 
remained hazy after boiling and cooling, whereas with rice and 
corn, there was no haze in such wort. 

4. The albuminoids yielded by the raw cereals are mostly pre- 
formed in the cereals, and there seems to be only a small quantity 
formed during the mashing process. The peptase of malt is with- 
out action on the albumen of unmalted cereals, since barleys 
mashed without malt under the same conditions as with malt, 
yield the same amount of albumen in the wort. 

5. Unmalted barley gives a lower yield when mashed with malt 
than an average malt by itself, although the barley contains a 
higher percentage of starch than malt. This 4'At\t'w;"j va •&«. 

■yield is due to tbe smaller amount oi aVWmen V\E\4t4V] 'CwtVsM- 
ley as against malt. 



' t 



BREWING HATERIALS. 



In order to prepare a perfect beer, coming up to all require 
ments, uniting a pure taste with a brilliant appearance, palate- 
fulness, a creamy, lasting head of foam, and sufficient stability, 
the prime requisite is to employ iaultless materials. Good beer 
can be made only from good materials, and it is incumbent 
upon the brewer who is responsible for the quality of the beer, 
to be able to judge whether the goods supplied to him are suited 
to the purpose or not. 

This chapter is devoted to a detailed discussion of the various 
brewing materials. Attention is called to the points to be in- 
quired into in valuing a material, and the prcpertics enumerated 
and explained which such material ought to possess in order to 
yield a good product. On the other hand, it is pointed out what 
properties in brewing materials detract from their value or make 
them quite unfit for brewing purposes. 

After a discussion of the water, which plays a most important 
part in brewery operations, attention will be first given to such 
materials as supply the extract in the wort, and, at a later stage, 
the extract, alcohol and carbonic acid of the beer. Under this 
head we find chiefly those materials which yield starch, that is, 
cereals, which are used either after undergoing the process of 
malting, or unmalted. in the form of raw cereals, and, lastly, the 
various brewing sugars. To this must be added those materials 
from which the beer derives the hop aroma and the pleasing 
bitter taste, viz., either the whole hops or the preparations 
therefrom which are used in place of the entire hops, as lupu- 
lin and hop extract. A discussion of coloring materials, as 
color malt and the various fluid beer colors, concludes the de- 
scription of brewing materials proper, which constitute what 
may be called brewing materials in the narrow sense of the 

434 



BREWING MATERIALS* 435 , 

Brewing materials, in a broader sense of the term, which do 
not yie'*id any substance to the wort or beer, but are indispensable 
aids in producing the beverage, and hence are not brewing 
matericils, as the term is strictly construed, are next taken up. 
Under this head are counted varnish and pitch, clarifying me- 
diums, as chips and finings, and the various chemicals ^hich, on 
accotint of their germicidal action, are used for cleaning cellars 
and vessels, and preventing mouldy growths. 

In conclusion, there are given some directions how to prepare 
and sliip samples of the various materials or products of the 
brewery for chemical or microscopical examination to a lab- 
oratory devoted to such purposes. For the sake of ready ref- 
erence these directions are not confined to brewing materials, 
but also refer to finished or intermediate products, as beer and 
wort, in fact, all substances that it may be desirable to have 
examined in the course of brewing operations. 

WATER. 

The water used in brewing operations may be classified under 
several points of view: 

a. According to the amount of mineral substances contained in 
them. 

1. Hard waters. 

2. Soft waters. 

b. According to the organic substances, products of putrefac- 
tion, or organisms they contain : 

1. Pure waters. 

2. Impure w.atcrs. 

c. According to their origin: 

1. Rain water. 

2. Condensed or distilled water. 

3. Lake water. 

4. River water, 

5. Spring water. 

6. Shallow well water. 

7. Deep well water. 

In estimating the value of a wafer regard should be had to its 
availability for: 
I. MahJnfr. 
2. Brewing. 



436 



BREWING MATERIALS. 



3. Watering yeast 

4. Feeding boiler. 

5. Washing vessels, implements and bottles. | 

6. Cooling. j 

7. Dissolving finings. j 

8. Wiatcrffi€f-howa«.(lJL(tvv**^ Jt4A^}%v-.*t-C/-, 
According to the purpose for wtiich it is intended, water is 

judged by the amount contained in it, of: 

1. Mineral constituents. 

2. Organic substances. 

3. Living organisms. 

Water takes up various constituents on its passage through 
the soil. Some arc soluble directly m water; others are made 
soluble by carbonic acid, which the water takes up while falling 
through the sir in the shape of rain, or from the foil. The 
solvent action of carbonic acid is noted with reference to car- 
bonate of lime and magnesia, which, being encountered in the 
soil in an insoluble form, are converted into soluble bicar- 
bonates by the carbonic acid of the water. 

The substances contained in water in general are: 

1. "Gases:" Air (oxygen), carbonic acid, sometimes sulphu- 
retted hydrogfcn (noticeable by its odor). 

2. **Organic substances" and "microorganisms" and the ''prod- 
ucts of decomposition" set up by them, as ammonia, nitrous and 
nitric acid (all of which are undesirable in brewery operations). 

3. "Mineral constituents." 

a. Lime in the form of bicarbonate of lime, sulphate 
of lime or gj'psum, chloride of calcium. 

b. Magnesia, in the form of bicarbonate of magnesia, sul- 

phate of magnesia or Epsom salts, chloride of mag- 
nesium. 

c. Sodium, in the form of chloride of sodium or common 

salt, sulphate of sodium or Glauber salt, bicarbonate 
of sodium. 

d. Potassium in the form of chloride, sulphate, or bicar- 

bonate of potassium. 

e. Iron, in the form of bicarbonate of iron. 

f. Aluminum in the form of hydrated oxide of aluminum. 

g. Silicic acid. 




437 



HARDITESS OF WATDU 

According to the amount of mineral constituents contained 
in (olnlion, sonic waters are called hard and some soft. In the 
case of hard water, a distinction is made, according to the nature 
of the minerals it contains in solution, between temporary and 
permanent hardness. 

Timforary hardness is shown by tliose waters which, upon 
boiling, throw up a white film, form a white sediment and become 
softer. This is caused by bicarbonates of lime, magnesia, 
alttmma. or iron giving off part of their carbonic acid in boiling, 
whereby they become insoluble and are precipitated. Long ex- 
posure to air while standing will also soften such waters. 

Analysis of a water of temporary hardness: 






)c[gr 



ilmg. 



V»t II»llon 

Permanent hardness is shown by waters which do not be- 
come softer by boiling. Causes: Sulphate of lime and mag- 
nesia, chloride of calcium and of magnesium. 

The hardness o( any given water is subject to great fluctua- 
tions. 

Analysis of a permanently hard water: 



chlori 



a:,"- 



of n 



esla. 



A tier 



.eipUm. 



"Order of Waters according to Hardness, 
surface a water is taken, the harder it is, as 
portunitics for taking up mineral 
deeper it has sunk into the earth, 
will become softer in proportion as 
Hence the following order of waters 

Artesian water. 

Spring and well water. 

River and stream water. 

Lake water. 

Rain water. 

Condensed or distilled water. 
"The Order of Waters, according 

Condensed or distilM water. 



The deeper below 
t is, as a rule, since the op- 

latters are the greater, the 
On the other hand, water 
; it is exposed to the air. 
i, according to hardness; 



Purity," U a.^ioM.'i. w. ^tJ.- 



438 BREWING MATERIALS. 

Spring >water. 
Artesian water. 
Well water. 
Lake water. 
River water. 

Rain water as usually collected. 
The amount of organic matter is the less, the deeper the water 
is taken from the ground, and, on the other hand, the greater, the 
longer it remains in contact with putrefying substances on the 
surface of the soil. 

"Degrees of Hardness." For the purpose of comparing the 
hardness of different waters certain standards are in use, which 
are as follows: 

I German degree of hardness: i part lime, calculated on 
calcium oxide, in 100,000 parts water. 

I French degree of hardness: i part carbonate of lime in 
100,000 parts water. 

I British degree of hardness: i grain carbonate of lime in 
I British gallon of water. 

The amounts of the various constituents of a water arc staled 
in parts per 100,000, or per million parts of water. In the United 
States they are mostly stated in grains per United States gallon. 

ACTION OF CONSTITUENTS HELD IN SOLUTION. 

If the substances enumerated occur in the water in consid- 
erable quantities, their action is felt in the following manner: 

1. Organic matters and microorganisms promote putrefac- 
tion and mold. 

2. Ammonia, while harmless in itself, indicates the presence 
of putrefying matter and bacteria of putrefaction. 

3. Nitrous acid hinders saccharification, is a strong yeast poi- 
son, may cause disturbances in fermentation, and, being a product 
of ammonia oxidation, indicates the presence of products of 
putrefaction. In fermentations at high temperatures (top-fer- 
mentation) the beer may acquire an oflFensivc odor, as of chlorine 
(Windisch). 

4. Nitric acid is injurious only if present in quantities by 
impeding steeping and the beginning of germination, hindering 
the development of the radicle. In the presence of de-nitrifying 
(reducing) bacteria, nitric acid may be transformed into nitrous 

acid, which will then exercise its pcrmcious \u^\\<it\cc^. 



^ BREWING MATERIALS. 439 

''5. Chlorine. Large amounts of chlorine, particularly if 
cofl|>led with a simultaneous large amount of ammonia, makes 
a water suspicious, as it suggests the possibility of infection 
by drainage, particularly sewage, animal or human excre- 
ments and bacteria. The chlorine compounds have the following 
action: 

Sodium chloride delays steeping of the barley and the begin- 
ning of germination, impedes the development of the rootlets, 
and promotes the growth of the acrospire. 

Magnesium, or calcium chloride, has a similar action in 
malting, and is particularly detrimental in boiler feed water 
since it has a powerful corrosive action on the boiler shell. 

6. Lime. 

a. Sulphate of lime is desirable for malting and brewing, par. 
ticularly for producing pale beers. It extracts from the barley 
less of the valuable constituents, precipitates albuminoids in boil- 
ing more completely and in more coarsely flocculent form, while 
extracting less of the coarse and rank matters from hops. It 
18 undesirable for boiler feeding, as it forms very hard scale. 

b. Carbonate of lime. On the whole, rather unimportant, un- 
desirable for boiler feeding, if in large quantities, as it forms 
scale ; desirable constituent for the production of extra pale beers. 

c. Calcium chloride. See under Chlorine. 

7. Magnesia. A moderate amoimt is desirable. Larger quan- 
tities often cause diarrhoea, magnesia having a strong laxative 
action. For magnesium chloride, see under Chlorine. 

8. Sodium. According to researches in the laboratory of 
Wahl & Hcnius, bicarbonate of soda, making a water alkaline, is 
undesirable, even in small quantities. In malting it hinders the 
growth of the acrospire, in brewing it weakens the diastase, and 
thereby delays saccharification of the mash. Gives dark colored 
beers, stubborn of clarification. Neutralizes the lactic acid of 
the wort, and hence the beer is more expostd to ihc action of 
microorganisms, increasing the liability to bacterial turbidity. 
In boiler feed water it is apt to cause foaming. 

For sodium chloride see under Chlorine, 

9. Iron, in larger quantities, produces an off-colored, gray malt, 
darkens the wort in mashing by uniting with the hop tannin 
to tannate of iron (ink), which imparls to l\v^ \>^^x ;ixv wnVj v-a.'t^.^ 
Colors yeast dark. 



440 BREWING MATERIALS. 

FBOPERTIES OF BREWING WATER. 

The fitness of a water is judged by the purpose for which it is 
to be used. Thus : 

1. For malting: Pure, moderately hard water, with gypsum, 
poor in nitrates, iron and chlorine compounds, practically free 
from decaying organic matter, microorganisms (molds, bacteria 
of putrefaction), ammonia. Excessively soft water extracts too 
much mineral matter from the barley, which is required for 
yeast food. The temperature of the water should be uniform, 
for cold water delays the steeping process, warm water accel- 
erates it, but also promotes noxious mold growth. Fluctuating 
temperatures produce irregular steeping. 

2. For Brewing. Moderately hard water, with a certain 
amount of sulphate of lime and common salt, poor in sodt and 
iron; for very pale beers, poor in carbonates. The purity of 
the water is of less moment in this respect, as long as the water 
remains without odor or taste, since microorganisms are ren- 
dered innocuous by boiling the wort. 

3. For Washing Tanks, Bottles, Barrels, etc. Water should be 
without any considerable amount of decaying matter. 

4. For Watering Yeast. Moderately hard, pure water from 
springs or shallow wells. Condensed water is best, after hard- 
ening, by adding plaster of Paris. 

5. For Dissolving Finings. . Soft water of good purity. 

6. For Steam Boiler. The softest water that can be had, par- 
ticularly free from sulphate of lime, sodium carbonate, chlorides of 
calcium and magnesium and organic matter. 

7. For Cooling. Water should be free from acids and without 
too great temporary hardness, since the precipitated carbonates 
would, in the course of time, stop up the pipes. 

8. For Watering Horses. Moderately hard, pure water. 

IMPROVING WATER. 

If a water does not come up to all requirements, it may in 
many cases be improved by a variety* of means. 

Purifying from suspended matter and bacteria. Impure water 
with an excess of substances in suspension or of micro-organisms 
is purified by filtration through sand or other filterinpf devices, 
and the number of bacteria materially diminished. The con- 
struction of a sand filter, easy of preparation, may be seen from 
the accompanying s/cetch. 



'* BREWING MATERIALS. 44I 

XiaU OF TYPICAL AHEMCAN WATEKS (laBORATORV OF WAHL A 

UBNIUS, CHICAGO). 

Mineral const ilue no. (re Kiven in Rniu pci Kalian. 





1 


1 


3' 

5 


1 


a 


1 


i 


1 

1 




f 


WaMr wlib larRe 

Alhkllne walvT 

AlkalliH: water 
rJo'iint of Gl»*ii- 


11 


■ts 

B7.4 


1:S 


31.1 


it 

n 
P 

lis 
U.I 

13.3 


14 t' 


7.4 

o"i 
»,i 

ill 

10.0 

I2J 
WO 


Nfotrul 
Alkallnf 
Alkaline 

KeHlm 
Kuuiru 

Keutrol 
Nciilral 
Neulral 


*7.1i 
»l.4 


8,2 








Tn«e 
O.B 

TtWM 

S.» 
t.o 

»,T 
US 


■'i',! 




True 


2.4 


Hediiim soti wuLer 




0,1 

4.« 

1.0 

ST.S 

Bifl 


i:S 










Walvr ot tempo- 








WaiuT ut umtm- 
raryl.iirdcics«.... 
Waiir o( perms 






1 1 




".... 


'11 




.... 




™,s 


tj.i 




An excess of organic matters, ill-snielling gases and iron 
may be diminished or removed by artificial aeration, the air 
blown through oxidizing the organic matters, carrying off the 
gases, and transforming the iron into insoluble iron oxidf . whicb. 
settles on the boilom. The water may be aeT-o.\e4\>'j \^\■Ev"L\\■^^^■i»^ 
ivater over the sarface cooler, Over bviT>4\e& oi V«v%^ V^j^-^Sw- 



442 



BREWING MATERIALS. 



werk), by a sprinkling rose, or forcing-in air. A suitable terat- 
ing device may be constructed with the aid of an old storage tank 
according to the accompanying sketch. Water may also be im- 
proved by boiling. 




Hardening waters that arc loo soft (Burionizing). An addi- 
tion of plaster of Paris, sulphate of magnesia, or common sail, 
preferably in a powder in the hot water lank, will make soft 
water more suitable, particularly for very pale beers. The 
s of these sails to be applied are governed by the prop- 
' water in question. 



BREWING MATERIALS. 



443 



Making Injurious Constituents Indifferent. If a water contains 
an excess of alkaline carbonates (soda), it is improved by an 
addition of a suitable amount of calcium chloride. This 
salt will neutralize the alkaline carbonates, but the quantities to 
be added must be accurately calculated. 

The chlorides of magnesium and calcium are modified into 
the harmless carbonates of magnesium and calcium .by an ad- 
dition of carbonate of sodium. Sulphate of sodium is changed 
into sulphate of lime and common salt by an addition of calcium 
chloride. 

Softening hard water, particularly for boiler feeding: 

1. By boiling. This is useful for temporary hardness only. 
If a water of temporary hardness is boiled for half an hour 
and allowed to settle or filtered before using, the bicarbonate 
of calcium and magnesia will be eliminated and the water soft- 
ened. 

2. By chemicals. Feed-water may be softened either before 
, or after it enters the boiler, the latter course being preferable. It 

is best done (see Boiler Compounds) by adding: 

Precipitates : 



Soda lye (caustic soda). 

Sodium carbonate (crystal- 
lized or washing soda). 
Trisodium phosphate. 

Sodium fluoride. 

Milk of lime (only outside 
of the boiler). 



Bicarbonate of lime and 
magnesia. 
Sulphate of lime. 

Sulphate of lime and bicar- 
bonate of lime and magnesia. 

Sulphate of lime and bicar- 
bonate of lime and magnesia. 

Bicarbonate of lime and 
magnesia. 



It is indispensable to have the water analyzed before treatment. 
Where the above remedies are used, the minerals that cause the 
temporary or permanent hardness are eliminated not in the form 
of a solid crust, but in a powder-like, muddy condition, and can 
be ejected by blowing off, if the boiler compound was added in 
the boiler, after the boiler has cooled down, otherwise the pre- 
cipitated powder will harden into solid pieces. 

In using caustic soda, sodium carbonate, trisodium phosphate, 
and sodium fluoride in the boiler, the requisite amount, which 
has been previously accurately calculated, is either pumped into 
the boiler in the form of a concenlralcd so\v\V\ow, o\/\vv "Ocv^ ^30.^ 
o/the drst two articles, the requisite amouivX. f.^^^ vvoV \>^ vlAox- 



444 



BREWING MATERIALS. 



lated in advance, but the concentrated solution is kept running 
into the boiler until a sample of the water will color red 
litmus paper slightly blue. From time to time this test is re- 
peated and more concentrated solution added if necessary. 

The four above articles may also be used outside of the boiler; 
also milk of lime, which is efficient only for temporary hardness. 
In using mWk of lime for temporary hardness, first note the 
parts per million of carbonate of lime contained in the vrater, 
multiply the figures by 0014 and the product will give the nifnber 
of pounds of burnt lime to be taken per 100 barrels of vtatcr, 
slake the lime in a little water, stir it to a thin milk of lime, and 
add to the water, which should be in a tank provided with 
exhaust steam. Stir well, heat to a boil, and boil for 15 minutes, 
let settle, and after two hours draw off the clear water. 

Sodium carbonate, often called soda, is used sometimes to- 
gether with substances containing tannic acid, as extracts from 
the bark of trees. If inferior material is employed in making 
this compound a peculiar odor may be imparted to the steam,, 
precluding its use in the mash-tub or cooker, in fact, wherever live 
steam is used. 

ENGLISH BREWING WATERS. 

Sykes treats at length on the requirements of brewing waters 
in England. The following quotation is from his book, "Prin- 
ciples and Practice of Brewing," 1897. pp. 375 to 377. 

Waters Adapted for Producing Pale Ales. — The waters most 
suitable for the production of pale ales are those which contain 
calcium sulphate in fairly large quantity. Of these the Burton 
waters may be taken as typical examples. The following are the 
results of an analysis of the water from a deep well situated in 
that town: (All analyses of English waters are given in Eng- 
lish weights and measures.) 



Grains per 
gallon. 

Silica 0.49 

Alumina 0.49 

Iron oxide trace 

Lime . , 3^-33 

Magnesia 10.15 

Soda 7.25 

Potash 0.86 

Chlorine 2.yj 

Su/phun'c acid 5^-29 

-Citric acid. "1.25 



Grains per 
gallon. 

Sodium chloride 3.90 

Potassium sulphate 1.59 

Sodium nitrate 1.97 

Sodium sulphate 10.21 

Calcium sulphate 77.87 

Calcium carbonate 7.62 

Magnesium carbonate... 21.31 
Silica and alumina 0.98 



445 

la this and similar waters the unotuit of calciimi sulphate is 
exceeding]]' high, whilst a fair amount of calcium and magnesium 
carbonates, which are precipitated on boiling, are also present; 
tbe chlorides are very small in quantity. The amount of calcium 
sulphate in this particular water is undoubtedly very large, and 
moU probably all the passible beneficial effect to be derived itotn 
the presence of calcium sulphate in a brewing water may be 
obtained with from 40 to 50 grains per gallon of that salt 

Waters Suitablt for Black Beers.^Aa a contrast to this class 
of waters, an analysis of one of the Dublin well waters is ap- 
pended: 



Grains per 

gallon. 

Silica 0.26 

Iron oxide and alumina, . 0.34 

Lime 9.79 

Magnesia 0.43 

Soda 0.97 

Chlor' 



sper 



gallor 



Sodium chloride. . 

Calcium sulphate 4.45 

Calcium carbonate 14^1 

Magnesium carbonate — 0.90 
Iron oxide and alumina. . o^ 

Silica 0.26 

Sulphuric acid.. 

Waters of this class are distinguished by the small quantity of 
calcium sulphate and all the other constituents, with the excep:ion 
of calcium carbonate, which they contain. This l^st salt is almost 
entirely removed on boiling such a water. 

Waters Pitted for Mild Ales, — The following Is the analysis of 
a water adapted for the production of mild ales : 

Grains per 



Sodiu 



chlor 



all"™. 



35-14 

Calcium chloride 3.88 

Calcium sulphate 6.23 

Calcium carbonate 16,37 

Magnesium carbonate, .,, 4.01 

Iron oxide and alumina, a.24 

Silica o,aa 



gallon. 

Iron oxide and alumina. 0.24 

Lime 13.13 

Magnesia i.gi 

Soda 18,62 

Chlorine 23.81 

Sulphuric acid 3,67 

The essential characteristic of this class of waters is the high 
amount of chlorides and the comparatively small amount of cal- 
cium sulphate which they contain. 

ARTIFICIAL TREATMENT OF BREWING WATERS. 

From the above generalizations of the inotarnvt tciTv^\!\\.-'j.'A'SR ti\ 
those waters which have been found bj cx^m'wtvcc. \(i^«.*w,''^^^ 
fitted tor the production of the difietcnl c\as«ft ol s^**- '*■ ■" 



446 



BREWING MATERIALS. 



obvious that no single water possesses the qnalifications necessary 
for producing every class of beer. Fortunately, the knowledge 
acquired during the past few jrears has shown that it is possible 
so to modify the inorganic constitution of many waters that this 
important result may be attained. Some waters do not lend them- 
selves so readily to this treatment, and there still remain others 
which it is absolutely impossible to convert into good brewing 
waters. As an example of the first of these may be adduced the 
waters from the chalk, which are very frequently met with, and 
which are highly valued for brewing purposes. 

The following is the analysis of one of these : 

Grains per 
gallon. 

Calcium chloride 0.21 

Sodium chloride a84 



Grains per 
gallon. 

Calcium carbonate 17.92 

Magnesium carbonate 0.49 

Calcium sulphate 0.07 

Potassium sulphate 0.56 



Magnesium nitrate 1.05 

Silica 1.12 



Such a water as this, without any other treatment than boiling. 
is eminently fitted for the production of black beers, since, when 
boiled, the carbonates are almost completely precipitated, and very 
little solid matter of any kind remains in solution. 

To convert such a water into one suitable for the production 
of pale ales, an addition of those salts in which the water is 
deficient must be made, and its inorganic constitution brought 
more into agreement with that of a water of Type I., of which an 
analysis has just been given. 

Thatcher says that the majority of methods suggested from 
time to time for the artificial treatment of brewing waters or 
liquors have proved more or less unsatisfactory. He recommends 
• to make a solution of all the salts, and then add in the liquor 
tank prior to heating for mashing. He gives the table printed on 
the next page for the treatment of waters (Brewing and Malting 
Practically Considered, 1898, pp. 10 to 11). 

(If any brewing waters possess saline or alkaline substances dif- 
ferent to those given in the table, they should, where possible, be 
so altered in character as to bring them to this standard. If pres- 
ent in excess of the figures in the table, the addition of more will 
be unneccssarv*. but when a water is deficient in these inorganic 
substances, they shou\(l be added as directed.) 



[.\i.e.&ifiL3, 

lUUE FOR TBS TXEATySNT OF SOFT WATEK TOS rABXOUS B 



-Mine or AUaltno SMIb 


11 

II 


1 




I 


r' 


3S 

Is 


3||S 

m 


■^s,,""""" 


90 


40 


« 


" 


- 


- 


tb% 


"SST-""-" 


Id 


Ifi 


- 




- 


- 


M» 


CUdiimcblorLdB. 


U> 


JS 


- 


- 


- 


- 


NX 




10 


^ 


- 


• 


» 


- 




(ii.c:i) 




ISiw*^ 


~ 




30 


~ 


~ 


% 


ass 


Sodl'im carbonate 

HajCO, 


- 


- 


- 


- 


" 


- 


a% 


Tmfl]|,Tiilii8,'vri:iill>iT, 


ao 


(^ 


-.u 


w 


45 


as 


— 



GERMAN BREWING WATERS. 
Thausing gives a number of analyses of brewing waters used in 
Germany and Austria, which are condensed in the following 
table: 





Ii 
1 


1 

II 


II 


1 

1 


i 

1 

a" 


a 
1 
1= 






(iallon. 


brill.. 


Munlcb, 




,, „. 


,. 


11. 


Total mttdiio 


o.u 


's"i 


J;Sf 

li.oe 

si 


il 
11 


o'.u 

9.4< 


II ill 


31. » 


18.71 


ss.so 

12, OS 

"aier 


sn.ss 

T.W 




liitU 


10. « 
"i'-ih 














Din 

0.18 


!:!? 




If&'Sdr:;; 


lllt'o 




















m""-"* 




oVs" 

.67 


O.*' 


o.'aa' 


.... 




FS'S-«S-» 


Bardnea. In Oat- 


»..U.. 


ffilSft 


■ma 


A. 


-\. 



44^ BREWIKG MATERIALS. 

EXTRACT-YIELDING BREWING MATERIALS. 

From the materials which yield the extract, the wort receives, 
in a general way, the following constituents: 

1. Sugar. 

2. Dextrin. 

3. Albuminoids. 

4. Mineral substances. 

5. Lactic acid. 

The starch-containing materials give all of these substances, 
the sugars only sugar or dextrin. Sugar and dextrin are products 
of starch inversion. The albuminoids are modifications of the 
insoluble albuminoids of various materials 

All the constituents extracted from the materials by water, 
largely with the aid of enzymes, are comprehcndetl under the 
term "extract." On the whole, a material is the more valuable 
the more extract it will supply. If it is desired to use other 
materials besides malt, their value is estimated by 

1. The amount of extract they will yield in the mash. 

2. The composition of such extract. 

As a general proposition, the malt adjuncts contain insijjnifi- 
cant amounts of desirable albuminoids, lactic acid and mineral 
substances, consisting very largely of starch (except the sugars). 

STARCH-CONTAINING BREWING MATERLVLS. 

The starch-containing materials arc the principal ones, in 
point of quantity, that are used in brewing. Some arc used in a 
malted condition as barley and wheat malt, others arc used un- 
malted and are called raw cereals, among which the main ones 
are corn, rice, prepared corn, also rolled wheat. Although other 
materials may be used, they must remain adjuncts, the greater 
amount of barley malt being indispensable. 

The value of starch material is governed by 

1. The amount of starch. 

2. The readiness with which this starch can be opened up 
or made available. 

3. The composition of the extract obtained. 



BRBWING Uaterials. 449 

j BARLEY. 

J/ji/ory.— The history ot barley culture In the western states o! 
the Union may be dated from the settlement of German pioneers 
in the territory which ia now the state ot Ohio. It is not known 
from what seed the Ohio fall barley, which, until 1888, was the 
only kind used (or malting; in Ohio, was derived. The time 
when brewing barley from the western states began to be a 
factor in the markets of the Union may be fixed about 1875-1880. 
In the eastern statea only local or Canadian barley was used u;> 
to that time, although at present they are the principal markets 
lor western barley and malt. It was difficult to convince the 
brewers that the continual improvement of western barley owing 
to its closer relation to the soil was really worthy of considera- 
tion. Wisconsin and Iowa at that time were growing a barley 
which was called Scotch and adapted itself most completely to 
the soil. Minnesota and Nebraska were raising a Canadian 
variety. All of them stuck to the original seed, with few varia- 
tions. The climate proving mifavorable there, Nebraska has 
ceased to occupy an important place among ihe barley growing 



QUALITIES OF BARLEYS OF OIFFEBEHT STATES. 

Some western states, principally the Dakotas, grow a barley 
which is steadily improving. It was derived from the European 
Saalc barley. The Pacific Coast and Montana raise a fine barley, 
called Chevalier and Bay Brewing, which is derived from Saale, 
Manna and Moravian barley. This product is, for the most part, 
marketed on the Pacific Coast and in Europe. Numerous tests 
have shown (hat the barleys of the middle West are best suited for 
the preparation ot American malt and American beer. 

The soil of Ihe States of Wisconsin, Minnesota and Iowa is 
peculiarly fitted for growing barley, being largely made up of 
eak:ircous clay and rather sandy. Often, however, the barley 
suffers from sudden changes in temperature. The chinch bug 
has been gradually forcing the barley fields further north, and 
extensive regions in Southern Wisconsin have given up barley 
growing altogether on account of the bug. 

Taking an average, Iowa barley comes first in color, form, and 
mealiness of the berries. Wisconsin gives a bi^?,fi Vt-^-^-i "A 
medium and often pale color with an incVmalKcm Vo-w^^i ^ii.=,^\'Ml^^ 
Minnesota barley Is smaller. Dakota barU-^ w ^eX.'i'cv^ '^e-VJ 



450 BREWING MATERIALS. 

from year to year, but will have to undergo a more ext^sive 
test before its character can be considered settled. Wiscbnsin 
and Minnesota have a soil peculiarly suited for barley groWing, 
whereas the climate is better in the latter state and Iowa. Ohio 
and Indiana play no great part as barley growers. Northern 
Illinois may be taken into consideration, but is losing gnmod 
fast in favor of more northerly regions on account of the cbinch 
bug. 

InAuence of Feriiiisers on the Quality of Barley.— In rasing 
barley farmers are apt to make a mistake in using fresh manure 
and too much of it This promotes the growth of straw and thick 
husks, and augments the quantity of albuminoids at the ex- 
pense of the starch. Proper manuring, uniform seeding, 4ccp 
plowing and good aeration of the soil are highly important re- 
quirements to grow good brewing barley. In order to aroid 
vitreous corns the grain ought not to be cut before it is quite 
ripe, as is quite generally done. 

VARIATION OF BARLEY OWING TO THE CLIMATE. 

American barley differs from European in that it has no such 
firmly established character as to permit of adopting any rule 
that could be applied with any degree of certainty to its treat- 
ment. The reason is to be looked for in the frequent siiduen 
changes of weather and temperature. 

STORAGE OF BARLEY. 

Barley should be put in storage perfectly dry and well 
cleaned. It requires careful watching, especially in the summer 
time, to avoid heating. After remaining in storage through 
the summer until fall it is very desirable for malting until the 
new crop has fully matured. But there will be a loss of five to 
ten per cent of the germinating capacity at the end of the first 
j-ear. 

SUPERIORITY OF SIX-ROW BARLEY OVER TWO-ROW VARIETIES FOR 

AMERICAN BEER. 

We distinguish, in the main, two different varieties o\ barley, 
viz., the two-row or Chevalier barley, used mainly in Germany 
and Austria, and the six-row barley, employed almost exclusively 
/or malting in the United States. 



1^ BREWING MATERIALS. 45I 

Aside from the readily apparent differences in size of berry 
and amount of starch and busk, the two-row barley being larger, 
CDfilaining in proportion more starch and less husk, there 




is, from the standpoint of American brewing, a decided ad- 
vantage to be gained by employing the six-row barley. Ac- 
cording to researches made in Ihc laboratory of Wahl & He.TO.vw.' 
Scientific Station for Brewing, ihe maU^ Vtowv wiOtv ivi.-^'ys 
hirley arc richer in diastatic and pepVOTttiTOR v^"*""- ^'^ '^''"^ ' 




453 BBBWIH^ MATEBXAU. 

niisIlJilB there fs QOt ontf no difficulty encpuntered in thf in- 
verHOU of the «tarch conli^ined.- in the malt, but Urge ani<iBiiis 
of at*rch [rt>in uitnvltcd cerea|s can he taken care of very re^Iiljr, 




tFrom Lehrbui 



while the resulting nons are, at the same time, richer in il 
ahle albuminoids — amides, peptones, and albumoses — and 
proieids (ormed, on the other hand, are much more readily precip- 
itaUd by boiling or by subsequent cooling than in worls pro- 
duced from malts from tno-row barleys. 



\k 



BREWING MATERIALS. 




454 BREWING MATERIALS. 

Hence, the six-row barley as it is grown in Wisconsin, Hin- 
nesota and Iowa is superior to the two-row barley as gibwn 
in Dakota, Montana, Utah and the Coast, lor fight-colored bee«, in 
the production of which large proportioos of unmalted cerealslike 
com or rice are used. Such beers are^ at the same time, aore 
durable on account of the decreased amount of proteids ihey 
contain while the palatefulness and foam-holding capacity nay 
be fully up to the standard of the German beers, unless too nnch 
raw cereal is used, since these two properties are mainly de- 
pendent on the amounts of amides, peptones, and albumises 
yielded by the malt. 

These great advantages are supplemented by the deciled 
facility with which the processes of steeping, growing, and Idln- 
drying can be carried out, the barley absorbing water more 
readily on account of its smaller diameter, growing quicker on 
account of the larger amount of diastase and peptase developed, 
and admitting of proper kiln-drying more readily on account of 
the easier escape of the moisture out of the smaller kernel. 

ANATOMICAL SIBUCTURE OF THE BARLEYCORN. 

Along one side of the barleycorn there runs a depression Dr 
furrow the whole length of the berry. A section of a corn made 
lengthwise through this furrow will show the interior as in tke 
accompanying sketch. 

The following principal parts are distinguished in the barley- 
corn: 

1. Husk, consisting of spelt (epidermis) or exterior husk, 
and testa, the latter being subdivided into the pericarp and 
the seed integument. 

2. The mealy part, called the endosperm. 

3. The rudimentary germ, called the embryo. 

4. The basal bristle, which serves to catch moisture from 
the air and conduct it to the berry. 

The husk and the endosperm are separated by the alcurone 
layer. 

CONSTITUENTS OF BARLEYCORN. 

The husk, which serves the purpose of protecting the barley- 
corn, consists in the main of cellulose and contains some pig- 
ment 
The endosperm constitutes the greater put\ o\ \\\t W\x>- ;i.ud 
-on tains the starch granules, which in turn ^te lu^vde vi\> o\ %\tvtOcv 



BREWING MATERIALS. 455 

ghitulose, or starch proper, and starch cellulose, {orming the 
Otthr cover of the starch granule. 

Ihe germ, located at the lower end of the berry, is a rudi- 
nteiCary plant, pre-formed in all parts, including leaves, stem 
and roots. The germ contains most of the (at present in the 
Krain. 

The aleurone layer is rich in albuminous bodies, which, how- 
ever, are also found scattered throughout the berry. 

besides, the berry contains mineral matters, as silicic acid and 
phosphates, particularly those of lime, magnesia and potassium; 
alsD small amounts ot sulphates and a little iron. 



Wisconsin eul 

UWh3-row.... 

Iowa cholc« • . 
row& obolce.. , 



s.n 



The constituents of barley besides moisture may be grouped 
according to their chemical classification, as follows: 
I. Carbohydrates, the most important of which are: 

a. Starch, which forms the mass of the endosperm and 

makes up 60 to 80 per cent of the weight of the 

b. Celhilose, to the amount of 2.5 to 8.5 per cent, which 

makes up the chief ing^redient of the husk and is also 
found in the endosperm enveloping the alarcK i^^'o.- 
ules. 
c Sugars in small qtuntities, mamXT *MrftvMw.t, i^^R* 

former. 





4Sfi[ BREWING. MATSRIALS. 

d Gtunoqr snl»t«ioet» odled anqrtiiies^ fomid by CI 
livan, seem to diiffer..femi;1te.gidactcxx3rlan of 
ner and- Doll (Zdtachrift f. angewandte On 
1891, p. 538), tbq agflan of Stone and Tollinis (i 
nales de Chemie., a^ p. 227), and the laevosink 
Tanret (Zeitschrift f. d. ges. Brauwesen, 1891,91. 
77). 
Besides these there are the pectin hodies of Ullik (Zeitschj 
f. d. ges. Brauwaen, 1886^ p. 3Q3)» which the latter fonndj 
beer and grains, and to the presence of which in beer pal 
fulness is ascribed by some. 1 

2. Nttrogenons bodies. Aniotmt-8 to 14 per cent, average a1 
II per cent, of which -aboot fonr-fifths is insoluble in wat|rt 
composed of jgluten-caseine and gluten-fibrine. The one-fi|h 
solaUe in water is composed of: Mucedin, little soluble in odd 
water, not coagulable by boiling; albnmen or protein, readily 
soluble in cold water, coagulating when solution is heated ; albf- 
mose; peptones; amides, readily soluble, not coagulable; and niir- 
ute quantities of amido-adds. ammonia and nitric acid. Aa 
enzyme glycase, also a nitrogenous substance, was found by KjeV 
dahl in barley. (See Chemistry.) 

3. Fat is contained in the barley to the amount of about 2.5 
per cent 

4. Adds. Prior made an elaborate inquiry as to the amount 
and nature of the acids contained in barley and malt in all its 
stages. He found that the acidity of barley is due in the main 
to the presence of primary phosphates and less to the presence 
of volatile and fixed organic acids. For neutralization of the acids 
in 100 grams of dry barley he used the following amounts of 

decinormal alkali solution: 

Bavarian barley. Bohemian. 

Volatile organic acids 7-52 6.07 

Fixed organic acids 6.65 5.50 

Primary phosphates 32.67 27.45 

This result, says Prior (Chemie. u. Physiologic d. Maizes, 1896, 

p. 41), is of importance in malting and brewing inasmuch as the 

primary phosphates combine with certain albuminoids of the malt, 

and the amount of primary phosphates presumably bears a rela- 

tion to the amount of the soluble nitrogenouA soLVsfi\axict* of the 

A^€fr. {See also "Mzlting Operations.") 



BREWING MATERIALS. 457 

5. Mneral Substances. The amoant of uh in barley variea 
from dMut 2.35 to 3 per cent, of which about one-fifth is potash, 
one-third phosphoric acid, one-quarter silicic acid, and one-tenth 
m^nesia, besides small quantities of oxide of caldum, oxide of 
,sodian, cMorine and sulphuric acid. 

VALUING BAKLEV BY BXTEKNAL UAKK3. 
Will reapect to its value for brewing purposes, barley is 
choset by external marks, or with the aid of simple devices and 
metbcds of examination. In the choice of barley the following 
characteristics require attention: 

1. Fonn and Size of Berry. The berries should be of uniform 
siie, ]lump and short. A hollow end where the germ is situated 
indicates that the grain has been damaged; a hollow, shriveled 
tip at the opposite end betrays exposure to frost or harvesting 
before maturity. Small grains contain less starch and more 
albuninoids, cellulose and ash. Barley of irregular size will 
gemrinate and grow irregularly. 

2. Condition of Husk. The husks (ipelts) should be thin and 
delicate, and make up as little as possible of the' total weight of 
the grain, or thick as io six-row barleys, which offers advantages 
for American methods. It should be smooth or have fine cross 

3. Hundred-Corn Weight. The weight of a hundred corns 
is CI to 0.1s 07.., or 3 to 4-5 %■, averaging 0.106 oz. (Scientific 
Station of Chicago). Barleys weighing less than o.i oz. are as 
a rule not fit for brewing. 

4. Color and Luster. The corns should be of uniform color 
and have a certain luster. For pale beers, barley must be 
of a pale or light straw-yellow. A greenish tint indicates unripe- 
ness. Darker, reddish or lead color coupled with red, brown or 
black tips forecasts irregular steeping and growth, mold and 
deficient germinating capacity. A gray tint may also be caused 
by a transparent speckled barley. If the color is brown and the 
germ clearly visible through ihe husk, it is certain the barley 
has been exposed to rain and become heated in the stack, which 
seriously impairs the germinating capacity. With increasing 
age, the color deepens and the luster fades. 

5. (idor. It should be simply a straw odor. W \i^Q^\>^fa.'W\tvi 
on a hsndlul of barley a musty, heavy odor anse^, >S\wc«^«^'^'''^ 

to /car moM and impaired capacity oi gcvmViva^TO^. V^ *■ \>'a'«^* 



458 



BREWING MATERIALS. 



is filled half full of barley and allowed to stand for half anliour, 
the odor will appear more clearly upon opening the bottle^f the 
barley is not sound. i 

6. Condition of Endosperm. If a grain of barley is cut h two 
it will show a white to gray mealy fracture in many shade If . 
the grains are largely mealy, the barley contains more tarch 
and will give a more mellow or friable malt. Speckled or ^assy 
corns have less starch and more proteids. Glassy barlej will 
give an equal yield of extract with proper steeping, but refiircs 
more time in the steep, slower malting, gfrows irregular!^ and 
gives worts with high nitrogen content, 

7. Purity. Barley should be as free as possible from oust, 
corns damaged by mechanical means or by vermin, grails of 
oats or seeds of weeds. Barley ought not to be mixed, thit is, 

EXAMINATIONS OF BARLEY (LABORATORY OF WAHL ft HEflUS, 

CHICAGO) . 

Averaja of 
36 Anuyses. 



Weight of 100 corns. . . . 
Ungcrminatcd corns. . . 

Mealy 

Half-glassy 

Glassy 

Bushel weight 

Water 

Extract 

Extract in dry matter 



Maximum. 


i Minimum. 


4.23 K 


: 2-60 S 


70 T. 


1 1' 


at) % 


1 - '^' 


78 '.' 


' .» ,^' 


70 %' 


1 4 -r. 


5-15 \\\ 


4n.5 lb. 


14.20- 


10.25-^ 


(M.VH. 


.>4.68.' 


72.41 


rtM2'' 



3.17g 

7.'Gf 

16.6 ( 

32 i 
4)^.6 t>. 
12..'i9; 
.tO.41 . 

67. '.«s 



grains of diflferent seasons or origin, or from different elevators 
should be kept strictly separate. 

8. ''Germinating Capacity" and "Germinating Energy." The 
germinating capacity is indicated by the number of grains that 
germinate at all. In a good barley the germinating capacity is 
not less than 95 per cent. Germinating energy means the power 
of barley to germinate within two days at ordinary temperature. 
The germinating energy should be at least 70 per cent. 

The germinating capacity remains undeveloped in barley fresh 
from the harvest if it has not been in storage. It is weakened 
or destroyed in barley where the germ end is hollow, or the tip 
brown, if the barley has become heated or moldy. 

9. Bushel Weight. A barley from which a large amount of 
extract can be obtained will, as a rule, possess a high weight 

per bushel, /luctuatinf! between 45 and 5?, powwds, and averaging 
^^ pounds (Scientific Station, Wah\ & Hemus, C\v\ca®i^. ^cyw- 



BREWING MATERIALS. 



459 



ever, a glassy, stubborn barley or one where the tips have been 
brokci, a Btrongty albuminous barley, or one c<»itaining unusual 
QDUittiea of water, any of these may weigh much more per bushel 
than I good, mealy and dry barley. 

10, Dryness. Barley should be dry enough. It should raise 
dust when transferred into another vessel or when a bag is 
cmptiid. To the hand it should feel like dry sand. 



VALUING BARLEY BY CHEUICAL A 
Th: chemical analysis of barley has to do mainly with asccr- 
(ainiig the percentage of moisture, starch, albuminoids, minerai 
substances and sulphur. 





Mi 






M 


i 


'A 


|5 


t 


'{h|iri)mta 


40 

Hi 
m' 

m" 
si" 


lire 


lo.ar 


s.ts 

B.9S 
10. S3 
)1.7) 


1 


6.K 

s:o; 


2.n 

a. Si 


71 iS 
















































Average For ilniiod STaiet. . 


1o:m |o:w|i.^j i^y^j ^:^ 


Tyrlcal American barley. 

apjiroilraaleiy 


10 as 


IMW 


i% 




i.U 


etiih 



Moislurc. — Barley contains an average of 12 — 13 per cent of 
water. The ratio changes in accordance with the ripeness of the 
barley, the conditions of the harvest, the manner of storage. A 
high percentage of moisture may cause barley to become heated 
in the stack, which destroys the vitality and furthermore entaih 
a loss of dry matter and yield ot extract. 

2. Starch. A high percentage of starch means a high yield of 

3, Albuminoids. Good barley should conVavn. "Aw.\^xt^«x ■^iis.- 
ticabJe amount of albuminoids that viiU be i\s5,o\st4\w ■Opkt wa^x- 

ing process. The average amount ia about 1.0 ^t ess*.- ^^ '^^" 



460 BREWING MATERIAI^. 

tain amoniit of albiunai is rcqaired for derdoping the virfoni 
enzymes and the albumen derivatives to be produced faf the 
pepta«c in germiiMtuig and nmhing, as protdds, albni|DSCS, 
peptones and amides. I 

4. Mineral Substances. The amount is about 3 — 3 perjccut. 
For their composition see "Cbnstitutcnts of Barleycorn." ■ 

5, Sulphur. Sometimes barley is sulphured. This is n<l di- 
rectly harmful, but alv^ays indicates that the color has sufcred 
and is done invariably for the purpose of improving the ccAt. 

BARLEY MALT. 
Barley is the best adapted of the various cereals for thcpro- 
dttction of malt, for several reasons: 

1. The endosperm is covered with a husk, protecting the x>o- 
spire dtiring the growth of the barley and serving as a liltding 
maicrial in Ihe mash-iub. 

2. Barley malt contains less undesirable alboniinoids (of the 
prolcid type) than wheat malt, rye malt or oat malt; wh;at oalt 
and r>-e malt are without husk. 

Mai» malt does not enter into this consideration on account of 
the large percentage of oil it contains and the glassy condilbn 
of the cornstarch, which is opened up very incompletely during 
germination. 

In judging the quality of a malt, both external marks aid 
chemical analysis are employed. 



Molt during its growth and after kiln-drying contains the fol- 
lowing substances: 

I. Carbohydrates, among which are: 

a. Starch, to the amount of about 60 to 80 per cent. 

b. Cellulose, to the amount of 3 to 8 per cent, 

c. Sugars, according to O'Sullivan. saccharose 2.8 10 6 

per cent, maltose 1.3 to s per cent, dexirose 1,5 to 
3.5 per cent, levulose 0.7 to I.S per cent. 

d. Gummy substances, the same as in barley. Dull was 

unable to find dextrin which is generally .supposed to 

be contained in mall (Chemiker-Zcitutig. 1893. p. 67). 

-^ Nitro^enovs bodies. 8 to [4 per cent, of which about one-half 

i/issohes in the washing process, the other ^vaM rema\i\\i\^ \i\ Oj« 

sraifj. Of the amount dissolved during mas^mft a^w^t ^^t^-^''*'* 



SKEWING MATERIALS. 4OI 

Is db^olved by eUzymatic actioil (peptise) while two-fiftbi is 
ireadf formed in die malt. These soluble altramitioids utt protrids, 
allMstDses, peptones and amides. The amides include hypoxanthin, 
gtntat. and veniin, all three found by- Ullil^ whereas the pres- 
tiice tf xanthin.is problematical, and asparagin was found only 
in the germs. Betain and cholin were found by £. Schuize and 
S. E^inkfurt in the germs of barley and wheat malt (Ber. d. dent, 
chem Ges., 1893,, p. 2151). Besides these there are small quantt- 
U ALT ANALYSIS, FBOU 1,741 HALTS EXAUINSD AT TBS LABORATORY 

ov WAHL a HEtriiia, caicAca 

Maximum. Minimum. Average. 

W«e* 11-50 3.25 6.37 

Exlnct 74-78 60.32 68 24 

Extrict in dry matter 79.6° 64-92 73-Sl 

MALTS (I.741) EXAMINED DUKING ONE YEAR, BY MONTHS. 





i 
1 


».„™... 


mm™,™. 


AveraiiP. 




1 

& 


1 


i! 


• 
i 

3.TS 


BI.OS 

ta.n 


i 
1 

MM 




e 
A 

if 


i 




1 


l!-!f 


78.(6 


II 






; 


a 
m 




SrE-E'E::.. 

i£--:::-::::::-: 
.iLiy/.v.v ."■.■,:;;:■.■.■.;:: 


III 


TgBS 







ties oi other nitrogenous bodies, as ammonia and amido-actds, 
nniong which are leucin and tyrosin. 
3. Fat lo the amount of about 2 per cent. 
: 4. Acids : Such as volatile nnd li.\ed organic acids and primary 
phosphates. (See Barley.) 

5. Mineral sutKtarees. (See Barley.) 

6. Moisture, the amount varying from about 45 per cent in 
steeped barley to about I per cent in a hig\\ \t.\\TV-At\t4 t^v^'i.. 

?. Entymes, such as diastase, peptase, cy\a.9e, i£iMca.^- 



4fi2 BREWING MATERIALS. 

8. Besides these, the kihi>dried malt contains caramel jirhidi 
is formed on the kiln, probably oat of levnlose, and hig$dried 
mahs contain assamar, also formed from sugar, which |ias a 
bitter taste. Ehrich (Der Bierbrauer, 1893, p. 46s), and Mjnache 
(Wochenschrift f. Brauerei, 1893, p. 739), discovered i sub- 
stance in a caramel malt that gives a similar reaction to sMcylic 
add, which later received the name of maltol from prand 
(Zeitschrift f. d. ges. Branweaen, 1893, P- 3^3)- i 

CHARACTBRISnCS OF A GOOD MALT. | 

1. Uniform size and shape. 

2. Light color of hnsk and endosperm. 

3. Purity, that is, absence of damaged corns, oats andbther 
seeds, or germs, and other foreign matter. There should >e no 
mold. 

4. Sweet aromatic odor. By breathing upon a handful of malt 
the odor is brought out stronger. There should be no ilusty 
odor. 

5. Uniform g^rowth of the acrospire. In about 90 per cent 
of the corns the acrospire should be three-quarters the lenurh of 
the corn. A strong growth of acrospire causes uniform melow- 
ness and high diastatic power. 

6. Proper condition of endosperm. The corns should be mel'ow, 
that is, not hard, the latter state indicating a condition of 
glassiness or half-glassiness. They should be easily cut with the 
finger nails, leave the husk readily and crack when bitten. The 
interior should be a fine white and have an aromatic taste. Glassy 
corns arc caused by insufficient dissolution of the mealy pirt 
or by hasty raising of the temperature in the kiln with a high 
moisture percentage in the g^'ain. A properly dissolved, mellow, 
malt will float in water. The undissolved glassy corns will sink 
and lie flat on the bottom, those insufficiently dissolved and 
half glassy will stand upright on the bottom. 

7. High percentage of extract. The laboratory yield aver- 
ages 68 per cent, but in practical brewing operations it 
is from i to 4 per cent less. The percentage of extract depends 
upon the type of barley used, the degree of dissolution, the kiln- 
ing and the water percentage. (A comparison of yield of extract 
of different malts is possible only by expressing the extract as dry 

niRtter.) A good, mellow malt will yield a high percentage of 
extract. An excessive growth of the acro3V>\T^ ^w^ T^d\cVt u\- 



BREWING MATERIALS. 463 

volvn a loss of extract; also an excessively high finishing 
tempcature in the dry-kiln. 

& SilBcient diastatic strength. If the diastatic strength of a 
malt i. deficient, slow saccharification in the mash will follow, 
and aarch turbidity may result. Malt with high diastatic 
strei^li will saccharify quickly and worts produced from such 
malts will consequently contain too much sugar. American malt, 
•■ a rile, is much stronger in diastase than German tnalt. Pale 
malts will saccharify quicker than dark ones. The time of sac- 
cbarifcation of American malts ia laboratory tests is about four 
tninot;! after the mash has reached the final temperature. (Sci- 
emifW Station, Wahl & Henius, Chicago.) 

g, 7he percentage of water should not be too high. A damp 
malt is apt to acquire a musty odor when in the bin and to 
Iransmit it to the wort. Damp malt-should, therefore, be used 
as speedily as possible. Also, the higher the water percentage, 
the kss the yield of extract. The water in a mall fresh from 
the kiln is 2.5 — 4.5 per ccut, according to the final temperature. 
It increases while in storage and alter two months reaches about 
S— 6 per cent. 

10. Bushel weight. This is dependent upon the nature of 
the barley, the degree of its dissolution, the percentage of water. 
A well dissolved malt in general has a small bushel weight. A 
high water percentage increases the bushel weight. In buying 
anil selling malt the bushel weight is taken at 34 pounds with 
sprouts and 33 without sprouts. 

WHEAT, WHEAT MALT AND ROLLED WHEAT. 
There are varieties and subvarielies of wheat, which are dis- 
tinguished chiefly by the color of the grain. As distinguished 
from barley, the wheat corn is bare, that is, unprotected by de- 
tachable spelts. 



In estimating wheat the considerations are similar to those 
tor barley. The grain should be uniform, with a fine husk, light 
yellow, not brown or reddish, free from admixtures, and with 
plenty of meal. If on biting the berry, the fracture appears clear 
and horny, the corn contains too much albumen and a low per- 
centage of starch, and is not suitable for the v^oiwctuKi (A ■*. ^wi^ 



464 BREWING MATERIALS. 

USES or WHEAT IN BSEWINa 

In brewing; wheat is used to a very limited extent' in the 
malted condition for the preparation of weiss beer and in rare 
cases for lager beer. The reason why so little of it is ised is 
the high percentage of deleterious albuminoids it cintains 
which make it impossible to prepare from it a brilliant an<i stable 
beer. 

The wheat com being bare will steep more quicld, and 
the acrospire, not being protected by a strong husk, is exposed 
to injury by breakage and other injurious influences m the 
malting floor. Wheat requires extra care in malting foi these 
reasons. 

Rolled wheat, also, is used only in a veiy limited <rgrec. 
Wheat need not be opened up by steaming and boiling, ba sim- 
ply by rolling. Owing to the high percentage of noxious albu- 
minoids in wheat flakes they cannot be added to the masi, like 
com flakes, etc.. but the albuminoids must have an oppoitunity 
to be eliminated. (See Mashing Process.) 

COMPOSITION OF WHEAT (kOENIG). 

I i k 



■ i 5^ ^^ S^ -Si 

I =c at 19 ^ ^1 



Sami»lcs of miscellaneous origin (4*>).. . \'i.37 V2.nl i.TU '2.ri0.1.7^> 6H oi 
Samples from northeast and middle 

German V (90) 14 01 lO.iW I f» 2 12 IW W.OI 

Samples spring wheat (81) 14. 7S ll.i*^ 2.o;i 2.26 2 ;VJ flK.tU 

Samjfles from s<^iith and west Germany 

(52) 1:1. 1^ 12 21) l.Tl 2 >2 1 XS t.T.W 

Samples spring wheat 4 30) i:i >h» liwr> i..V» .... 2 r.» rr, wi 

Samples from Austrla-HiinRnry (1K> .... 11. T2 12 6*5 l.W .T 3s> 1 ::> 'VJ.KI 

SamjiN'^i from KuH>ia—sprin;; wheat (;ft*). 12.<VS I7.rtr> 1 .v .... 1 iV) rrvT4 

Kncland (22) i:MI 10. W IW 2 in* \ *u •v.).2l 

Scotland (16 j Il.;f7 10. .V 1 73 .... 1 nfi 72. 77 

France I TO t I5.2l» 12.61 I 41 2. 1.6«> «>.« 

Denmark (4) lH.t« 9.:« 2 :« 2.19 1.:m Tl.40 

Spain (9) iMr: 12 4'> i.'.»2 .... 1^) 

Africa (»1) II. sO \\.\> I.8:i \.k2 176 70.04 

.Vsia (H) 12 57 11. iM 2.10 I.IM 1.16 70. M 

Australia (4) 13 :C 10 16 i.:t» 

North America (5iM) w.v»2 11 W 2.07 1.70 1.7s» ♦W.74 

North Amvrlca-sprinjf (»<»).... .^..j^^.. i».»* 12. '.>2 2 1.'^ 1_72 1 .>k' 67 W 

COMPDSITION OF WHEAT M.\LT. (LABORATORY OF WAHL & HENIUS.) 

Water 7.44 per cent. 

Extract 74 21 per cent. 

Extract in dry matter .%o,\\ ^i ^^xvl. 



BREWING MATERIALS. 465 

COUPSmoN OF WHEAT nAKIS. (LABOKATOKY or WAHL k HIMIUl). 

Averagt of Nitteteen Analyses. 

Water 11.16 pei' cent. 

Oil 1.83 per cent. 

Extract 72.50 per cent. 

Extract in dry matter 81.63 per cent 

RYE. EYE MALT, RYE FLAKES. 

Ttc use of rye In the malted or rotted form for brewing is stilt 

less i^xlensive ttian ttiat of wlieat. Rye malt is used exCensivsly 

in dstitling, and pressed yeast manufacture. The objections to 

rye nalt and rye flakes are tfie same as those to wheat. 

COUFOSITION OF RYE (kOBNIG). 





i 


|i 


ii 


i 


i 


i| 


lllfr-pnanBoiiB HT3) 

SpnnKRye(ll) 


11. IS 


iroi 

IS.OI 


I'.T) 

i.efl 


873 


2oe 


BBJI 















COMPOSITION OF BVE MALT. (UIBOBATORV OF WAHL A HENIUS.) 

Average of Three Analyses. 

Water 7.12 per cent. 

Extract 70.25 per cent. 

Extract in dry matter Sz.oS per cent. 

OATS. 
Oats are used both raw and mstted, but only to an insignificant 
extent, in the preparation of certain beers of local vogue in Ger- 
many. The use of oals (or brewing is quite unknown in tlic 
United Sutes. 

Oats have spelts like bartey, but the husk is coarser, con'.tiu- 
ing more cellulose. The husk contains matters of an offensive 
(asie, which must be eliminated by steeping. 

The large amount of spelts making oats a good filtering 111a- 
teriat, they may be successfnlty used under some circnmstuni- n 
as an admixture to the mash, in case the wort dtavfti ^ift ^ci(>\\-i . 
To lliis end the oals arc first steeped itv waVM awi >^^.',\^ f«\>:»'' 
before going into the mash. 



466 BBEWING MATERIALS. 

Worts made from oats foam a good deal and are lurbidfrom 
the high percentage of albuiiiiimds hard of elimination. , The 
same is true of the been made therefrom. Fermentatfe is 
ttonny. 

ooumsnunr or oats (xoBHia). 





1 

S 


i 


It 


5e 


M 


HlUCllaimua (377) 


Bll 
12 45 

Is 


10. « 

ia.te 

11. M 


4M» 
B.RI 


10 u 


\^ f% 


Bouihoni and SoDthwfslera Oervsn; 












Dntted Sutm (S) 





CORN AND RICE. 

The extract of the wort and consequently of Ihe beer baiv^ 
derived principally from Ihe starch of the goods ustJ in Iht 
mash, it readily suggested itself to use, besides barley malt, otler 
materials which contained larger quantities of this importint 
ingredient. Owing to its exceptionally high percentage of stardi. 
which is greater Ihan in any other cereal, rice seemed peculiaily 
suitable for brewing and was so employed at an early dale. 

Corn and rice are not malted like barley. Rice is used in i-.s 
original form as a raw cereal, having only been stripped of the 
outside husk and broken up, while corn is degerminaled. Both 
cereals differ from barley malt not only by their high starch per- 
centage, but also by containing a much smaller quantity of albu- 
minoids, and by their white color, for which reasons they are 
peculiarly suitable for the preparation of pale, sparkling and 
stable beers. 

Corn and rice must never be used without a certain percentage 
of malt, and furthermore, require special treatment before getting 
into the mash for the following reasons : Having tailed to go 
through the process of germination they lack those en;ymes which 
are necessary for modifying starch and albuminoids, of which 
enzymes, on the other hand. n;all contains such an cxcoMive ■ 
jnjount Ih.it it is enabled to ruiidify a considerable quantity of 
additional starch. Moreover, the mealy body o( Tite aud corn, 
kA contains the starch granules has a m«c\v fiinwi sXT^icX-a^t 



BREWING UATERIALS. , 467 

tbaiiMrley malt, which haa been loosened by genninatioii, and 
for tat reason is not subject to modification by thf malt diastase 
intoioluble bodies, as dextrin and sugar. It is necessary to 
eocddhe rice and corn for some time before taldng them into the 
mtsl in order to gelatinize the starch and make it accessible to 
diaslse. 

ff OF BICE, 



Ti be suitable for brewing, rice should jnsnrer the following 
reqifements: It should have a white color, a pure taste and 
odor free from rancidness or mustiness, and contain but little 
oil. An abnormally high percentage of oil generally betrays 
adaeration with corn, which is easily detected. The moisture 
shoid not be high, i. e., not exceed 13 per cent, a higher per- 
cerage of moisture naturally implying a diminished yield of 
exlact, besides making the goods more liable to spoiling by 
bei.'ing in the sack, or by mold, etc. The yield of extract should 
be as high as possible. 

COIPOSITIOM OF BREWING BICE (LABORATORY WAHL A HBNIUS). 

Averagt of thirty sampUt. 





Witer. 


Oil. 


Comne. 


Gtouna. 




»:xtr«:.. 


Eitrmct In 


B.,n.>. 


f:i tract In 

drymsttor. 




H.5« 


o.»it 

oisHt 










/versRo 


''n.vi%" 


'"nxi" 


io.ijbi " 


■■«:«*" 



CORN AND CORN PRODUCTS. 

Maize, Indian corn, or "corn," for short, which is lar richer 
in starch than barley, though not in the same degree as rice, 
was first used for brewing after being put through a process c( 
germination, i. c, in a malted condition. When it was found, 
however, that beer prepared from it possessed a disagreeable, 
coarse, scraping taste, the use of corn for brewing was given 
up until means were found to eliminate the disagreeable taste. 
At the present time corn, or products prepared therefrom, is 
used extensively in brewing, particularly in the United Slates. 

The cause of the coarse taste referred lo vjaa \Q\iV\i \.o\it '<^ 
high percentage of oil contained ii\ uTvpvt^Mci CQttv, t^i^-j "*'*-'^^ 



468 



BREWING MATERIALS. 



of whidi was reniavcd bgr germiiuitioiL This oil, of whiclraw 
com cootains 4—5 per cent» is stored principally in the ;enn 
and the cells lying close under the husk. With the remo^ of 
term and husk, therefore, the oil is for ^e greater^art 
removed from the com. The oil by itself is of yellow colotLnd 
upon exposure to the air is extremely liable to turn rancidac- 
quiring an offensive odor and taste. 

The oil is removed in specially designed machines, when by 
means of revolving knives the germs and husks are ^- 
rated from the grain and carried off by blowers from the nialy 
hodjj which is broken up into lumps and is then liominy.** tlie 
hominy is ground up and put on the market in various degees 
of fineness, being called respectively coarse grits, fine grits, real 
or flour. The only variety of corn suitable for brewing is the 
white one, known as flint corn, both because of its light c4or 
and the low percentage of undesirable albuminoids, as conipacd 
with other varieties of corn which are more or less highly 
colored. 

On the whole, the coarser products, as coarse grits, have a Us 
percentage of oil than the finer ones, as meal, and also yield ni<re 
extract. Hence they are in every respect preferable to the firer 
products. This appears clearly from the subjoined table. 

GOMFOSITION OF CORN AND CORN PRODUCTS. (LABORATORY OF V/ATL 

ft HKNIUS, CHICAOa) 



, - 




■ 


#.. 




X 


a . 


• 


Si 


C 2 


X. 


. >-• 




U.' 


£8 


i> 


x: 


a 


c 


'^ 


2 


Se. 









^ r 



:/ 



Water 14.2IK| 12.00:.. VZ.hO 

oil 4.81X OToT; I.IM 

Starch and other oarbohv-< I 

drates 06.19'^ TK.42 ; 77.11 



Albuinen 9..M' 



.w\ 



2.hO' 


12.50 


12 ;H»' 


M.hu 


I An 


1 .92 ■ 


3.(M 


9.11) 


7.11 


7.=i.79'' 


72.. Vv 


.vryo 


7.1(1 


7.N»' 


s.:t.» 


(» •.»7 


O.tSV 


r.r.J 


•.>! 


:{.iM» 


\ :v: 


1 .V4 


•:.»v:^ 


10 I-: 



Ash i.oo.:.| o.\h"„ 

Coarse fl lwr 3.70 ; 0.78 

The higher percentage of oil in the finer products is ex- 
plained by the fact that in the separation of the different gra<ies 
of fineness small particles of the germ and the husk pass thro'.iijjh 
//re sieves and remain in the finer corn products, increasing the 
oil percentage in them. 




BREWING UATERIALS. 



U FBODUCTS. 

Irestimating the value o£ corn products for brewing purposes 
siniar considerations prevail as in the ease of rice. The quality 
is jdged principally by the oil and water content. The latter 
shdd not exceed 13 per cent, for the same reasons that apply 
to i:c. Corn products having more than 15 per cent of water 
shold not be stored longer than a week, because otherwise the 
cor goods may become lumpy or mtddy, 

Spposing a medium percentage of water, the quality of grits 
animeal is estimated by the oil percentage as follows; 
0.05—0.5 per cent, excellent. 
o-S — i.o per cent, very good. 
i.o — i.s per cent, good. 
1.5 — 2.00 per cent, medium. 
2.0—2.5 per cent, inferior. 

Over 2.5 per cent, not to be recommended for brewing 
purposes. 

CORM FLAKES. 

Grits and meal require similar treatment to rice, oiring to the 
seely condition of the starch, i. e., the starch granules must be 
iclatinized. 

In order to avoid cooking grits and meal in the brewery, which 
nvolves expense for apparatus, coal, time and labor, com is 
ilso prepared in other ways, dispensing with cooking and en- 
abling the brewer to use the corn directly in the nash tub 
without preliminary treatment. These products which may be 
comprehended under the name of "flakes" are put upon the 
market under different titles, as "cerealine," "quick malt," "fru- 
mentum," "barlyne," "coralline," "crystal rice," "maizone," etc. 
AH these articles are prepared from grits or meal by steaming, 
rolling and drying, whereby the starch is made soluble. On the 
whole, the oil percentage is about like that found In grits of good 
quality. The following table gives the average composition of 
corn products, as grits, meal and flakes, according to the records 
of the laboratory of Wahl & Henius : 



470 



BREWING MATERIALS. 



ooMFOnncnf op oobv nosucis. 



Water 

on 

Eztimct 

Kxtimct calculated as dry matter 



Maximum. 






Mlulmam. 



6.90% 

0S4S 
».10% 

7S.70S 



Average. 






76.29% >-rt—.. 



I 



AVERAGE COMFOSinOM OF QUTS« MEALS AMD ILAXES^ ACOOUm^ 10 

WAHL AMD HEKIUS. 



i 



GBiTS— 

Average of 50 analyses. . 
MEALr- 

Average of 25 analyses. . 
FLAKES— 

Average of 25 analyses. . 



Moisture. 



12.70% 
13.12% 
11.07% 



OIL 



0.05% 
1.00% 
1.04% 



Extract. 



82.03% 



Extract In ky 
Substand 



ft2.2i:t 



analyses of maize (indian corn), rice^ wheat, rye and o.ts 

average). 







KkAIZE-( Indian Corn). 
Average, United States. .. 
Typical American (-om, 

approximately 

BICE- 

Ijnpollshed (foreign) 

Polished ( foreign V 

Polished (domestic) 

Typical hulled uni>ol- 
ished. approximately . . . 
Typical polished, ap- 
proximately 

WUEAT- 
Averagc, Cnited States... 
Typical .\merlcan, l»ej«i 
quality, approximately. 
O VTS- I 

Average. Tnited States.. . j 
Typical American, ap- 

'proxlmalely 

RYE- 
Averape. Tnlted States... 
Tj-plcal American, ap- 
proximately 



58 



60 



40 



57 









5? 



13.75 

13.40 I 

0.87 i 

0.76 

0.67 

0.?8 

0.78 , 

i 
1.36 

1.35 j 

1 03 I 

1.06 ! 

0.88 

0.88 



10.83; 9.88 1.17 
10.75; 10.00 4.25 



11.88 
12.35 
12.30! 

i 

12.00 



I 



12. 4o; 

I 

10.82: 

10.60; 

10.061 

10.0l»' 

10.62. 

\0.50 



8.02 1.96 
7.00.0.27 
9.45 0.10 

8.002.00' 

I 

7.5<»0.4O 
13.28 1.77 
12.25:1.7.5 
12 15 4.33 
12.00 4. ."iO 
12.13 1.65 



1.71 1.36 

1.75 l.ijO 

(».«< \ \h 
0.4(».0.46 
0.40 0.3:1 



71. « 
71.75 

7r) (15 
7' »..=>! 
77 52 



i.avi.oo 7 



0.40 0.51^ 

I 
I 

2.36.1.82 

I 

2.40 1.75, 
12.07 8.46 
12.lX»3.50 

2.09 1.92' 

I 



/6.0U 

78. K) 
71.18 
71.t» 
57.98 
.58.iX> 
71.37 
71.23 



BREWING MATERIALS. 



471 



STARCH. 

Sirch occurs very commonly in nature, being a constituent of 
near all plants, more especially the seeds, bulbs, roots, etc. 
Comerciai starch is obtained chiefly from cereals and potatoes, 
riceind corn being especially rich in this substance. 

Strch consists of granules which assume various shapes in the 




di ercnt plants from which the starch Is derived, and are round, 
eingated or rod-shaped, the form being characteristic of the sev- 
eiil kinds of starch. (For barley starch see "Barley" and 

■Malt.") 




CORN f 

The same considerations that led to the introduction of rice 
and corn or corn products in brewing also caused the atiempt 
to be made to use starch pure and simple. The attempts were not 
successful lo a sufficient degree to sllow starch to become a 
brewing: material in general use. Of late, however, a starch, 
which is distinguished by great purity, has b?(rn put on the 
market which must be considered in every way suitable for 
brewing, especially for pale, stable beers, according to a method 
elaborated in the Experimental Brewery of Wahl & HetviM^, CVv 
cago, 

A sample was analyzed with the i(AVo'wm« ttwiS-Xil ^■i* ^'^ 



473 BKBWING MATHUALS. 

Mcdstnre tojoj per cent. 

Albnminoida ai6 per cent. 

Mineral robatances ais per cent. 

Oil 0x13 per cent. 

Cellulose aao per cent. 

Starch 89.36 per cent 

This an&lysis shows the starch to contain scarcely any o «1 
■n and only an insignificant snwnnt of iKiitiBCO. It giv 









m. 






Starches -I Krom Lehrbucli d. Bierbraucici- Carl Mirhel.) 

high yield of extract. These three points are the decisive one 
in estimating the value of a material tor brewing. 

Althoagh it offers comparatively little resistance to the actioi 
of diastase it is necessary, nevertheless, to gelatinize this siarcl 
by cooking hefore adding it to the mash. A much shorter tiiui 
is required for cooking, however, than is the case with other 
corn products. 

BREWING SUGARS. 
The necessity of cooking the most common corn prodvu-ls. 
grits and meal, in special vessels before mashing, which draw- 
back is elsewhere pointed out, led to the preparation nnd intro- 
duction of other articles that require no preliminary opening up 
and do not even need to undergo any modifications in the nwMi, 
They represent, as it were, a concentrated wort extract, without 
the albuminoids, lactic acid, mineral substances, and coloring mat- 
ters. These articles are the brewing sugars of various composi- 
tions. The principle on which brewing sugars of all varieties are 
prepared is the same in all cases. It rests upon the fact that starch 
when heated in the presence of acids undergoes a s\n«\iT modifica- 
fian as whea exposed to the action oi diastase \tv ft»e tomV vAi. 
*»/ /* it ia conrerted into dextrin and augat. 



BREWING MATERIALS. 



'lo jiiudu ot preparatioa. in general outline, is as (ollows: 
Coi Starch — poUIo Starch is used extensively in Germany — 
li hited under pressure in the presence of some acid, the mixture 
Uqtfying gradually, and the liquefied starch belBg converted into 
^rin and sugar. The desired degree of conversion having been 
rohed, the acid is neutralized and removed. The liquid is de- 
corized by suitable means, it necessary, and evaporated to the 
GOiistency of a syrup. Tf it contains little or no dextrin in pro- 
poion lo the sugar formed — which ratio can be regulated by 
beting longer or shorter periods of time with acid — this syrnp 
W. crystallize when cooling and form the so-called "crystallized 
U:ydrous grape sugar." If some dextrin remains, ordinary 
grpe sugar or climax with approximately lo per cent of dextrin 
igibtained. In the event of a large quantity of dextrin remain- 
ill the liquid cannot be crystallized and is put on the market in 
tfc form of glucose syrup or Brewers' Extract. 

The difference in composition of the different types of sugar 
mII appear from the following analyses made in the Laboratory 
It Wahl & Henius, Chicago : 



COMPOSITION 


OFBREWI 


HG3UGABS. 






K«tT»Cl. 


DeitroBe 


Deitrln, 


Water, 




63,S8t 
KB. 10?. 
BB.TO't 
60 00:6 


SOTTS 
79 Wi. 


,!:SS 

BO.OOS 


lill 








10.IW« 

10.30:^ 
ai.oo^ 


Sundard (;llm« 


CrjKlaUlscd Antiydroua Qrapi- 



USE OF BREWING SUGARS. 

The various sugars, with the exception of "climax," are es- 
pecially adapted for the preparation of very pale, stable beers, 
on account of their light color, or rather lack of color, and the 
lotal absence ot albuminoids. Climax is ui^cd particularly in 
brewing ale and porter. Anhydrous grape sugar, besides the 
use already referred lo, is, according to tests by the Scientific 
Station for Brewing of Chicago, especiallj suiWA \.q \Vt. v'^V^" 
ration of tugar kracusen. 



474 BREWING MATERIALS. f 

VALUING BBXWING SUGARS. 

The characteristics of a good sugar are the following : \a 
far as the solid sugars are concerned— except Gimax — ty 
should have a white color, the liquid ones should be withit 
color (glucose synip, brewers* extract). They should giva 
clear solution in water and possess no constituents that cdd 
cause beer turbidity, such as imperfectly converted starch, id 
should be free from iron. 

HOPS. 

Hops as they are used in the brewery are cone-shaped forft- 
tions, representing clusters of blossoms of the female hop plat 
From 40 to 60 flowers are grouped together on a central spine, 
which is zig-zag shaped, forming a so-called hop cone or le 
umbel of the hop. The blossoms are protected externally j 
bracts, to the lower end of which in a slight fold are nttaclid 
the blossoms proper and later the fruit or seeds. Male ad 
female blossoms arc distributed on separate plants. Only le 
female hop is cultivated, the growth of malo hops beinjr. wii 
rare exceptions, avoided in order to prevent seed prodiiciifj. 
The plant is propagated by cuttings. 

At the time of maturity, the seed of the hops and the wh.-l 
lower and inner parts of the bracts arc covered with a tnic li^ii 
yellow dust consisting of minute granules. It is called hoj 
meal or lupuline. 

The fruit or seeds are scarce in irood hop>. small, .shninkiii 
and sterile, that is. incapable of propagatincr the plant. In the 
coarser kinds of hops the reverse is true. 

HISTORY OF HOP CULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. 

Up to 1808 hop culture remained confined to thnc Xew 
England states, Massachusetts, Vermont and Maine. The soil of 
New England, however, being poor and iin^^uitcd to hop irr<»\v- 
ing, the effort was speedily abandoned after a beginning was made 
in Madison County, in the state of New York. The hops froin 
New York state were not only superior i-i (luality. but three 
times as prolific. As a result, from 1850 to i86^ a small p.i'-i 
of the state of New York, known as the hop rep^ion. lyintc -?(^Mth 
of the New York Central Railroad between Albany an 1 
Rochester, hnd n monopoly of hop raising \\\ vVve \J\\\\cd St.at«e^. 
About i860 small patches were planted lo \\ops \tv V^V^cor^sxxv 



BREWING MATERIALS. 



475 



aniMichigan, and in 1866, when the New York crop was wholly 
deToycd by vermin, the hop growers of Wisconsin got famine 
prfcs for their excellent product. The hop louse reached Wis- 
GOtin a short time after, and for the last twen^ yeart Wisconnn 
fa03 are no longer cjuoted in the market reports. 

luring the decade 1870-1880 New York once more enjoyed 
a ronopoly of hop growing. But by that time fresh competition 
be^ to derelop on the Pacific Coast. Russia River hops from 
Cafornia were a revelation; "tine as sitk" in texture, bright 
gclcn in color, "clean picked," and second only to the best 
G<man hops in "richness" or lupuline, it is no wonder that 




with "Russian Rivers" in the van the hop production of the 
narrow California hop region should have gone up from a few 
hundred bales of Russian Rivers to her present 30,000 lo 40.1XW) 
bales of "Califomias." 

In Oregon and Washington the growth of the hop industry 
was as sudden and remarkable as that of California. In 
1866 Charles Wood, who had established a small brewcv^ W 
Olympia, W. T., was raising in his gaiAwi ■.\ \fN \\<j^?. Vo-^ "i^"-' 
own use in the brewery. In 1866 Jacob U. ^U«Ns.« Q\'e>i'j^~&v>'*. 



476 BREWING MATERIALS. ; 

Washington (Territory then), obtained halt a bu;her of op 
roots from the above meiiiioned Charlfs Wood, who had prn- 
ised to buy the hops to encourage the enterprise. These r«ts 
were set out in the spring of 1866, and in the £all of that yearfK 
first crop was sold to Wood at 8$ cents per pound or over Iga . 
(or a single bale of hops. It is no wonder that the culture of 1^ 
developed rapidly in the Puyallap and White River valley^ 
Washington and spread from there into Oregon. 

It seemed for the first twenty-five years, or up to about ifa, 
as if in Washington and Oregon was to b« the ft*e 
hop growing industry of the llnited States with plenty to site 
for export. The hops were excellent in quality, and the rich, tw 
soil produced enormous crops, in one or two well attested 1- 
stanceB reaching the almost incredible yield of 4,000 pounds 1" 
acre, and with an average yield per acre of more than twice t' 




of New York stale. Then in 1882 hops went lo one dollar and 
more per pound, and again in 1S86 the entire crop of New Voi k 
stale was cut off by lice while the Pacific Coast crop wa< vinin- 
jured and brought a good price. Not a hop louse had as yei 
been discovered on the Pacific Coast, and some good jufJges 
held that no hop louse could live in that climate. But in i8<^2 
the insect made its appearance in that part of the country, and al- 
though the growers in Washington [ought the lice vigorously, 
the product of Washington has gone down from 40.000 to 10,000 
bales within the past ten years. 

It is safe to say that now the whole lerrilory of the Uniitd 
Slates has been tested for hop growing, and the culture of hops 
has settled down at last into New York slate in the East, and 
Oregon, California and Washington on l^t 'PatAc. Coa?,l. The 



BREWING MATERIALS. 477 

pre:nt acreage of New York state will produce with a (air crop 
ooteas than 150,000 bales. With but little larger acreage it has 
ofti in past years baled more than that. The Pacific Coast 




' is capable o[ producing on its present acreage also 150.000 

A normal crop of East and West combined is therefore 

300,000 bales— average per bale formerly about 180 pouflds, 




to-day about 190 pounds net hops— 01 somt \cojKn \i-*«s. '^t^ 
>ear more than the hops required ior cov\s\i\ft9\\o'R \^\ '^^'^ «:'3~-'>">'^ 
try with a beer production of say ^,000,000 ^»I^Aa, NlV&v v w: 



478 BREWING MATERIALS. 



i 



tnal export to Eiifl^d of 50,000 bales per year there is Bl 
left a surplus in this country of SOfiOO bales per year provide^ 
the hop sections produce each year a fair crop. 

COMPOSITION OF HOPS. 

Hops contain hop oil, hop resins, acids, particularly hop pr 
nin, hop bitter, hop wax, nitrogenous bodies, carbohydrates M 
mineral substances. An enzyme (diastase) which is of sp^ 
importance in ale brewing has also been found in hops, le 
oil content of hops varies between 0.2 and 08 per cent Thejil 
is highly volatile with water vapors ; 600 parts of water are |h 
pable of dissolving one part of oil. If exposed to the air, ie 
x>il turns to resin, passing into valerianic acid. Hence, the ched- 
like odor of old hops. 

Hayduck distinguisHed three resins in hops: 

1. The a.resin, a soft resin of thickly fluid consistency a4 
pale reddish brown color. It possesses a very intense and lastif 
bitter taste, but practically no odor. 

2. /3-resin, quite similar to the L-resin, thickly fluid, wiB 
strong hop odor. 

3- 7-resin, a solid body, brittle, dark brown, not bitter anc 
quite without odor. The last named resin is therefore of no ap- 
parent value for brewing purposes. 

The soft resins, according to Hayduck, are formed from two 
bitter acids contained in the hops, whereas the hard resin is a 
product of the hop oil. The soft resins are gradually trans- 
formed into hard ones when hops are kept in store. i^Briant and 
Meacham, in Transactions Inst. Brg., VII., 4). 

In fresh hops was found 17.9S4 per cent of ether extract, of 
which 

4-734 per cent a-resin. 
8.065 per cent ^^^esin. 
5. 191 per cent *> -resin. 

The tannic substances of hops are stored chiefly in the leaves 
of the cone. According to R. Wagner (Dingler's Poly tech. Jour- 
nal, 154, p. 365) hops contain 3.17 to 5.1 per cent of tannic acid 
which differs from the tannic acid of gall-nuts, \\hereas Hayduck 
iound 2.88, 2.40 and 2.65 per cent of tannic acid in the dry sub- 
stancc of three hops. This tannin is a pa\e biowiv ^moTvVvo\» 
Aowder soluble in iUcohol diluted with water. TVie aqjieoxi* v>V\- 



BREWING MATERIALS, 479 

tionlisplays an intense color without a precipitate, upon an addi- 
tiDiof iron chloride. 

HOP BinCB AODS. 
piyduck, starting from the two soft hop- resins, obtained 
cryaliine precipitates of different forms, suggesting the jtrob- 
abity that hops contain two crystallizable hop Utter'acids, from 
wh h the ■ and B-resins seem to be gradually formed. 



/nong the nitrogenous bodies contained in hops, according to 
Pcsonne, we have gluten ; Griessmayer and Behrens detected 
triiethylamin in hops. The latter showed that (his sub- 
stcice is generated when hops become heated spontaneously. In 
thi process a bacillus seems to play a part which Behrens called 
baillus lupuliperda. In the presence of sugar this bacillus pro- 
dees butyric acid. 

The total amount of nitrogen in hops was found by Hayduck to 
b; from 3 up to nearly 4 per cent, the soluble part being'o.7S to 
16 per cent, or calculated as albumen la to 24 per cent total 
ilbunien and 4.6 to 10 per cent of soluble albumen. (Wochcn- 
ichrift f. Brauerei, 1894, p. 734). 

The enzyme found in bops by Brown and Morris, which is 
probably identical with diastase, is accumulated chiefly in the 

Griessmayer found 3 7 per cent of dextrose in hops, and Brown 
and Morris found 1,55 per cent of dextrose and 2.10 of levulose. 

The wax contained in hops is similar to beeswax and is of no 
importance. 

According to Thausing, hops contain 5.3 to 15.3 per cent, and an 
average of 7.54 per cent, of ash, as derived from 26 analyses. 
about one-third being made up of potash and one-sixth of phos-. 
phoric acid, 

J. Brand detected boric acid in the ash of the leaves, stems 
and twigs of the hop plant, as well as of the cone. This iicid 
passes into the beer (Zeitschrift f. d ges. Brauwosen, 1892, p. 
4a6). 

ACTIVE CONSTITl'ENTS OF HOPS. 
The active constituents of the ho]) plant are slorrrl uv .UvvA's 
In the lupulin. Hence the value of hops tor \itf«TOt ^ji-tyi^*.-! 
ig largely dependent upon the auiowiit auii ^nnv^ixV^ '■'■^ '■■'^■^■^ 
lapulbi. These active constituents are ; 



480 BREWING MATERIALS. » 

1. Hop oil, which carries the aroma. The aromatic oil of l|>s 
is only slightly soluble in water, and very volatile with \ter 
vapors. In saccharine solutions — f. i.» wort — it dissolves t a 
somewhat greater extent than in water pure and simple, lis 
readi^ soluble in alcohol aiid petroleum ether. 

2. Hop resin, which imparts the bitter taste, and by virtuof 
its germicidal action contributes to the stability of beer. Ttre 
are three hop resins, two soft and one hard. The soft rcns 
only possess the valuable properties. If hops are kept st(Sd 
away, especially if the conditions are unfavorable, the valu^c 
resins are apt, under the influence of the air, to be transforrtd 
into the worthless hard resins. Hop resin is not readily soliie 
in water, more readily in saccharine solutions, as beer wet. 
If the sugar of the wort is consumed in fermentation, the hp 
resin is gradually precipitated, the fluid being no longer ableio 
keep all of it in solution. 

3. Hop tannin, which like all kinds of tannin, causes ce- 
tain albuminoids to be precipitated and thus promotes the coagiiU 
tion of the albuminoids when the wort is boiled with hops. Th 
tannic acid is contained chiefly in the bracts. 

VALUATION OF HOPS. 

The valuation of hops is based almost wholly on externa 
marks, the following ones being decisive : 

I. Luster and Color. Fine hops possess a silky luster which 
is absent in inferior grades. The color is a greenish voIIua. 
varj'ing with the origin of the hops and being charactori.sli.; 1 -r 
the same. Thus, New York hops show a somewhat palor c<'l..: 
of a stronger greenish shade, whereas Pacifies have a more cK 
cidedly yellowish color. A reddish tint iray indicate liiai ih 
hops were left on the poles too lonj]^ before being picked, or that 
they became heated in the packape, which is far worse. a>i it 
implies a darker coloration of the lupulin and deterioration of 
the aroma, which means a general deterinratinn of (jiialiiy. Inas- 
much as this discoloration begins in the middle of the bale, all 
hop samples ought to be taken from that part. Occasional red 
spots indicate exposure of the plant to hail and do not detract 
from the value of the hops. 
2, Form and she of the cones. These features also are char- 
act eristic of the origin of the hops. On l\'vc \\\v"^\v. swvaU cvu- 
arc preferable to the big ones, as they average VugVw vcv \^\vv^:\w. 



BREWING MATERIALS. 481 

The bracts ought to lap over one another and hold firmly to- 
gether, whereby the lupulin is kept better. Hops with few and 
small seeds are preferred. 

3. Odor. Hops should possess a strong, fine aroma, free from 
any off-smell, as odors of fruit, garlic, etc. 

4. Clean Picking. There should be a minimum amount of 
stems, foliage, mold or stripped cones. Stems and leaves give 
a coarse taste to the beer. 

5. Lupulin. There should be a maximiun of this body. In 
fresh hops it has a light yellow color, the granules appearinij 
smooth, shining and full under the microscope. With increasing 
age the lupulin takes on a deeper color, and the granules shrink 
To find the lupulin, a few cones should be torn. When drawn 
over a piece of paper the broken cones ought tu leave behind a 
greasy, greenish yellow line. The weaker and drier this line, the 
less lupulin is present. 

HOP PREPARATIONS. 

LUPULIN (commercial). 

The chief active constituents of hops being collected in the 
lupulin, it is practicable to use the latter substance for brewing 
instead of the whole cone. As a rule, however, only part of the 
hops are replaced by lupulin. The amount of tannic acid in 
lupulin being small — since this substance is contained chiefiy in 
the bracts — but little influence is exerted upon the "break" of the 
wort. Hence the necessity of using some whole hops with the 
lupuline. 

The valuation of lupulin is based on: 

1. Appearance. It should be a pale yellow, the granules be 
shining, smooth and full, not shrunken, in order to show that 
it came from fresh hops and is well preserved. 

2. Aroma. It should be strong and fragrant, to show the lup- 
ulin to come from high-grade hops. 

3. Ash. While perfectly pure lupulin contains about 5 per 
cent of ash the commercial article shows a considerably higher 
amount, about 12 to 15 per cent, caused by sand which, with the 
lupulin, falls from the hops during the drying process. A higher 
percentage indicates that sand was added purposely, in order 
to increase the weight fraudulently. The amount of sand may 
also be shown microscopically. 

4. Aduherations. Besides the aduUex^XAOtv >n\\\v ^'mA> Vaxsxvx^ 

SI 



482 BREWING MATERIALS. 

acid is sometimes added, which may be easily shown by chemieal 
analysis. 

HOP EXTRACT. 

The oil and resins can be easily extracted by petroleum ether or 
naphtha without undergoing any material changes. Not so the 
tannin, which is insoluble in the solvent mentioned. The petro- 
leum ether extract is concentrated to a syrupy consistency, high 
temperatures being avoided on account of their deleterious influ- 
ences upon the various constituents. This article is the hop 
extract of the trade. It has the advantage over whole hops 
of containing the most important constituents of the latter in 
a concentrated form, taking up very little room, and, if packed 
in air-tight vessels, retaining its properties indefinitely without 
undergoing any change. 

Only a portion of the hops should be replaced by extract. 

The composition of hop extract appears from the iollowinp 
analysis, made at the Laboratory of Wahl & Hcnius. Chicago. 

COMPOSITION OF HOP EXTRACT. 

Volatile oil and loss by drying .'vW", 

Soft resin S4.36 

Hard resin 4.44 

Wax 1 83 

Tannic acid Trace 

Nitrogenous m alter None 

Insoluble in ether and alcohol (cellulose, etc.) 3.43 . 

COLOR.^NTS. 

For preparing a beer of dark color a malt may be used which 
has been subjected to special treatment in the kiln so as to 
acquire a dark color. In a great majority of cases, however, 
certain materials arc used, which possess high coloring power. 
enabling their use in small quantities, along with the usual ma- 
terials. Such matters are used both in a solid and in a liquid 
state. 

Those used in a solid state are: 

CARAMEL MALT. 

This is a malt prepared according to a special process. The 

husk of this malt is yellowish brown, while the endosperm has a 

decided brown color. In its preparation, ordinary malt of good 

quality is steeped for a while, so as to take up a certain amount 

of moisture. It is then dried, and heated in suitable vessels, first 

/n a comparntivcly low temperature \n order Vo \>^rv\wc>v<i vV\<i 



BREWING MATERIALS. 483 

lormation of sugar, and later to higher temperatures at virhich 

the sugar is caramelized. 
An analysis of caramel malt gave this result (Laboratory of 

Wahl & Henius) : 

Water 55 per cent 

Extract 62.19 per cent 

Extract as dry matter ', .65.81 per cent 

BLACK MALT. 

This malt is dried at higher temperatures, so that both the 
husk and the endosperm possess a blackish brown color. It 
does not have the pleasant caramel taste of caramel malt. The 
coloring power is very great. 

Inasmuch as the amount and composition of the extract from 
this malt are of very little consequence, it is generally made 
from inferior malt. 

ROASTED CORN. 

It is prepared from corn in the same manner as black malt 
from barley, i. c., by heating to higher temperatures. Its coloring 
power equals that of black malt. 

Of the liquid coloring materials the following may be men- 
tioned: 

SUGAR COLOR 

This was formerly made by heating cane sugar, but since grape 
sugar was generally introduced in brewing, this article is also 
used for preparing sugar color. Grape sugar, which contains 
dextrin, or a mixture of grape sugar and glucose syrup, is 
heated, the water evaporates, and the grape sugar takes on 
first a brown color, and, heating: being continued, a black color 
as it is charred. This product is dissolved in water and separated 
from the carbon parts by filtration. 

MALT COLOR. 

Malt Color is an extract of black malt, filtered and evaporated 
to a syrupy consistency. 

PORTERINE. 

An addition of this article to common beer is intended to im- 
part a color and, to a certain extent, a taste of porter. Like the 
other fluid coloring materials, it is a brown syrupy liquid. 

VALUATION OF LIQUID CO\-O^K^1^. 

The estimation of all fluid co\or\v\g vvx^iW^ixs \^ V-a.*^^^ ^"^ 
common viewpoint When adc\e<\ lo \>o\Vm^ vao^V n\v^^ ^^"^^ 



484 



BREWING MATERIALS. 



not interfere with the "breaking^' of the wort. When added tb 
finished beer they must not impair its brilliancy or give any 
burnt taste The coloring power should be as great as possible. 



COMPOSITION OF COLORANTS. 



The composition of the three types of fluid coloring materials 
is given in the following table (Laboratory of Wahl & Henius) : 



Water 

Extract 

Sugar as Dextrose. 
Sugar as Maltose . . , 



Sugar 
Color. 



27.40% 
72.«a% 
37 65% 



Malt I olor. 



I. 



43.75% 
50.S>% 



10.52% 



II 



4! 03t 

58.97,t 



6.90t 



in. 



30.75 
9.M 



Portcr- 
Ine. 



27.44% 
72.56% 
41 12% 



VARNISH. 

Wooden vessels in the brewery are varnished for the purpose 
of preventing any extractive matters that may remain in the 
wood getting into the beer. At the same time the varnish 
prevents the beer from penetrating into the pores of the wood. 
where it would sour and become a source of infecii«'n tha* 
would subsequently attack the beer run into tlie vessel. (Sec 
also "Varnishing.") 

COMTOSITION OF VARNISH. 

Varnish, in general, is a solution of pure orange shellac ir. 
pure alcohol, and should contain about 3.5 to 4 pounds of shellac 
per gallon of alcohol. An average of 32 analyses at the labora 
tory of Wahl & Henius, Chicago, shows 41.36 per cent 
of shellac. Varnishes containing more than 3.5 — 4 pounds 
of shellac to the gallon of alcohol should be diluted by the 
addition of alcohol. Formerly grain alcohol only was looked 
upon as the proper solvent for the shellac, wood alcohol being 
regarded as an adulterant, and very properly so, since it was never 
free from impurities, which arc mostly of a poisonous nature. 
Recent efforts have succeeded in producing a perfectly pure wood 
alcohol, which is put on the market by the name of Columbian 
Spirits, which yield a varnish that meets requirements. Since, 
however, the vapors even of this highly rectified wood alcohol 
may have an injurious effect upon the health of the laborers en- 
trusted with the work of varnishing, spec*\a\ c;xTe must be taken 
/£? h3ve the vats, etc., provided with good venvW^iVvow. '\\\\% xqviXa- 



BREWING MATERIALS. 485 

fi^ wood alcohol being much lower in price than pure grain 
alcohol, varnish made from it ought also to be correspondingly 
che^^r. 

PROPERTIES OF VARNISH. 

The properties of a good varnish are the following: 

1. It should dry quickly. The coat should be quite hard in 
about 48 hours. Varnish from wood alcohol dries more quickly 
than that which is made from grain alcohol. But the 
shellac also seems to play some part in this matter, some articles 
made from perfectly pure materials requiring four to five days 
to dry. 

2. The coat of varnish should be smooth, shining, and yielding, 
i. c., it must be without blisters, and not crack or break off when 
jarred. 

3. The varnish should not turn white. If this does happen, it 
may be due to one or more of several causes: 

a. Inferior quality of shellac. 

b. Resins in the shellac, which is not an uncommon oc- 
currence. Shellac that is adulterated in this way is gener- 
ally imported in that state. 

c. The wood of the vessel may remain green, or not per- 
fectly dry before varnishing. 

d. The coats of varnish may be put on in too rapid suc- 
cession, i. e., the first ones may not. have time to dry per- 
fectly before the next one is put on. 

e. The varnish may be either too thick or too thin. 

f. The old varnish may not have been .removed com- 
pletely before the fresh coat is put on. 

g. The vessels may have been filled before the varnish 
was strictly dry. 

The three points last mentioned may also cause blisters. 

PITCH. 

Trade packages are internally covered with a coat of pitch 
for similar purposes to those which lead to varnishing storage 
casks, etc., i. e., to prevent the beer coming into contact with 
the wood. 

Brewerb' pitch is the purified resin of certain coniferous trees, 
as pines, firs, etc. This resin is extracted by cuttvtv%, vcv\a >^^ 
trees, when it will ooze out like sap. ll \s c^W^^ Vwc-^^tvXvc^s:, "^v.^ 
is a mixture of colophony, oil of turpentine, N«^\.ex, wv^ ^o^xv^ o-^SsKt 



486 BREWING MATERIALS. 

sobslances not easily ToktiliMd. To giin pitch from At 
crude resin, it is melted and fac«ted, whereby the water and 
oil of turpentine are volatilized, while the impurities, as pieces 
of wood, sand, etc, either gather at the surface or settle on 
the bottom. Upon cooling, the mast congeals, showing a yel- 
lowish-brown to dark-brown color. This is ordinary pitch. 

By continued heating all the volatile substances can be driven 
off, and the remaining matter is called colophony. By melting 
together colophony with a certain amount of resin oil, the latter 
being a product of destructive distillation of colophony, or 
else colophony and linseed oil, brewers' pitch* is produced. 
In many cases, especially where the modem pitching machines 
are used, brewers prepare their own pitch in that manner. 
Resin oil is preferable in such cases. Cottonseed-oil has been 
of late used to soften colophony to advantage. It is cheaper. 
(See also "Pitching.") 

VALUATION OF BREWERS* PTICH. 

The valuation of pitch proceeds upon the following viewpoints: 
I. Temperature of softening. The heat at which pitch will 
become soft fluctuates in very wide limits. According to 83 
analyses made in the laboratory of Wahl & Henius, the ex- 
treme points are' 65** F. (14.5*' R.) and 103* F. (31.5'' R) ; 
average 84** F. (23** R.). Colophony softens at about 132" F. 

(45* R.3. 

A pitch that softens at temperatures up to yy"" F. (20" R.) is 
decidedly soft, and may cause trouble. If the empty packages 
are exposed to the sun, which is not an uncommon thing, the 
pitch may run down. It should be remembered that the point 
of softening gradually rises as the pitch is kept hot, owing to 
the evaporation or decomposition of volatile substances. The 
point of softening rises rapidly if pitch is heated in open vessels. 
more slowly if in closed vessels. It is therefore impossible to 
give any hard and fast standard for the softening point a good 
pitch ought to have, since the problem is always moditied by 
considerations of whether or not the pitch is heated before pitch- 
ing proper begins, and if so, for how long, to what degree of 
heat — the higher the temperature, the more quickly does the 
point of softening rise — whether in an open kettle or a closed 
boiler, what is the construction of the pitching machine, if 
one IS used, how long pitching is kepi up \)e\oTt \t^^\v \>\\s.Vv 
IS added, whether pitch runs in continuousVy or xvov, tvc. 



BREWING MATERIALS. 487 

^ -V^here pitching machines of modem constmction are tised 
in which oil is allowed to flow into the pitch, it is imperative to 
use a so-called high temperature pitch, i. c., one which will 
soften at a high degree of temperature. A high temperature 
pitch does not soften, in its original state, below 100° F. (30'' R.)- 

2. Taste of Pitch. When chewed, pitch should not have an 
offensive taste, since such taste might be communicated to the 
beer, although those constituents which cause the offensive taste 
are driven off, for the most part, by heating. 

3. Influence on Taste of Beer. Pitch that has been heated 
for some time and broken into small parts when added to beer 
should not affect the taste of the same. A taste of pure pitch 
is permissible, under certain conditions, where, owing to the 
requirements of the market, a slight pitch taste is wanted in 
the beer. 

4. Purity. Pitch should be as free as possible from impuri- 
ties, as wood fiber, sand, etc. This may be tested by treatment 
with strong grain alcohol, which will dissolve the pitch, 
whereas the impurities or fraudulent admixtures remain undis- 
solved. If wood alcohol is used instead of grain alcohol, 
it will leave resin oil, tallow and animal fats undissolved, if any 
such should be present. 

5. If diluted alcohol containing about 4 per cent of alcohol is 
added to a small amount of pitch, the alcohol, after 24 hours, 
should have no offensive odor or taste, and not affect litmus paper. 

CLARIFIERS. 

At the expiration of the storage period, the beer still remains 
more or less turbid, owing to the presence, in suspension, of 
dead or weakened yeast cells, albuminoids and other substances, 
which must be removed in order to obtain a brilliant and stable 
product. This clarifying is done by adding substances that act 
in a purely mechanical way. The two following methods are 
used for clarifying: 

CLARIFYING CHIPS. 

They consist of strips of wood of varying length, width, and 
thickness, that are cut by suitable machinery from wood which 
is easily split. Beech and maple are the woods used 
almost exclusively for this purpose. The \^tv^^ ci\ ^^cv^ Ocvxv't^ 
varies between 6 and 12 inches, the iVvicVtv^s?. Wvcv^ •3^:iO>a^ o^^- 
twelfth of an inch on an average. CVvKps ^\^o ^^^ ^"^ Ko^^kv 



i|88 BREWING MATERIALS. 

There are smooth chips and corrugated chip^, the latter shoimc 
either a ttniforin wave shape or a pronounced Anted surface. 
Some brewers prefer smooth, straight and thick chips, while 
others think the thinner corrugated chips are better. Of late, 
metal chips, particularly aluminum ones, have been introduced. 
In view of the fact, however, that certain metals are known to 
be capable of causing turbidity, caution must be observed in 
using metal chips. 

Only well seasoned wood should be used for preparing beer 
chips. 

ACTION OF CHIPS. 

The clarifying action of chips is a purely mechanical one. 
They act by superficial attraction, that is, their wide surface 
attracts the little suspended particles, which remain adhering 
to it 

It has been claimed that the chips exercise a chemical action 
upon the beer, also, the oxygen of the air being condensed at the 
surface of the chips and, passing into the beer, exercising its 
effect upon the yeast cells, causing them to settle more rap- 
idly, and thereby accelerating clarification. 

FININGS. 

In order to clarify the beer more thoroughly a solution of 
animal gelatin in water is added, which is called finings. The 
animal gelatin, which is called isinglass, is derived from two 
sources, the two following kinds being distinguished : 

ISINGLASS FROM FISH SOUNDS. 

The swimming bladder, or sounds of various fishes, consists 
of glue substance, or gelatin, in more or less pure form. These 
swimming bladders are used in the preparation of isinglass, as it 
is used in brewing. 

The sounds used in the various formulae of the manufactur- 
ers, at the present time, besides the American Hake, arc known 
as the Bombay Cake, the Maracaibo, the Russian Promislovy, 
Saliensky and Persian. Each kind has its pecularity, and each 
manufacturer a formula of his own for combining two or more 
kinds to meet the requirements of his own particular trade. 

Not all kinds of fish produce the sound adapted to the pur- 
pose, and only one. the Hake, is found on our shores. The 
fVeaMs/t might also be mentioned, but the quantity is so in- 
considerable as practicaUy to be omiUed. TVvt soww\^ o\ \\v^ 



BREWIKG MATERIALS. 489 

a only about 30 per -cent of gdatin, and furnishes 
a product of inferior quality. 

FUEPARATIOIf OP ISINGLASS. • 

The crude stock, which is purchased dry, can be made into 
isinglass only in cold weather, from December ist to April 1st, 
The first process, after careFully culling and washing every 
sound, is that of soaking and tempering, which requires from 
48 to 72 hours. Only cold water is used in soaking. The 
sotmds are then macerated and run through a series of rollers, 
until drawn out in continuous length they form a ribbon 8 or 9 
inches in width, in a moist condition. The rollers are hollow, 
and ice water is continuously passed through them. 

In order to facilitate the process of rolling, the first set of 
rollers was, in former years, sprinkled with starch, but there 
being a strong prejudice against it, and the starch being easily 
detected, the practice has been discontinued almost entirely. 

The isinglass is subsequently dried, folded, and packed in 
cases, from 100 to 125 pounds. The products which come into 
the market in the form of shreds or leaves, vary in color from 
a deep yellow to almost wliitc. 



' ISINGLASS. 

If properly stored, isinglass will keep for several years, but 
it will deteriorate in a damp storage room. If kept in a dry 
room, it becomes harder after the first year, dissolves less rap- 
idly, and in time loses its strength. 



Skins of animals contain large quantities of gelatinous mailer. 
although not in such large amounts as the swimming bladders 
of the fish mentioned above. This gelatinous matter is utilized in 
the preparation of isinglass by Wahl's process, from calves' 
skins. Naturally, the process is more complicated than in the 
preparation of isinglass from sounds. The carefully washed 
pieces of calf's hide are soaked for about a week in a strong 
solution of sulphurous acid in which they swell to about twice 
to three times their original siie, and become quite soft. Then 
the stock is shredded, the acid washed out, and gelatinous matter 
extracted by warm water. The resulting jelly on wjoVvcv^^^ ^"^V 
dried, and the pieces of gelatin ctuaVvei, 

WIi3t n'as said above about storaje a^ijWcs \\wt ».■!. •w*^- 



490 BREWING MATERIALS. 



"k 
V 



• 

A solution of isinglass being added to beer which is cold. It 
will coagulate into a floccnlent mass, which will be finer if the 
original solution was thin, and coarser if the original solution 
was in a more concentrated form. This coagulated mass, being 
evenly distributed throughout the whole body of the beer, forms, 
as it were, a network which envelops the substances held in sus- 
pension in the beer. Then, having a greater specific gravity 
than beer, it gradually settles on the bottom, carrying down 
with it all the substances that made the beer turbid. 

ANTISEPTICS. 

(See also "Treatment and Protection of Surfaces.") 

The dangerous enemies of the brewer, as molds and bac- 
teria, are exceedingly resistent to injurious influences. There 
is, however, a number of substances, comparatively small 
amounts of which are capable of making microorganisms harm- 
less. Many of these substances were in general use before it 
was known what part was played by the microorganisms in 
brewing operations. Following are the ones most generally used : 

1. Milk of Lime. If burnt lime (caustic lime, calcium oxide) 
is mixed with water, it will split up to a powder, called slaked 
or slack lime (hydrate of lime or hydrated calcium oxide) accom- 
panied by the production of considerable heat. This slack lime, 
which is not easily soluble in water, is mixed with water, to form 
milk of lime. 

The burnt lime of the trade is not chemically pure. In esti- 
mating the value of it for preparing milk of lime account 
should be taken of the percentage of caustic lime, which is 
found by chemical means. There should be but small admix- 
tures of sand or other impurities. 

2. Soda. The soda used mostly for cleaning is carbonate of 
sodium, and it is put upon the market in a more or less pure state 
in the form of finely developed crystals. It is called crystallized 
washing soda. It should have the highest possible content of 
effective sodium carbonate. In chemically pure crystallized soda 
it amounts to a little over 37 per cent. 

3. Caustic Soda. This is used extensively in about 5 per cent 
solution for cleaning out pipe conduits, etc. Sold in lumps. The 

commercial article cont^inB about 90 per cent ol efttcVVit ^o^vam 
Aydrate. Caustic sod^ is strongly hygroscopkaV. \\. mcVis v«ts>j 



BREWING MATERIALS. 49I 

gradually in the air, from which, it talces up carbonic acid at lh« 
Vame time, thereby losing in effective strength. It should always 
be kept in tightly closed receptacles. 

4. Cliloride of Lime. This article possesses a strong, ptmgent 
odor of chlorine, which is easily taken up by wort and par- 
ticularly by beer. For this reason it ought to be used only in 
such places as afford no opportunity for this deleterious influ- 
ence to make itself felt. The quality of the product is esti- 
mated by the percentage of chlorine, to be determined by chem< 
ical analysis, which, in a good article, amounts to some 30 per 
cent. The action is intense, and enables the use of chlorine 
for the destruction not only of microorganisms, but also of 
insects, as weevils. 

5. Sulphurous Acid and Sulphites. Sulphurous add possesses 
very powerful germicidal qualities. Sulphuring (or the purpose 
of disinfection and preservation has been practiced for a long 
time, f. i., in (he cases of wine casks, hops, etc. In brewing 
operations no use was made of sulphurous acid, either by itself 
or in a watery solution. But of late liquefied sulphurous acid 
has been introduced in brewing operations, being contained in 
iron cylinders like liquid ammonia. By conducing sulphurous 
acid into water the brewer is enabled always to have a fresh 
solution of great antiseptic power. This is not in general use. 
however, the sulphites being used instead, which possess anti- 
septic properties in a less degree. For cleaning purposes the 
only salt of this class used is: 

Bisnlpliiie ci" Lime, This article is put upon the market only 
in a solution containing an average of about 6 per cent of sul- 
phurous acid.. The content of this acid is decisive for the qual- 
ity of the article. It seldom reaches 8 per cent. The solu- 
tion loses its power by degrees, owing to the conversion of the 
sulphurous acid into sulphuric acid, which is of no value for 
purposes of disinfection. The odor of pulphurous acid which 
marks the solution is due to a slow decomposition of the bi- 
sulphite of lime, by which sulphurous acid is liberated. 

For cleaning yeast, sulphites like sulphite of soda and K, M. S. 
may be used. 

6. Acid Fluoride of Ammonia, also called Antise^'.vi ?i(!iv. 
The strong germicidal action oi the ftaoiKiM, cstw "va -j"-! 
i]iliiie solutions, procured a rapid acceptance o^ \.\\*.vtv\yj \«^*,^* 

and the above compound enjoys a pecwViat pov'^^*^'*^^ ■ QMivc^t 



493 SKEWING MATERIALS. 

Qte large p crewrtige of effioeot L j diofliiorie add, whkh b 
to 34 to 35 per cent On ■cconnt of the powerfnl effects of the 
' solution on glass and metala, it ibonld be prepared onl7 in 
wooden or hard-mbber veaiela. For cleaning purposes dis- 
■oItc I pound of the salt in 40 sanona of water. The aalt has 
this advantage, that a fresh loliition can be prepared at any 
time, on short notice. 
This solution ma; also be used in steep water. 

7. Antinonniae. This is the potash compound of a derivative 
of creosote, tlie antiseptic action of which is well known. It 
is put upon the marLet in the form of a paste and gives a yellow 
Eolution in water. The solution gives o& no odor. 

Antinonnine is used for drying damp walls and damp wood, 
preventing and destroying mold on the walls, and stopping 
musty odors. To preserve walla from crumbling it is recom- 
mended to add 5 per cent of antinonnine to the mortar. For the 
other purposes mentioned a i per cent solution is sufficient. To 
obtain the best results this solution should be heated to 144 to 
156° F. and two coats put on the surface to be prolL-cleJ, the 
second coat being applied two days after (be first. 

Antinonnine must never be applied to any implements that 
come into direct conUct wilti wort or beer. 

To clean Ihe hands, that may have become yellow in handling 
the solution, wash ihem in water containing z lo 5 per cent 
muriatic acid. 

8. Formaline is a 40 per cent solution of formaldehyde in 
water, and is a powerful germicide. For washing vessels a 
solution of t part formaline in 1.000 pans water is sufficient. 
which perceiUagc is obtained by mixing one lablcspoonful of 
formaline in 4. gallons water. For disinfecting walls sprinkle 
them with this solution. 

9. Benzoic Acid. A derivative of carbolic acid; forms deli- 
cate crystals and has an aromatic, characteristic odor. Used 
in alcoholic solution the same as: 

10. Salicylic Acid. Related to benzoic acid, but odorless. Good 
for washing ceilings. 

PREPARING AND PACKING SAMPLES FOR EXAM- 
INATION. 
Attention was directed at the beginning of this chapter 
to the necasity of using only fauWcs* ma*.enaU m Vm. 
J>r^>aration of beer. In order lo torm a correct < 



BREWING MATERIALS. 493 

^em it is necessary, in many cases, to submit them to a close 
chemical or microscopical examination, such as can but rarely 
be performed by the brewer himself. In such cases it becomes 
necessary to send samples to a proper Uboratoiy. Furthermore, 
in order to control brewing operations continuously, which is 
the only safe method to meet competition successfully, exam- 
ination should not be confined to raw materials, but the 
products prepared from them, as well as all the articles that arc 
employed in the brewery, the properties of which may exert an 
influence for good or bad on the finished beer, should also be sub- 
jected 10 analytical control. 

In order to obtain reliable results from such examinations it 
is necessary not only to employ a station or analyst who is quali- 
fied and capable of meeting the requirements, but the brewery 
aly>, in sending its samples must do its share to enable the exami- 
nations to be made without unnecessary expenditure of time and 
trouble, reliably and promptly. It this is done, the principal 
beneficiary will be the brewery, since in most cases of disturb- 
ances in brewery operations severe losses can be prevented only 
by prompt and vigorous action. 

The help which the brewery can and always should give to 
the station or the chemist charged with the examination, in its 
own interest, is a proper manner of taking samples, and a most 
complete, but brief, information about the samples and in what 
direction they arc to be examined. It is often difficult and la- 
borious to take samples in the proper way, but it is, nevertheless, 
indispensable, if there is a desire to secure really reliable results, 
without which the examination would be worse than useless. 
It is furthermore essential, in case of disturbances in operation, 
that a detailed description of the conditions prevailing arc fur- 
nished so as to facilitate detection of the causes leading to (he 
trouble. Time and money are always saved by the heady co- 
operation of the brewer. 

Inasmuch as many brewers are not familiar with the manner 
of taking samples, the most important considerations that should 
be observed may be briefly described. 

Barley, Mall, Corn Products, Rice, Sugar. — Samples from dif- 
ferent bags of the same lot, and often samples from the snme 
bag, do not agree strictly. Samples sVio\>\4, \.\\«e\<ii«., \«, v^*:cv 
from different places of ;he bags and i cotvsviw^W^e. toiiKfet^ 
of bags, heaped upon a clean spot on t\ie ftooT , q^ , XifCw:^ *- 



494 BREWING MATERIALS. 

on a sheet of paper, well mixed, and about a pound of this 
mixture taken and sent in for examination. It is advisable to 
ship the sample in a tin box or a strgng, air-tight glass jar, not 
in a bag or paper package. Barley, malt, etc., has the property 
of absorbing moisture from the air with avidity, and if the sam- 
ple is packed in cloth or paper, the percentage of moisture, when it 
reaches its destination, will not ag^rce with what it was in the 
brewery. The result is that, for instance, the amount of extract 
will be found lower than it is in reality, materially diminishing 
the value of the material. 

Crushed if alt. — Unless there are unusual reasons to prevent, 
the original malt, before being crushed, should be sent in for 
examination, as reliable results cannot be otherwise reached. 
But if, for certain reasons, crushed malt must be examined, 
take two pounds directly from the mill and pack it at once»in 
a tin or glass vessel, as above indicated. 

Grains. Immediately after the grains have been removed 
from the niasli-tiib, take small samples, at different places of the 
heap, mix and send a quart of the mixture in a clean glass jar or 
tin can which -is closed tight. 

ll^ort. — ^Just before running off the wort, take a sample from 
the kettle or a sample from the hop jack, fill up a carefully 
cleaned quart bottle with it and close it at once. It is useless 
to send a sample of the first wort, and wrong to take the sample 
after cooling and before pitching, as the wort is liable to be 
infected and become cloudy, making it impossible to form 
an opinion with regard to the cold "break." The bottles used 
should be cleaned most carefully. First put some common 
laundry soda into the bottle, t'.ll it up wiih hot wa.cr aiul allow 
it to stand for about an hour. At the expiration of that lime, 
empty the bottle, rinse out repeatedly with clean water, and. 
finally, before filling with wort, rinse out a few times with the 
wurt. For closing use only new corks, after softer.in^ ihcm 
in hot water, so as to remove those bodies which might cause 
turbidities. It should be added that samples that are taken 
as here directed will always, upon examination, show a lower 
saccharometer indication than where the wort is weighed in the 
cellar by the saccharometer, since evaiH)ration takes place between 
r/jc hop j nek nnd the starting tub and Ihc wort is concentrated. 
changing the ratio of extract. Such concci\U;\Uow, o\ cc^\\Ii.^i. \*» 



BREWING MATERIALS. 495 

eliminated where the samples are taken as above directed, but in 
the examination due consideration is given to these facts. 

Beer, As a general rule, in taking beer samples, no matter in 
what respect they are to be examined, care should be taken 
to use only perfectly clean bottles, as described for wort, and 
to clean the try cock thoroughly and let some of the fluid 
flow out, at least one quart in amount, before filling the bottles. 
The object is to remove any dirt that may have collected in 
the cock and to prevent it getting into the sample bottles. 

As to the amount of the sample to be taken, it depend upon 
what the sample is to be examined for. If the beer is only to 
be examined microscopically, one pint is enough; if it is to be 
tested for durability at the same time, two pints should be sent. 
If the examination is to be chemical, it requires two quarts, 
and in case of a test for durability is also desired the amount to 
be sent should be increased to three quarts or four pints. 
To determine the carbonic acid in beer, two quarts should be 
sent. The bottles should have corks of good quality. In taking 
samples for the latter purpose, it is necessary first to cool the 
bottle with ice, attach a lead of hose to the tap, reaching to 
the bottom of the bottle, run the beer into the bottle care- 
fully, and close with the cork at once, to prevent the escape 
of carbonic acid. The corks are best fastened with strong 
twine or wire. 

If a sample of fermenting beer is to be taken, take it at the 
close of the primary ferrncntation, filling a pint bottle about 
one-quarter full, in order to prevent the bottle bursting from 
the pressure of carbonic acid generated in the secondary fermen- 
tation. In these cases a patent stopper bottle is preferable. 

Hops. — From the center of the bale cut out a square piece 
about two inches thick by four inches long and wide, and pack 
it in a clean tin can, not in a cigar or tobacco box, the odor 
of which will impair the aroma of the hops. Never send the 
hops loose or torn into shreds; to do so will shake the lupulin 
from the bracts and make a critical examination difficult, if 
not im|K)ssible. 

Air. — In taking samples of air it is of the greatest importance 
to use only sterilized bottles, which are supplied by the «^t'A.V\<^^- 
The bottles should never be opened, except \tv XXve. \ooycv >n\v^'^<i 
air is to be examined. The hands sViou\d be ^\isc\>3\0v^ 0.^^\"^ 
and the cover of the bottle quite free irom d\t\. \\ \s \w^^^^^^^ "^^ 



496 BREWING MATERIALS. 

place the cover on a dean sheet of paper. Leave the bottle standing 
open for an hour, close carefully and ship at once. 

Water. — For chemical examination send a gallon in a clean 
jug or in five quart bottles that have been cleaned in the same 
way as for wort Only fresh corks should be used. In sending 
such a sample, the origin of the water, whether from a well, 
river, lake, cistern, pump or hydrant, should always be indi- 
cated, and in the case of well water, the depth of the well. For 
microscopical examination of water sterilized bottles should be 
used, the same as for air, which, likewise, must be treated with 

'the greatest care to avoid infection. Before taking the sample 
the water should be kept running for some considerable time. 
After being closed tight the sample should be packed in ice, 
if possible, and shipped at once. But, even if all precautions are 
observed, the examination will not afford a true idea of the 
number of bacteria contained in the water, since they multiply 
in transit even if the bottle is packed in ice. 

Yeast. — For the ordinary examination of yeast as to purity, 
sterilized bottles are supplied, wliich must be treated with 
equal care as in taking samples of air. If a complete examina- 
tion of the yeast is to be made, a pint bottle should bo ii>0(l. 
after being cleaned with the greatest care and treated in the 
same manner as for wort, rinsing it out in conclusion with 
hot water, so as to kill any germs that may remain in it. The 
bottle should, of course, be cooled down before the sample is 
introduced. The bottle should be filled with yea>t about i^nc 
eighth, and not to exL^eed one-fourth, and. if possible, espocialiy 
where it is sent a long distance, packed in ice in order to av<>ivl 
the yeast cells from becoming weakened or dying in transit. In 
taking the yeast sample, attention should be given to the follow- 
ing: The yeast having been run off from the fernienter in the 
usual manner, after removing the cover, it is allowed to settle in 
the yeast tub for some little time, then the beer standing over it 
is drained off. the yeast mixe<l with absolutely clean implenunis, 
and the amount for the sample taken from this well mixed mass. 
Coal. — In order to secure a good representative sample, take 
small amounts from ditlerent parts of the heap, crush the pieces 
clown to about the size of a walnut, mix them well and spread 

tJicin out on a clean, dry place, making a square heap of 
even height. Di\\dc this heap \\\lo V\no <iv\\\^\ ^^;!lns. 
crush one part to about pea-size, wake ;iwol\v^x ^q^w^xq: V^^'^ 



BREWING MATERIALS. 497 

as -before from this part, divide it into four parts and 
vSend one of these parts, which should weigh about two pounds, 
to the examiner, packing it in a box. Care should be taken 
to prevent only the biggest pieces being picked out ; a full por- 
tion of the divided heap should be sent, including the finer parts 
that broke oflf in crushing. In order to do this successfully, it 
is preferable to spread the coal heaps on a sheet of stout paper 
instead of piling them up on the floor, then remove from the 
paper the portions that are not to be usei and leave only 
the parts to be used on the paper. 

Boiler Compounds. — If fluid, send a pint ; if solid, half a pound 
in a glass jar or a tin can. 

Boiler Scale, — Half a pound packed in a box. 

Oil (Lubricating, Etc.). — About half a pint in a clean, dry 
well-closed bottle. 

Brewers' Varnish. — One pint in a dry, clean bottle. 

Pitch. — Half a pound in a clean box or tin can. It is desir- 
able to accompany the sample with a statement of how the 
pitch is treated in the brewery, to what degree and how long 
it is heated for pitching, whether oil is admixed, what pitching 
apparatus is used, etc. 

Filtering Material. A quarter of a pound in a clean, dry 
glass jar or a tin can. 

Chips. Half a pound in a clean box or bag. 

Antiseptics. — If solid, send half a pound in a clean box; if 
liquid, one pint in a clean, dry bottle. 

It is to the interest, not only of the analyst, but also, and 
particularly, of the brewery, to accompany the sample with a 
statement as to what the sample is to be examined for. It is 
in this respect, unfortunately, that omissions are common. The 
simplest way, probably, is to provide each sample with a label 
stating briefly the cause of sending the sample or what is to 
be done with it, i. e., on a beer sample, a remark like this: 
"Examine for carbonic acid," or, "Examine for durability," or 
to put any mark, letter or number, or both, on the label and 
give the necessary explanation in an accompanying letter. An 
exception is made in the case of samples of malt, corn products, 
rice, etc., which are to be examined only in the usual \va^« ^"^ 
all other cases, whenever the examiuaUon \s owV%\^^ ^V "0^^ '^^'^- 
vlar routine or special causes led to sew^m^ \\v^ '5>^vcs.^\^> '-^ 
particular statement of all the circumsVatve^s \^ vcv^vs^^^^'^'^^^' 



MICRO-ORQANISMS. 

(See tables pages 509, 512, 520, 521, 522.) 



Micro-organisms are living beings of the simplest structure, 
many of which possess general practical and scientific interest by 
their capacity as generators of fermentation, putrefaction and in- 
fectious diseases. 

By their morphological properties, i. e., their structure and 
gfrowth, and their biological properties, i. e., manifestations and 
conditions of life, they belong to the vegetable kingdom and are 
classed among the fungi. 

The lower fungi arc divided into three classes: 

1. Filamentous, or mold fungi. — Hyphomycetes. 

2. Budding, or yeast fungi. — Blastomycetes. 

3. Fission fungp, or bacteria. — Schizomycetes (Schizophytes). 

GENERAL BIOLOGY. 

Many of these consist of single cells and in that case are called 
unicellular. A "cell" is a bit of protoplasm, enveloped by a cell 
wall or membrane consisting of cellulose, similar to, but not 
identical with, the common cellulose of plants. 

PROTOPLASM. 

"Protoplasm" is a more or less viscous, tough, elastic, trans- 
parent, often granular substance. Chemically it is classed as 
albuminous in its nature. It is the most primitive substance yet 
discovered that possesses the peculiarities of animate or living 
as distinguished from inanimate or lifeless matter, and as far as 
scientific knowledge goes it is the ultimate basis or unit of all 
organic life. It is nature's agent for carrying on chemical de- 
composition and reconstruction of the most intricate character 
on which depends, to a very great extent, the metabolism or cir- 
culatlon and modification of matter which makes the activities of 
///<? throughout the world. 

498 



MtCRO-ORGAKISMS. 



THE LIVING CKLL. 



The living cell is endowed with the capacity of carrying on all 
the essential functions of life as respiration assimilation repro 
duction etc Larger and higher plants are aggregations of cells 

To the brewer the biology of micro organisms is of supreme 
importance as a large and consequential part of his work hca m 
dealing with Iheir functions m making or at times marring his 
product The whole process of fermentation f i depends upon 
the cultivated yeasts for the making upon bacteria wild yeasts 




and mycoderma for the marring it is important to guard against 
mold in malting, etc. 

The living cell is not visible to the naked eye It is observed 
by means of the microscope, a high magnifying power being 
required for many of its forms 

These simple plants assume a variety of shapes some of them 
like the molds, being quite complex in outline 

The cell grows by the protoplasm mciea^vw^ wv ^■cwi-itft. ■a.''^^ 
pressing- upon the cell-wall, which expands Itc=,V ^nw^'^'^'^'^ '^^^ 
Ur being at the same time continuous\v B.U?9\it4 



HICRO-OBGANI3H5. 



Tbe higher pUnts derive their nntrition fmm the soil wluch 
their roots penneate, and froin the air. From the soil they take 
vf mineral snlwUiices aod tuiunoiiia, from which latter snb- 
■tance the nitrogeqoiu rabstancea of the plant, like albuminoids, 
are built up, while from the air thej take np carbonic acid, from 
which u a source, mainly tbrongh the agency of the chloro- 




phyll cells, are produced the various carbonaceous substances, 
like cellulose, carbohydrates, fats, etc., that plants are com- 
posed of. 

A microbe, or tuicro-orgatiisni containing no cliloropbyll. cannot 

build np its body from carbonic acid, like other plants. Its food 

consists rather of the same substances Itat ivivm^h wutTinient 

Aw aaimal Ii£c, namely, carbohydratea, maVnW ™ ^^^ ^"'"^ 'A 



MICRO-ORGANISMS. 



501 



sugar; sibuminoida, mainly in the form of unides; and mineral 
.nbstances, mainly in the form of potassium phosphate. These 
substances seem to serve the same ends, moreover, in these micro- 
scopic plants as they do in the animal system, the sugar being 
the source of beat to supply the energy to cany on the vital 




Penicillins 



functions, wliile the albuminoids and mineral substances are the 
raw material from which protoplasm is produced or the body is 
built up. 

Animals can utilize many different Vmis ol tMNnAi-J^viaSB.'), w\^ 
albuminoids lor /ood. These substances uVtimaXeX-j ^t^ ewK&t**! 



503 



U I CRO-CHtCA N IS H S. 



before they are so utilized, into the identical substances which 
yeast and other organbms take up for food out of a solutioa- 
Enzymes contained in the animal system change the carbohydrates. 
lilce starch and dextrin, to sugar, the nitrogenous substances, like 
albumen, to peptones and amides before assimilation takes place 
While yeast and bacteria are capable of assimilating soluble 
food only, the molds thrive on starch and insoluble albumen. 
They secrete the corresponding enzymes as does the animal or- 
ganism. 




Although amides are the principal form of nitrogenous food 
for ycasl and probably for all bacteria, these plants can also 
utiliie pcplonti and ammonia salts. 

The clianges that take place in the building up and breaking 
down of (be protoplasm seem lo be quite similar for animal and 
yeast protoplasm. At any rale it seems permissible lo make such 
3 deduction H-licn we compare an e.-clract of animal protoplasiti 
uiiJj iliat obtained from yeast, both extracts being quite similar 
^ composiiion (see "yeast"). 



UlCRO-ORGAN ISMS. 



503 



, EXCRETION. 

..^he passing out of the system, of substances thai have been 
consumed, like broken down protoplasm, and which are thrown 
off as spent or of no further use to the system, is called "excre- 



Microbes with few exceptions cannot live without oxygen. 
Like animals they take in oxygen and give off carbonic acid, whilt 




the larger plar 

oxygen. Tlic oxygen liiat is taken into the system combine?, 
ivilli certain food constituents whereby \\taA. w %tTiMa.\e.i- 'Yw.5. 
gfneraiioii of beat is necessary to supp\^ 1\\« twt^^ V^^ ^ttVa^"™- 
the functions of life. 



504 



HICKO-ORCANISMS. 



BEPBWUCnON. 

Mold fungi multiply or reproduce themselves generally \f 

sporulation, yeast fungi by budding or sporulation, bacteria by 

fission or sporulation (see the respective heads). 

osMon. 

The passing in of substances, like food, from a solution to the 

interior of a cell, and the passing out of substances like spent 




or broken down proloplasni from the interior of ihc ocll 

/igiiii/ surrounding the eel!, must take place through the n 

' yrane enveloping the protoplasm. TWs k a Ivuitmn -a^ v 



MICRO-ORGANISMS. 505 

tmnes generally, whether animal or vegetable, and is called 
"osmose"' or "diffusion." The passage of substances into a cell is 
termed "endosmosis," the passage out of a cell "exoamosis." 

Osmose is distinct from filtration. Whereas all substances 
in solution will pass through a filter with the solvent, only 
certain substances in solution, like salts, sugar generally, and 
substances that will crystallize, hence crystalloids, will pass 
through a membrane, while others like erythro-dextrio, proteids 
in solution, generally uncrystallizable or colloid substances will 

Some substances will pass through a membrane with greater 
facility than others, for 







yeast cell wall quicker than maltose. Generally speaking, a sub- 
stance is the more readily assimilated by a cell, the more readily 
it diffuses through the iiicmbrane. Where sugars are 
split up in ihe interior of a cell into alcohol and carbonic acid 
we may say that those sugars ferment the most readily, which 
diffuse through the membrane most readily. 



All substances in solution exert a pressure on the membrane of 
the cell. Tills pressure is consequently exerted from witUci*- 
as well as from within. 

Different substances exert different vtcsa\wcs. aTi& vVfs.c ■i'^';' 



506 MICRO-ORGANISMS. 

sures differ also with the nature of the membrane. Thus 
dextrose exerts about 30 times the pressure of erythro- dextrin, 
and maltose about one-half as much as dextrose. Prior (Malz 
und Bier, i8g6, p. 457) explains the differences in the degrco of 




(ermentation, which different yeasts show i: 
. composition, by assuming lliat the subst: 
different osmotic pressures on the membranes of llie 
yeast, like Saar, Frohberg, Logos, the membrane of these ycafis 
showing differences of structure. 

viTALmr. 
Protoplasm shows different powers of resistance toward adverse 
iiillQenees, according to circumstances. H protoplasm is care- 
fully dried it preserves its vitnlily for a long time, can be sub- 
jecled to high degrees of heat, and exposed to intense cold with- 
out serious injury, .Again, the protoplasm of spores of some 
bacteria and yeasls have greater vitahty than the parent cell. The 
spores of bacillus subtilis may be boiled for hours without 
destruction. 



FERMENTATION, PlTTltEFACTIOK AND DECAY. 

The most important and interesting faculty of the microbes 
is that they alter the chemical conslilnlinn of the ma'.nr in w]v.d\ 
ihcy grow. This aclivity consists in brcakins ■[■■\\n i!it mini- 
mal and vegetable snbsiances on which they feed ,ind reducing 
(he simple 



: built 



thai I 



up. a; at 

1 and ihe i 






ce of I 






MICRO-ORGANISMS. 



507 



bers that may b^ called infinite, the dead bodies of plants and 
anifnals are split up once more into those simpler substances 
which serve to produce and sustain new life. Microbes have 
with much propriety (Sykes' Principles and Practice of Brewing) 
been called nature's scavengers, and without their action organic 
life on earth would ages ago have become impossible owing to 
the accumulation of dead organic matter in which the elements 
of life were tied up. The processes by which this work of decom- 
position is carried on are called fermentation, putrefaction and 
decay. 

Putrefaction is the decomposition of albuminous matters, ac- 
companied by the generation of foul-smelling gases, as sul- 
phuretted hydrogen, ammonia, etc. This decomposition is of 
very common occurrence and is often brought to the notice of 
everybody in everyday life, f. i., in the case of rotten eggs or 
high meat, etc. It is the product chiefly of a numerous group 
of bacteria called terinobactcria. 

Fermentation is the decomposition of carbohydrates, generally 
sugar, by microbes, accompanied by the generation of gases not 
malodorous, like carbonic acid. The decomposition may be brought 
abottt by yeasts or bacteria. In the former case the products of 
fermentation are carbonic acid and alcohol. If due to bacteria 
the products of decomposition are carbonic acid and generally 




i-00 



Dacilliis viscosijs ( Lindner » 



Clostridium butyrinini (Frazinowski) 5(10: r. 

another acid like lactic, butyric or acetic, according to the kind 
of bacteria involved. 
Decay is tJie sJow process by w\ucV\ dxv ox txvov^V o\%^'^\^ '^'^^ 



5o8 






MICitO-OBGANISMS. 

gradually consumed lijr mold growing or feeding 

BIOLOGICAL DESCRIPTION. 
This description, will be confined to such types as possess prac- 
tical interest for the brewer. Only the most important character- 
istic marks will be given. 



ffioooooajsgg 




FILAMENTOUS OR MOLD FUNGI.— HYPHOMYCETES. 

Molds are very common, and often infest breweries. 

As a rule ihey require plenty of air and moisture. They occur 
most frequently on mailing floors, starling on crushed or broken 
corns, on damp wood or masonry, badly cleaned vessels and imple- 
ments. The danger from molds in the brewery is of a twofold 
nature. First, they infest the air. and, by the decomposition they 
perform, generating a foul odor, they impair the taste of the beer, 
giving it ihe well-known cellar taste. Secondly, the fell-like mass 
of mold is apt to take up spores of wild yeasts and bacteria 
which will grow and develop iherein. 

The soft, silky coating of different colors, often found on moisl 
organic bodies, as wood, bread, fruit, barley, malt, etc., popularly 
called mold, is found, upon microscopical examination, to consist 
of a vast number of minute plants. Each plat 



■ fill 

W 

sltl 
' II 



ill 

• ft 



Sill 



MICRO-ORGANISMS. 

iie-i 



lis 



||sl||l!| 

iiiH"' 



i iFii h;^ III ! 



?l!;3 



-■a Sb^-s 
?a2 2'= = " 



;g? 



Hi 



IIHI 












510 



MICRO-ORGANISMS. 



more cells, though often branching out into several threadlike 
tubes. 

The mold fungi possess long, delicate, silky threads, or fila- 
ments (hyphx), which develop very fast and abundantly. They 
penetrate organic matter, both dead and living, and, ramifying and 
interlacing with each other, form what is called the "mycelium," 
which is characteristic of these types of fungi, both in form and 
color. 

REPRODUCTION. 

From the mycelium there shoot up the aerial hyphae, upright 
threads, whose function it is to bear the organ of fructification. 

The common form of reproduction is by sportUation. Upon 
the upright threads are formed "spores," which occupy a place 
similar to that of the seeds of the higher plants, and are properly 
little cells within, or protruding from, the parent cell. The spores 
may, for instance, be inclosed in a knob called the "sporangium" 




Budding Yeast ,Thaiisinn » 5^^- '• 

{mucor), or cut off by abstriction at the extremities of the iip- 
r/^ht thread H'hich spreads out in branches (penicillium) , or the 
spores may be formed by the fi\amenls o^ l\\e \\\^'c^Uv\u\ falling 
to pieces (oidium), etc. 



MICRO-ORGANISMS. 



SH 



^ S($bres arc produced without number. They are very resistant 
' and are carried everywhere in the air. They can lie dry for years 
without losing their vitality, but begin to grow as soon as they 
find a favorable medium to live on. 

As a rule, the spore, when it finds suitable conditions, devjelops 
a new mycelium, possessing the same properties as the parent 
plant. It is only in exceptional cases and under peculiar condi- 
tions that the spore will multiply by "budding," which is the 
characteristic mode of reproduction of the yeasts. 

Besides this "vegetative" or "asexual" reproduction there oc- 
curs much more rarely a mode of "sexual" reproduction. A 

'^ Q ^ o 

Yeast cells resting (Tbausing) 500:1. 

couple of upright threads grow together (copulation) and be- 
come fused into a single cell, a kind of fruit body, called "zygo- 
spore," from which the mycelium grows at a later period, after 
the zygospore has dropped from the parent threads. 

FISSION FUNGI OR BACTERIA.— SCHIZOMYCETES. 

Bacteria are the smallest of all known living things. They are 
unicellular, or composed each of a single cell, consisting of 
protoplasm and cell wall. No cell nucleus has yet bectv IcwvxvV \vv 
any oi iheni. 

Three forms of bacteria are d\st\t\g>xvs\vt^\ 



#> ^ CP 
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513 H1CKO-ORGAN15US. 






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MiCRO-OHGANiSMS. 513 

i. Spherical (coccus). 

2. Rod-ahapcd (bacillus). 

3. Spiral-shaped (spirillum). 

Owing lo their universal presence bacteria will also enler 
the brewery and are apt to interfere with the Work there gning 
on. modifying the dJtfercnt processes which the brewer is en- 
deavoring to bring about, anil ofien mining or impairing iht 



result of his efforts, unless proper precautions are taken. 
Hence the importance of being acquainted with the bacteria, 

REPRODUCTION. 

Under favorable conditions all bacteria reproduce I hem solves 
by "fission," or splitting. An elongation lakes place and a paiii- 
tion grows across the widlli of the body, at which point the origi- 
nal cell splits into two parts which either separate or hang to- 
gether in chains. 

The spherical bacteria art' the only ones capable of spliliing np 
in more than one direction, a spherule sometimes dividing in 
Iwo or three directions. 

A considerable number of liacleria will, under certain condi- 
tions, form spores. Such spores are rotind or oval bodies of 
great refractive power and consequently present a glistening ap- 
pearance under the micro<cope. They are invariably gri^wn 
within the cell bidy {endogenous), and oi-cur more freijiiemly 
among the bacilli, more rarely among the cocci. 

Irregular form^^ are -nnii'tiuu'S found in olcler eulmres, Tlicy 
arc cnusci! by degenerniioii nf the bacterium cells ami are called 
"involution forms." 
Sonic bacieria arc characterized by V\\e pc-«M qV \Q^o\f>'^v\t>"^ 



514 



UICBO-ORCANISHS. 



which is brought about by special whip-like organs icalled 
"flagella." These slender threads become visible under the 
microscope only by staining. 

Of bacteria the number in naiure is without end. A great 
many of them have been examined and described, but those 
which are met with in brewing operations are few. Passing by 
the methodical classification of bacteria in general, those which 
concern the brewer may be reduced lo three classes: 

1. Bacteria of putrefaction: Termobacteria, hay bacillus. 

2. Bacteria of fermentation: Lactic, butyric and acetic acid 

3. Bacteria which produce pigments: Sarcina. 

TCBHOBACmUA. 

A considerable number of varietieG of termobacteria have 
been found and described. They are minute rods, showing a 
tight constriction in the middle. They never form chains, but 
are exceedingly motile. Some have been shown lo raise 
spores. But few of ihem occur in the brewery, mostly in ihe 
wort, which in that case sends up a peculiar odor as of cillery. 
If a wort that is infected with termobacteria is pitched with a 
vigorous yeast, the bacteria will die rapidly. They arc seldom 



fjb Q- 




found in the finished beer, 
readily nnd quickly in yeasi 



On the other hand, ihey develop 
while in a resting condition, (See 



The bay bacillus (bacillMS jubliiisl. ■w\v\c\\ is teiiiarkable for 
^ (Ae extraordinary resistance ot its apoT^s, v^ ^.tiQftvw \>i^\w\>i.ia 



MICRO-ORGANISMS. 



5"5 

of pt^trclaclion. Il was formerly asserted that this bacillus was 
met with in wort and beer. It has been shown by recent ex- 
periments that it is incapable of development in hopped wort, 
particularly in the presence of appreciable amounts of free acid. 



mi2M 



^a^o' 




I (H. 



BACTERIA OF FERMENTATION. 

The following fermentations are caused by bacteria: 

1. Lactic acid fermentation. 

2. Butyric acid fermentation. 

3. Acetic acid fermentation. 

4. Viscous fermentation (of beer). 



.ACTIC ACID BACTERIA. 

hose activity milk is soured consist of 

5ds, which are often joined in groups of 

ss no means of locomotion. Many of them 

some reproduce themselves by means 

J some without. Several varieties are met 

operations, principally in top-fermentation 

r toslc of their product depending mainly 



The bactefia by 
short, thick, plump 
two or three and pos: 
have been isolated, 
of sporulaiion, and 

breweries, tlic 

upon these bacteria. (For certain pediococcus types that ; 
active in producing this result see "Sarcina.") In bottom-fer- 
1 beers they are able to produce turbidity and a sour 



I) lactic baclciia, i\\ci^«.\ VaK.- 
terium of this class is jafrJiarobocillus tiQSto''"^'^'*^'*^- '^^'^'^ 
organism is able to grow both m WQiX atvi \itw. "V^ **^ '*^'' 



5l6 MICRO-ORGANISMS. 

crates lactic acid. It is not motile. It is responsible for the 
turning of beer, and is capable of fermenting such sugars as 
maltose, saccharose, and dextrose. No spores have yet been 
found in this bacillus. (See illustration, page 505.) 

BUTYRIC ACID BACTERIA. 

These also are of many varieties. Often they are fairly long 
rods, although shorter forms are also met with. They move 
slowly, and some of them at times reproduce themselves by spores. 
With few exceptions they arc "anaerobic/* i. e., they develop 
more rapidly, and in some cases exclusively, in the absence of 
air. Those types which occur in brewing operations are liable 
to impart a disagreeable taste, rancid odor, and haziness to 
the beer. They are very sensitive to the bactericidal action of 
hops. (See illustration, page 505.) 

ACETIC ACID BACTERIA. 

Of the four varieties known but one has been f()und in 
breweries, viz., bacterium aceti. They are short rods, slightly 
constricted in the middle, and often forming long chain?. In 
old cultures long, irregularly swollen forms are seen on\ uluiion 
forms). 




Sacchaioiiiycfs p;tNiorianu> II • H.iiix-u) :f»>ii:i. 

The pro<liiction of acetic acid docs not take place by fermenta- 
tion, properly si)oaking. but by the o.\idation of alchol. The 
/fcst rcmpeniturc j< So"^ F. No acetic acid is formed below 
SO /'., and the acetic bacteria do not dcveXop av ^W ;v\ vv:\wvx:\-a.- 
r/res under 41^ F. (See illustration, pa^e SQ^") 



MICRO-ORGANISMS. 



5>7 



The acetic bacteria require an abundant supply of air. At 
higher temperatures they form a viscous film or pellicle on the 
surface of beer — mother of vinegar — within a few days, which 
is always a ready means of identification. They give to beer 




Saccharoniyces pastorinnus III (Hansen) igoo:i. 

a vinegar-like odor, and are more resistant to the antiseptic 
action of the hops than the lactic bacte»"ia. When treated with 
iodine solution the jelly-like mass by which they are enveloped 
is stained yellow. 

The most common varieties outside of the brewery are 
bacterium /^astcurianuni and bacterium Knetziugianum. They dif- 
fer from bacterium aceti in the circumstance that iodine solution 
will give a blv.e color to them, or rather to the viscous substance 
enveloping? them, while the iodine itself docs not take any dif- 
ferent color. The acetic bacteria possess no motion and do not 
form spores. (See illustration, page 5c6.) 

nACTERI.\ OF VISCOUS KERMKNTATION. 

The organisms nf this species arc rather bhort, ^lond^.'r r-.ds. 
Two varieties have been described, viz.. bacillus viscosus I and 
//, both having been found in beer. They are not motile, and 
the spores arc produced at the ends. In 24 hours after infccti(.»n 
these bacilli induve viscidity ("ropiucss'') in beer, a.i\d \\\ a^^Vv^x^^s 
the wort is converted into a Uiasx as eo\\CTe\\\. tv.s wXxW'i ^>\ ^vj,"^- 
The viscous condition is produced \\\osV t;vv\^\n v\^ ^^ ^' 



S-8 



MICRO-ORGANISMS. 



the action ceases above 107* F. and below 44* F. No action 
is obsen'ed if the infection ol the beer occurs after the principal 
fermenlation. The viscous bacteria appear more parlicuUrly 
in top- fermentation beers. (See illustration, page 507.) 

The most common bacteria in 'bottom-fermentation breweries 
are sarcinx. They consist of minute spherules, almost invariably 
2. 4, 8 or more clinging together in a packet. They may be di- 
vided into two groups, ptdioeoccus and sarcina proper. 

The former grow in one plane, that is, in two directions, the 
latter in all three directions. The former appear colorless 
on gelatin, the latter give a variety of colors. All of them 
produce acid, chiefly lactic, in varying quantities. 

While they may be found in almost every botlom-fermentation 
yeast, they induce comparatively rare diseases in beer. Some 
beers, especially dark ones, are more subject lo sarcina disease. 
Under certain conditions, not yel fully understood, and in cer- 
. tliey appear almost epidemically. 
They are aerobic, i. e., they require air for their development. 




but only in small (jtiantilies. IJberal additions of hops ; 
certain acids ivill inhibit llieir growth and niultiplicaiiun. 
Sardnj dca itol form spores and (iQV,e«e^.s. vicwWAwij 1 
"on. Xo Uagclla have been found on ihcm. l^S^e \\\vi'.\ia 
"^^e SoS.) 



MICRO-ORCANISHS. 5I9 

BUDDING FUNGI, OR YEASTS.— BL A STOMYCETES. 

The soft, ni'ishy mass, known to the brewer as yeail, consists 
of countless cells of round or oval shape, either lying single or 
joined into groups. Their length varies from 3 to 10 raicromilli- 
meters. Each of these cells is an individual yeast plant of the 
unicellular kind, belonging to the class of the "budding" fungi 



00 







of proto- 



(blastomycetes) ajid like those of the molds, c 
plasm, enveloped in a cell wall of cellulose. The 1 
tributioR of the contents of the cell causes the appearance of 
specks, like little bubbles, which are called "vacuoles." Some 
yeast types have been definitely shown to contain a "nucleus" 
in the cell. It appears liker a small, round body, and seems to be 
controlling the activities of the ceil in a way as yet not fully ex- 
plained. 

The protcq>lasm which fills the cells varies in appearance with 
the age and vigor of the plant. In young, strong cells it is foamy, 
almost transparent, becoming more granular as the yeast grows 
older. The nucleus is ordinarily invisible. Weak cells contain 
more vacuoles than strong ones. 

Living protoplasm does not take up a staining agent, such as 
indigo or methylene blue solution, whereas dead protoplasm at- 
tracts many dyes. If yeast is mixed with a drop of a dilute 
staining fluid, like methylene blue, the dead yeast cells C3.n he 
readily detected by the blue coiot ftie^ ; 



MICRO-ORGANISMS. 















MICRO-OKGANISMS 










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MICRO-ORGANISMS. 



523 



REPRODUCTION. 

Reproduction proceeds by "budding." At some point in the 
cell-wall a protuberance rises, which speedily grows to nearly 
the size and shape of the parent cell. A partition forms between 
the bud and the parent cell. The new cell is not always de- 
tached from the old one at once, but many cells sometimes remain 
clinging together for a time, forming clusters. 

The budding fungi do not exhibit that completely systematic 
form of growth seen in the molds, finishing with the fruit 
Under normal conditions, i. e., such as arc favorable for their 
growth, these organisms multiply by continued budding. Under 
certain conditions, however, some varieties will develop spores, 
which constitute the resting form of the yeast cells. 

Many scientists, among whom Brefeld was first, have sought 
to show that the yeast fungi are not an itidependent species, but 
merely developmental forms of the molds. The principal point 
of similarity is that some molds are capable of reproduction by 
budding. 

Emil Clir. Hansen showed repeatedly that the yeasts arc a 
species by itself, and it was chiefly by utilizing sporulation as a 




Saccharomyces apiculatus (Hansen) 1000:1. 
The larKer cells are sacch. cerevisiae. 

feature of distinction that he succeeded in establishing different 
types of yeast. In this respect the most important elements to 
be considered are the limits of temperature and time in which 
spores are produced. 

Some types of yeast have been observed to produce a mycelium, 
slender, oblong cells being formed, vf\\\c\\, \vovj^n^\, \<:k tss>x\c^kv- 
lacc. 



524 



MICRO-ORGANISMS. 



A genuine mycelium is found only in isolated types and, like 
the films (or spurious mycelia) which occur wiih most yeaats 
under certain conditions, is of great diagnostic importance. 

CLASSIFICATION. 

All those yeasts which produce spores belong to the species 
saeeharomycrs. which includes the two large divisions of yeasts 
called cultivated (culture) or beer yeasts, and wild yeasts. Ihe 
latter division comprising all those yeasis which form spores, but 
are not cultivated. These are found in nature generally in 
great abundance on the skins of ripe fruits, are carried by the 
air frotn place to place, and thus find their way into the brewery 
where they are unwelcome guests under circumstances giving rise 
to beer diseases. Among these are Saccharotnyces Fastoriaims 
1. II and HI. Saccharomyccs fliipsoidetis I and II. By an in- 










accuracy the ycaSt called "apiculatus" bears the m 
charoniyccs," It docs not form spores, but becomes i 
account of a detailed and instructive dcscripiion of 
Hansen. (See illusiration, pastnrianus 515. 5i(i, 5L7; 1 
518. Jig; apiculatus 523.) 

Those yeasts which do not form ,=(iore« are di 
mycodi-niia. which wilh grcil rapidily form :\ cii 
him on WTt nr beer, and Ijrula. coniisling of mini 
spherical yonst cells, which, however, do not inrluc. 






SrORULATlOK. 




The ,.,->.( im[»^r(n, 


It mark of diviji 


nclion nf culliva 


froTU wild vea^t is s 


porulalioii, which 


aff.irds the onh 


fi-sf ivIiciIht n ic.rsi 


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1 or .101. .\ Ui.- 


culture of a ciilliire Ji 


?asl nn a gypfHu 


1 \.\oc\t M -rr V . 


spores riiiicli irinrc s, 


lowly tlian l\ic 


otWr ^acc\\a^w 



MICRO-ORGANISMS. 









c3^ 



isH 






i0^^ 






I'ii) 






Sa6 



MICBO-OBGANISMS. 



wild yeasts. As a mle, sporulation wOl «ot begin for three or 
four days, whereas the wild yeasts will evince a manifest disposi- 
tion for sporulation within 40 hours at \ht same temperature. 
Only in a few cases a temperature of 59* F. is preferable, in 
which case sporulation will take a correspondingly longer time. 

Under certain conditions most of the saccharomycetes can 
be made to produce films. But the film develops very slowly, 
and often only in patches or detached pieces, which hardly 
cover the sur£aice. (An exception is sacch. membranaefaciens 
and some others.) This feature is of scientific interest merely. 

Another distinguishing mark of the two groups is the ap- 
pearance of the spores. The young sp6re of the cultivated yeast 
has a cell-wall plainly distinguishable, and the contents of the 
spore are not uniform but granular and dotted with vacuoles. 
The wild-yeast spore, on the other hand, most frequently shows 
an indistinct cell-wall, and its contents are more refractive and 
uniform. 

(See also "Yeast and Fermentation/' "Pure Yeast Culttire" 
and "The Brewer's Microscopical Laboratory.") 



YEASTS AND FERMENTATION. 



HISTORICAL AND EXPLANATORY. 

It is beyond the scope of this book to treat the development 
of the science of fermentation elaborately, but it may be desir- 
able to review quite briefly the history of the theory of fer- 
mentation. 

At different periods the theories of Liebig, Pasteur, Traube, 
Naegeli and Buchner have served successively to explain the 
various phenomena attending the process of alcoholic fermenta- 
tion. 

The process of fermentation was undoubtedly practiced in pre- 
historic times. It was not, however, until the middle of the 
eighteenth century that science had advanced sufficiently to recog- 
nize the gas escaping from fermentation as identical with that 
produced by the combustion of charcoal, which is now known as 
carbonic acid gas. Lavoisier, in 1789, was the first to recognize 
that fermentation was essentially a process of splitting up sugar 
into two portions, viz., alcohol and carbonic acid, in about equal 
quantities, "which, if it was possible to reunite, ought to form 
sugar," while it remained for Pasteur to show that glycerin and 
succinic acid were regular products of fermentation. 

Appert, in the beginning of the nineteenth century, was the 
first to produce evidence that yeast was necessary for the fer- 
mentation of sugar. He preserved beer wort unfermented by 
simply excluding air from contact with boiled and cooled wort, 
whereas, if yeast was introduced in such cooled wort fermenta- 
tion soon set in. though air was excluded. Appert founded a 
method of preserving perishable articles of food on the principle 
of heating and excluding air, and thus bec^^tv^ \.V\fc ^xv^vk^^^^ ^^ 
what is now generally termed the pxQC^^^ o\ ^^'sX^'vi^x'L'^^^'^- 

5^7 



5^8 YEASTS AND FERMENTATION. 

The true nature of yeast was not scientifically demonstratea. 
however, until Cagniard de la Tour and simultaneously Sch\vnnn 
in 1838 described yeast as consisting of numberless living organ- 
isms, which multiplied rapidly by budding, and the. presence of 
which in a solution of sugar was absolutely necessary to cause 
fermentation. 

Stahl was the first to formulate a theory which was afterward 
adopted by Lavoisier for the breaking up of sugar. Long before 
the nature of yeast was known he advanced the proposition that 
the ferment communicated its own internal motion to the sugar 
with the eflfect of reducing it to new substances. ''As chemistry 
advanced," says Huxley, **facts came to light which put a new 
phase upon Stahl's hypothesis and gave it a safer foundation 
than it previously possessed. The general nature of these 
phenomena may be thus stated: A body A, without giving to. 
or taking from, another body B. any material particles, causes B 
to decompose into other substances, C, D. E, the sum of the 
weights of which is equal to the weight of B. which decomposes." 

Some lime after Stahl. Thenard. in 1803. explained the de- 
composition of the sugar by assuming that the ferment combines 
with a portion of the oxygen of the sugar, thus causing the fer- 
mentation to commence; the equilibrium between the principles 
of the sugar being disturbed, carbonic acid and alcohol is formed. 

Thus Stahl becomes the forerunner of Liebig. and Thenard of 
Pasteur. 

Schwann undertook his experiments mainly with a view 
of refuting the doctrine of spontaneous generation, -which 
assumed that living organisms could develop out of life- 
less matter without the agency of eggs, germs, seeds, etc. 
He disposed of that doctrine effectually by showing that air 
might be admitted in any quantity to soluti«>ii« which had been 
boiled in flasks without causing fermentation or putrefaction, 
provided the germs contained in such air were destroyed. 

Liebig was of opinion that fermentation was not dependent 
upon the vital activity of the yepst plant, that the splitting up 
of sugar into alcohol an<l carbonic acid takes place under cer- 
tain circumstances without growth, development or reproduction 
of ycn<t, ;//)d that this process is hrousjht about throui^h pe- 
culinr chcniicp.l changes that take p\ace \u certain nitn^jgenous 
rnnsthucnts of the voast cell \vh\cV\ a^tc\. \\\vi wv^\^ic\\V'^ <^\ 



J 

YEASTS AND FERMENTATION. 529 

> 

sugar flnfficiently to bring about decomposition similarly as the 
invasion of cane-sugar into dextrose in contact with yeast 
ijl due to its nitrogenous constituent, invertase. 

Pasteur considered the splitting up of sugar into alcohol and 
carbonic acid a function of the living yeast organism. Fer- 
mentation was with him the result of a physiological process, 
which would set in when the yeast was unable to obtain from 
its surroundings free oxygen necessary to the exercise of its 
vital activity. In this case it would extract the required oxygen 
from the sugar contained in the solution in which the yeast is 
immersed, resulting in the splitting up of the sugar molecule 
into alcohol and carbonic acid gas. 

A. J. Brown showed that if two fermentations are conducted 
under the same conditions and so as to arrest entirely the growth 
of the yeast, the fermentative energy of the yeast in one liquid 
will be increased if aerated as compared with the other one 
which is not aerated, thus refuting Pasteur's theory. 

Traube, in 1858, explains alcoholic fermentation as being 
brought about by the influence of ferments (enzymes) contained 
in the yeast cells, these ferments having a definite chemical 
<;oniposition and being analogous in their action to such sub- 
strfsces as diastase, these substances having the power of trans- 
ferring the oxygen from one group of atoms that constitute a 
chemical substance, to another group of atoms, thereby causing, 
as in the case of sugar, a splitting up of complex molecules into 
simpler ones. 

Naegeli claims, unlike Pasteur, that the splitting up of sugar 
takes place outside and not inside the yeast organism, and is 
effected by vibrations emanating from the molecules com- 
posing the living protoplasm of the yeast cells. The action 
of the yeast would thus be a purely physical and not a chemical 
(Liebig), physiological (Pasteur), or enzymatic one (Traube). 

Fischer showed that the action of yeasts on sugars is a purely 
chemical function due to enzymes that the yeast contained ; 
that of the sugars, dextrose, levulose, galactose, are directly fer- 
mentable, while other sugars, like saccharose and maltose, are 
fermentable only in case the yeast contains the corresponding 
enzymes which, like invertase, changes saccharose to dextrose, 
or maltase, which changes maltose lo dey^Uos^. "^W \>v^^>*^-^ ^^ 
yeast to ferment sugar is dependeivl wpotv XW <ic>Tv\o\\v\Vi «^^ "^'^^ 

34 



530 YEASTS AND FERMENTATION; 

geometrical structure or configuration of the sugar molecirfes with 
the molecules composing the active agencies or enzymes ol the 
yeast cell, like the construction of a key must conform to tlie 
construction of a corresponding lock. The sugars, with a larger 
molecular weight (saccharose, maltose), are split up or unlocked, 
yielding sugars with a smaller molecular weight, like dextrose, 
which then falls apart into alcohol and carbonic acid by the action 
of yeast. 

Will showed that dead yeast may cause fermentation phe- 
nomena, that is, decomposition of sug^r into alcohol and car- 
^ bonic acid, and offered in explanation for this and the other 
fact that watering of yeast lowers its fermentative energy, the 
suggestion that an enzyme-like substance is contained in yeast 
which does not lose its power of splitting up sug^r with- the 
death of the yeast, and which being soluble in water is ex- 
tracted from the yeast during the watering process. 

It remained for Buchner to obtain a solution of this enzyme- 
like substance from the yeast by rupturing the yeast cell by 
means of grinding pressed yeast with sand and then subjecting 
the moistened mass to an immense pressure. After filtration, 
this clear Hquid, when brought together with sugar solutions, 
induced fermentation just as the living yeast cells would have 
done. Buchner calls the enzyme contained in this solution from 
yeast, zymase. 

Buchner's theory was not permitted to go entirely unchal- 
lenged. It was claimed that the action of the yeast-juice could 
be explained by assuming that fermentation was due to the 
particles of living yeast-plasma contained in the juice, and not 
necessarily to an enzyme-like substance. 

This objection was also met by Buchner, who sub- 
jected yeast-juice to the action of a centrifugal machine. 
All particles in suspension, including yeast plasma, were thus 
collected in one part of the liquid and another part obtained 
free from yeast-plasma, which latter portion showed the same 
power of fermentation as the liquid containing the plasma. 

Fermentation would thus, if Buchner's theory is correct, 

appear to be a process similar to the splitting up of starch 

into mnltose and dextrin, which, as we know, is effected by 

the enzyme diastase contained in \\ie vualt. Fermentation, as 

w'e// as inversion, then would be no\.Vv\T\% vt\o\t v>cv;!i^ ^^x>jvRa.>C\^ 



/ 

.> YEASTS AND FERMENTATION. 53 f 

J 

action; and these two interesting phenomena would at last 
adml^t of a common explanation. 

' .Although yeast had been observed under the microscope as 
early as the beginning of the eighteenth century by Lieuwenhoeck, 
it was not until Cagniard de la Tour, Schwann and Mitscherlich 
lOok up the subject more than a hundred years afterward, that 
yeast was described and its importance in fermentation recog- 
nized. Kiitzing. about the same time, described the acetic acid 
ferment, while jt was left to Pasteur to discover, study and de- 
scribe numerous microbes, capable of inciting fermentation, dif- 
fering from one another, particularly in their products. Pasteur 
was thus enabled to point out the characteristics of alcoholic, bu- 
tyric acid, acetic acid, lactic acid fermentations, and it was due to 
his investigations that the importance was brought home to the 
winegrower and later to the brewer of excluding from their re- 
spective fermentations those microbes, through whose agency 
the products of wine cellar or brewery are injured. In order 
to accomplish this end, it was Pasteur's aim, among other pre- 
cautions, to free the yeasts from undesirable foreign organisms. 
Although he achieved this object, practically, as far as bacteria 
were concerned, his methods did not permit of a separation of a 
mixture of desirable and undesirable types of yeast. This it was 
left for the master hand of Hansen to accomplish, whose methods 
are treated elsewhere in detail. (See "Pure Yeast Culture.") 

Hansen was thus enabled to point out that the yeasts commonly 
employed in the brewery, besides often containing wild yeasts, 
were commonly mixtures of different species of cultivated yeast, 
each of which, when isolated and used as a pure culture, would 
give a beer with peculiar properties ; that some species of culture 
yeast found in such mixtures could, under certain circumstances, 
produce beer diseases. Thus a judicious selection of the type of 
yeast to be employed become? an all-important factor in brewing. 
Hansen's methods and results have been of inestfmable value, 
both for the advancement of purely scientific methods of research 
and from an economical standpoint. 

FERMENTATION OTHER THAN ALCOHOLIC. 

Besides alcoholic fermentation there ;iY<i o\>s^tn^^^, viV^t^^^-^. 
microbe life finds proper conditions ioT \Vs ^w^N.^xvaLW^i^, c^?^^^ 



1 

532 YEASTS AND FERMENTATION. S 

phenomena like souring, decay, putrefaction, all of whicli are 
due to the action of these microbes. ^ 

When the substances decomposed in this way are of vege- 
table origin, like maltose, etc., we call the process fermentation. 
Thus we speak of alcoholic fermentation, lactic acid fermenta- 
tion, butyric acid fermentation, acetic acid fermentation. When 
the substances decomposed in this way are of animal origin, 
like the albumen of meat, we call the process putrefaction. 
This distinction cannot, however, be strictly maintained, since 
vegetable matter, like vegetable albuminoids, can give rise to 
putrefaction also. We then may properly -speak of rotten fermenta- 
tion. (See Micro-organisms.) 

The term "putrefaction," therefore, is generally applied to the 
decomposition of substances, whether of vegetable or animal 
origin, by microbes if it is accompanied by the generation of 
foul gases, like a mixture of ammonia, sulphuretted hydrogen 
and carbonic acid. The term *'fernientalion" is used when such 
decomposition by microbes is accompanied by the generation 
of alcohol or acids, like lactic acid, butyric acid, acetic acid, be- 
sides carbonic acid. 

Each species of microbe may be considered to generate its 
own typical fermentation product. Alcohols are produced bv 
the alcoholic ferment, yeast ; lactic acid, by the lactic acid 
bacteria ; butyric acid, by the butyric acid bacteria ; acetic acid, 
by the acetic acid ferments; while some kinds of bacteria, like 
"bacterium termo," generate in beer wort foul smelling gases. 

It should be the brewer's most earnest endeavor to keep wort. 
beer and yea^t free from such microbes as producer undesirablt! 
fermentations like butyric acid ferment, acetic acid fcrincnt, sar- 
cina. 

Besides, these foreign organisms, being much smaller than 
yeast, cannot be so readily removed from ibc bi-er as yeast- 
cells, thus giving rise to turbidities and impairing ilie tiurabil- 
ily of beer. 

Bacteria may bo called, with Tyndall. "the weeds of the micro- 
scopic garde'i. which (^ftcp. o\er>ha(lo\v anil choke '.he culture 
plants." The brewer's aim should be to paraly/e. it he cannot 
<innihihtc. the bacteria. 



> 

^' YEASTS AND FERMENTATION. 533 

/ ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION. 

Alcoholic fermentation, then, is the process of splitting up 
sugar into alcohol and carbonic acid, in equal parts, approxi- 
mately, through the action of the alcoholic ferment, yeast. 
Glycerin and succinic acid are produced in small quantities by 
the same process. 

The industries which are based upon alcoholic fermentation 
are: 

Wine Production, utilizing chiefly the wild yeast called "sac- 
charomyces ellipsoideus." 

Distilling of Spirits, utilizing the culture yeast of beer, "sac- 
charomyces cerevisise." 

Pressed Yeast Manufacture, utilizing distillers' yeast. 

Brewing. For lager beer, culture yeast of beer, "saccharomy- 
ses cerev^iae," is used. The same organism is also used for the 
production of ale, stout, porter and weissbier, but wild yeasts 
are left to take care of the secondary fermentation in stock 
beers of top- fermenting type. Lambic and Faro are fermented 
by wild yeasts and bacteria in both principal and secondary 
fermentations. 

BEER YEAST. 

The most remarkable faculty of the yeast plant, from the prac- 
tical point of view, is its power of exciting alcoholic fermenta- 
tion, i. e., of splitting up sugar into alcohol, carbonic acid and 
some other bodies. 

Cultivated (culture) or Beer (brewers*) Yeast {saccharomyces 
cerevisiae) is divided into two great groups: Top-fermentation 
and bottom-fermentation yeasts. They are two distinct species, 
since, after many experiments, it has been found impossible by 
any process of treatment to convert one type into the other. Top- 
fermentation yeasts have the faculty of forming spores more 
speedily and readily than bottom-fermentation yeasts. 

Each of these groups or species embraces many varieties or 
types, which differ in a number of important marks, as: 

1. The degree of attenuation to which they can carry a 
wort, i. e., that portion out of lOO parts of extract in wort 
which is fermented by them. Accordingly they fall into 
"high attenuating" and "low attenuating" yeasts. 

2. The time of fermentation, i. e.. "fast att<i\\\\7s\.vcv<' -jocA 
"slowly attenuating" yeasts. 



534 YELfXSTS AND FERMENTATION. 

3. Reproductive energy or groi»th of yeast. ^ 

4. The rapidity with which they settle, i. e., ral^idly 
clarifying aud slowly clarifying yeasts. * ^ 

5. The stability of the beer produced by their aid. 

6. The taste they give to the beer. 

7. The size and shape of the cells, round or oval, etc. 

ORGANIC CHANGES IN YEASTS. 

Probably the culture yeasts have been derived from the wild 
yeasts, through a very slow process of variation through the in- 
fluences of environment. To what extent such changes still go 
on or may be brought about artificially remains an open question. 
Hansen developed Carlsberg Bottom Yeast No. i for some time 
in unaerated wort, and found that the cells displayed an abnor- 
'' mal behavior, when again brought into wort under normal con- 
ditions, while Carlsberg Bottom Yeast No. 2, although it also 
was influenced in the same manner, regained its normal func- 
tions quickly. Again, from one cell of Saccharomyces Ludwigii 
were obtained by culture under different conditions three differ- 
ent varieties, of which one would easily develop spores, another 
with difficulty and the third not at all, regaining this power, how- 
ever, again in a measure after continuous cultivation of the cells 
in beer wort. (Centralblatt fiir Bacteriologie und Parasitenkunde, 
1889, page 632). 

Hansen also succeeded in modifying the functions of cells of 
Saccharomyces Pastorianus I to such an extent as to lose entirely 
the power of spore formation. (Centralblatt fiir Bacteriologie 
und Parasitenkunde. 1895, page 860). Hansen likewise brought 
about another highly interesting change in the modification of a 
high attenuating yeast, so that it gave a constant lower attenua- 
tion and better clarification of the fermented beer. 

DIFFERENCES IN THE BEHAVIOR OF YEASTS. 

YEASTS AND SUGARS. 

Yeasts contain one or more enzymes, which bodies have the 
power of inverting certain kinds of sugars which are not di- 
rectly fermentable, into other sugars contained in the wort. 
These enzymes are invertase and maltase. Only dextrose and 
ievulosc in wort are directly fermentable. Saccli.irose. maltose and 
lifalto-dcxtrin must first be changed into these before fermenta- 
t/on can take place. 



/ YEASTS AND FERMENTATION. 535 

Inverttie is the enzyme that inverts saccharose, maltase the 
one jfiat inverts maltose and malto-dextrin. Only stich yeasts 
jihIT ferment saccharose as contain invertase; only such will fer- 
ment maltose as contain maltase. 

Hansen found that all saccharomyces varieties with the ex- 
ception of saccharomyces membranaefaciens produce alcohol from 
saccharose and dextrose, that is, they all contain invertase. All 
culture yeasts and most of the wild yeasts can also ferment malt- 
ose. They therefore contain both invertase and maltase. 

Saccharomyces exiguus ferments saccharose but not maltose, 
hence, contains no maltase. Mycoderma, which is not a true 
saccharomyces, since it forms no spores, cannot ferment sugar. 

Saccharomyces apiculatus, which is also unable to form spores, 
and is therefore really not to be considered a true saccharomyces, 
can ferment dextrose, but not saccharose or maltose. It contains 
no sugar inverting enzyme. 

Some Torula yeasts, which are not true saccharomyces, con- 
tain* invertase, others not. None of them seem to contain maltase. 

Some molds like Monilia Candida and Schiso-saccharomyces 
octosporus, Mucor circinelloides and Eurotium oryzae are capable 
of splitting up certain sugars into alcohol and carbonic acid. 
Like yeasts, these molds contain the corresponding enzjmies. 
The two last mentioned molds also contain diastatic enzymes 
since they also invert starch into sugar. 

YEASTS AND RAFFINOSE. 

Raffinose or melitriose is a sugar contained in small quantities 
in barley. Berthelot found in 1889 that the ordinary bottom- 
fermentation yeasts of the French breweries fermented it com- 
pletely, whereas, top-fermenting bakers* yeast fermented only 
about one-third, and Loiseau found that this difference in be- 
havior toward this sugar could be traced to all bottom and top 
yeasts examined by him, thus affording a basis of distinction be- 
tween the two. (Zeitschr. f. d. ges. Brauwesen, 1889, p. 186.) 
Bau found that bottom-fermentation yeasts have the power of 
splitting melitriose into melibiose and levulose, after which meli- 
biose is split up by an enzyme that Bau calls melibiase into levu- 
lose and galactose, all of which sugars are fermentable, whereas 
top-fermentation yeast containing no me\\b\^?»^ c^xv^w^X. \^\vc\R.rNX 
meJibiose. CChemiker Zeitung, i^S> V^ft^ ^^T3?)- 



536 VEASTS AND FERMENTATION. *, 

For yeasts and the carbohydrates of the wort. see<i»pDiastase 
and Starch," page 416. ^ 

CLARIFICATION. ^ ,^ 

The rapidity with which beer will clarify in fermenting vat 
after the principal fermentation, or in the chip-cask with the aid 
of isinglass, is largely dependent upon the size of the yeast cells, 
but also upon their power of forming a gelatinous secretion, in 
which the yeast cells become imbedded, forming bunches of cells 
that settle on the bottom more readily than single cells, giving 
rise to the so-called "break." This bunching tendency naturally 
will also affect attenuation, taste, and durability of the beer, 
since a yeast that will settle rapidly will leave a larger remnant of 
sugar in the beer than one that remains longer in suspension. 
The employment of quickly settling yeasts, as a general rule, will 
result in lower attenuated heers, shorter duration of fermentation, 
quicker clarification of beers, better "break," more compact sedi- 
ment of yeast, beer of greater palate-fullness and inferior stability 
than where a slowly settling yeast is used. 

Wild ye.Tsts do not bunch together and settle like cultivated 
yeasts. They arc therefore not so readily eliminated from the 
beer. 

Differences in attenuation cannot be explained wholly, however, 
on the basis of this faculty of yeast to secrete a gelatinous mass 
and form bunches, and considering the importance of this matter 
it seems proper to give a short review of the opinions held by 
those who have investigated it. 

CULTIVATED VEASTS AND ATTENUATION. 

The cultivated yeasts employed in brewing all contain invertase 
and maltasc, consequently all of tlicm a^e capable of fermenting 
the suifars coniainod in the wort (see yeasts and sugars V Never- 
theless the same wort fermented by dilTerent cultivated yeasts, 
results in beers of different attenuation, and this ditTcrence is so 
marked as to furnisli a basis for classifying yeasts. Accordingly 
we speak nf jiigh attenuating and low attenuating yeasts, and 
cither variety H?ay belong to the top-fermentation or the bottom- 
fermentation class. 

Irmiscli studied two yeasts which showed marked differences 

.75 to nt:rnu?A\"n and found that, no matter how favorable were 

the cf^n(f!t{r>n> n> to complete fermenltvlxon «•( the sugars of the 

Mort. i,nc of the ycnsts would leave a \aT%eT sw^^t xtvww^wx \w\\\^ 



/ YEASTS AND FERMENTATION. 537 

wort4lifn the other (Wochenschrift f. Brauerei, 1891. page 1131). 
T]^ high attenuating yeast was called Frohberg, the lower at- 
rfenuating one Saas. 

Arminiiis Bau found similar differences in attenuating power 
of top-fermenting yeasts when subjecting them to favorable con 
ditions of fermentation (Chemiker-Zeitung, 1892, page 1520). 

The different behavior of the two types of yeast was explained 
by the Berlin College of Brewing by assuming that the yeast 
Frohberg possessed the faculty of fermenting certain malto-dex- 
trins of the wort, whereas yeast Saaz could not, yeast Frohberg 
containing an enzyme which enabled it to invert certain malto- 
dextrins, whereas yeast Saaz being devoid of the enzyme, was 
incapable of fermenting this particular malto-dextrin. 

Prior disputed this theory, contending that if the difference in at- 
tenuation was due to the presence or absence of an enzyme, yeast 
Saaz would not under any circumstances be capable of fermenting 
the malto-dextrin in question. (Bayerisches Brauer journal, 1895, 
pages 193 to 326.) He succeeded, however, in obtaining the same 
attenuation of wort with yeast Saaz as with yeast Frohberg by 
fermenting wort under vacuum at higher temperature (30** to 33® 
C. or 86** to 91° F.) while passing air through the ferment 
ing liquid at the same time. Yeast Frohberg reached the final 
attenuation, that is, fermented the malto-dextrin in question., 
much quicker than yeast Saaz. Prior found, moreover, that a 
remnant of sugar remains unfermented even under these favorable 
circumstances, and that this remnant is composed in part of 
maltose. The conclusion is that under conditions that obtain in 
practical brewing there always remains a remnant of unfermented 
maltose as well as of malto-dextrins, which will be the smaller 
for both sugars, the more favorable the conditions as to tem- 
perature, aeration, yeast nourishment, etc., and which will differ 
also with the type and vitality of the yeast. 

According to E. Fischer, the degree of completeness to which 
sugar is fermented, depends upon the greater or less conformity 
of the geometrical structure or configuration of the sugar mole- 
cule and the active agenr'es or enzymes of the yeast cell. 

Krieger showed that the constituents of beer undergo a con- 
stant, although slow, transformation during fermentation and 
storage. This transformation is characterized Vv^ VV\^ '\w<:.\'^*a.^^ '^^ 
reduction and decrease of po\arizal'\orv, \\\^.\. \^, V>^ ^^^^ \.\-A.\vi.Vc>"^^>^'5^ 



538 YEASTS AND FERMENTATION. 

'i 

tion of complex carbohydrates into simple sugars under t^^.4||flu- 
cnce of some enzyme which Krieger thinks may be identical \foh 
glucase or maltase. This view was confirmed by Fischer, who 
showed that glucase is present as a normal ingredient of yeast. 
(American Brewer, 1894, p. 44.) Krieger, in an article about the 
degree of final attenuation of the yeasts of Saaz and Frohberg 
types, says : "The yeast of the tjrpc Frohberg contains an enzymt 
transforming slowly, but constantly, the unfermentable isomaltose 
into an easily fermentable kind of sugar. The type Saaz contains 
it in a considerably smaller degree of either activity or quantity.' 
(American Brewer. 1895, p. 304.) 

Prior traces the causes leading to the differences in attenuating 
power of the yeasts Saaz, Frohberg and a third type discovered 
by Van Laer and called I-ogos, which possesses still higher at- 
tenuating power than either of the other two, to physical and 
physiological processes (Malz u. Bier, page 438). 

The splitting up of the sugar taking place within the ycast 
' cell, only so much sugar can ferment as reaches the protoplasni 
by passing through the cell membrane. Now. the membranes 
of the yeast cells have different thicknesses and, consequently, 
do not permit the diffusion or diosmosis of sugars into the yeasi 
cell with equal facility. Hence, under equal conditions some 
yeasts will ferment the sugars quicker than others and more com- 
pletely in the same time. Logos yeast permits the diffusion or 
diosmosis of certain sugars more readily than Frohberg, the 
latter, in turn, more readily than Saaz (see also Micro-organisms. 
Osmoses). Besides, yeasts have different nower of reproduction, 
different power of resistance toward the products of fermenta 
tion. and are affected differently by aeration and temperatures, 
all of which factors may exert an influence on the completeness 
with which the sugars are fermented by different yeasts under 
identical circumstances. 

Diffusion and. hence, fermentation, will also be retarded and 
a lower attenuation produced where the ycast membrane secretes 
substances of a slimy nature, which seems to be the case with 
Saaz yeast more than with Frohberg. 

Prior examined three different yeasts which displayed marked 

differences in the rapidity of fermenting saccharose and in their 

bt^havior towards other sugars contained in wort, as maltose, 

dextrose, and levulose (Bayerisches BT2LMeT\ovLiTv?\, \^^, '^•a.ss,^ 



/ YEASTS AND FERMENTATION. 539 

y7A)wtj(^ found that saccharose ferments fastest, next dextrose, 
th^ levulose, and maltose slowest of all. This shows that differ- 
_>em sugars pass through the yeast membranes with very unequal 
facility. 

FERMENTATIVE ENERGY AND REPRODUCTION. 

Fermentative energy or fermenting power is measured by the 
amount of sugar a yeast can ferment in a given time, which meas- 
urement is taken by weighing the amount of carbonic acid gas 
generated (see Microscopical Laboratory). Fermenting power is 
therefore quite distinct from attenuating power, which means the 
amount of sugar fermented absolutely, irrespective of time. 

The physiological functions of yeast manifest themselves in two 
directions, viz., that of the fermentation, that is, of splitting up 
sugars into alcohol and carbonic acid, and of reproduction, that 
is, of producing new cells. 

Different types of yeast show marked differences in the amount 
of new yeast formed and in the energy of fermentation, that is, 
the amount of sugar split up in a given time. These yeasts ' 
which show high reproductive energy generally display less fer- 
mentative energy, and vice versa. 

Generally, fermentation and reproduction are carried on by the 
cell simultaneously, although yeasts can be compelled to multiply 
without exerting any fermentative energy, as Pasteur showed, if 
grown in such a nutritive solution as yeast water in the presence 
of a sugar it cannot ferment, as milk sugar, and, on the other 
hand, yeast can be caused to ferment without reproduction, as in 
a pure sugar solution. 

The substances from which yeast reproduces its body are 
mainly amides and phosphate of potash. The sugar which it is 
called upon to split up in a wort, is mainly maltose, besides small 
quantities of saccharose, dextrose, levulose and malto-dextrin. 

Reproductive energy, fermentative energy and attenuating 
power are dependent on the species of yeast in the first place, 
and secondly, on the physiological condition or vitality of the 
yeast, which in turn is dependent upon age, composition of the 
nourishing medium, temperature, aeration, amount of fermenta- 
tion products like alcohol and carbonic acid, etc. 

That fermentative energy is also lar^eV>j ^t^^tv^^xv^ ^'cv "^^ 
species o! yeast employed was s\\o>nt\ \i^ "^tKox, ^\\o ^-^-arccvvcv^^ ' 



S40 YEASTS AND FERMENTATION. k. 

large number of yeasts in respect to this point, accordini^ib^ the 
method of Meissl, obtaining the following results, which ^|re 
calculated for yeast dry matter: , 

FERMENTATIVE ENERGY OF DIFFERENT YEASTS (PRIOR). 

Ferments tivt 
energy. 

Carlsberg yeast 1 156.40 

Carlsberg yeast II 106.13 

Saccharomyces pastorianus I T55-48 

Saccharomyces pastorianus II 260.72 

Saccharomyces pastorianus III 202.20 

Saccharomyces ellipsoideus 1 28576 

Saccharomyces ellipsoideus II 219 03 

Berlin yeast, type Frohberg 170.5? 

Nuremberg yeast A 200.50 

Nuremberg yeast R« 232.95 

Nuremberg yeast C* 1 17-79 

Nuremberg yeast D» 148.99 

Nuremberg yeast K« I33 56 

Nuremberg yeast Z« 14519 

Nuremberg yeast L* 104.84 

Berlin yeast, type Saaz 1 13.07 

Vacuolized Nurembt^rg yeast . . . .' 203.09 

The ditferences shown by these figures arc accounted for by 
Prior on the theory that the cell-walls of the different yeast types 
are of unequal thickness and consequently permit osmose or 
diffusion with greater or less readiness. 

Fermentative activity has an influence on reproductive activity. 
The splitting? up of sugar nui.'^t be considered a normal function 
of the yeast which is conducive to its well-being and consequently 
stimulates reproduction. 

Fermentative activity of one species of yeast has a retarding 
influence on the reproductive activity of other species and of 
bacteria. Largo numbers of culture yeasts in a liquid containing 
proper nourishment, and other conditions, will crowd out smaller 
numbers of other yeasts or bacteria, even if the other condition*? 
for growth arc as favorable to those organisms which are in the 
minority, as for the predominant one. If. however, ihe conditions 
'7rc more favorable for the smaller numbei, \\\e \;5lU^t tw\\ 5j[5:?,d- 



YEASTS AND FERMENTATION. 54I 



* 



uaUjr TJfttain the upper hand and crowd out the more n»«.mcrou8 
tsjjc. 

RESPIRATION. 

The influence of aeration on the reproductive and fermenta- 
tive energy of yeast is marked and peculiar. 

Yeast absorbes oxygen with avidity and gives off a correspond- 
ing amount of carbonic acid besides the fermentation carbonic 
acid, as Schiitzenberger showed. The power of absorption of 
oxygen varies with the temperature. At temperatures where yeast 
shows the highest fermentative energy it also exhibits the highest 
power of absorbing oxygen, that is, at about 24** R. (86° F.), 
while this power gradually diminishes with lower temperatures, 
but is still appreciable at ordinary bottom-fermentation tempera- 
tures. 

Pasteur considered fermentation as the result of a physiologi- 
cal process that set in if yeast was unable to obtain free oxygen, 
in which case it would extract the oxygen from* the sugar. 
According to this theory, reproduction without fermentation 
would take place in the first stages of fermentation as long as 
there was free oxygen in the fluid, or at least the presence of free 
oxygen would result in a diminution of fermentation and an in- 
crease of reproduction. This, however, is not in conformity 
with the facts. A. J. Brown showed that if two fermentations 
are conducted under the same conditions, with the only difference 
that one is aerated, the other not, fermentative energy will be in- 
creased in the aerated wort, even if the conditions were such as to 
check the growth entirely, thus refuting Pasteur's theory. A. J. 
Brown and later Schiitzenberger found that reproduction does not 
take place at all if the yeast cells in a nourishing medium exceed 
a certain number, from which observations it may be inferred that 
aeration will stimulate the reproductive functions only until this 
ivaximum is reached. 

In a sugar solution yeast will cause fermentation but not re- 
produce itself, and aeration will have no influence on the repro- 
ductive energy. For reproduction the first essential is, of course, 
proper nourishment, and in liquids, which contain such nourish- 
ment, as worts, aeration was found by R. Pedersen (Communica- 
tions of the Carlsbcrg Laboratory, Nos. i and 2) and F. ScIvn\x^<:KvV 
(Wochcnschrift f. Brauerci, i^qG, ^^^e. t^\\ \.o Va.^^ -j^ '=K.v«\^'»5^ 
ing effect on th^ reproductive iui\c\.\OT\?., vVv^X. \^^ vc\ox^ -j^^s.'^n. ^ 



543 YEASTS AND FERMENTATION. 



^ 



produced while fermentation proceeded more rapidly anIKMcn- 
nation was higher. ^ 

TEMPERATURES. 

Yeasts may show signs of fermentative as well as reproductive 
activity at as low a temperature as o* R. (32* F.). Growth stops 
at about 32*" R. (104** F.) and fermentation ceases at about 40** 
R. {i22* F). At temperatures below 3° R. (39** F.) some var- 
ieties of bottom- fermentation yeast are incapable of growth or 
fermentation. The higher the temperature rises up to a certain 
limit the greater becomes the reproductive and fermentative 
energy. 

Pedersen found the most favorable temperature for the rapidity 
of reproduction of bottom yeast to be between 22° and 27° R. 
(81* and 93° F.) when cuhivated in unhopped wort, while the 
amount of new yeast produced was found to be uninfluenced by 
the temperature. (Mittheilungen aus dem Carlsberger Labora- 
torium No. i.) 

The temperature at which yeast shows the greatest fermcnla- 
tive energy is about 24° R. (86" F.). It differs, however, with 
different species. 

Yeasts survive exposure to very low temperatures. Brewers* 
yeast may be preserved by freezing, without injury, if the inriss 
is allowed to thaw out gradually. 

The influence of high temperatures in destroying yeast de- 
pends on the variety and vitality, whether the yeast is young or 
old, strong or weak. Hansen found that cells of Saccharomyces 
cllipsoideus II were killed at one time in five minutes at 44° R. 
(131° F.), whereas, under other circumstances they survived 
heating to 48° R. (140° F.) for five minutes. If carefully dried. 
yeast is able to withstand very high temperatures. Kayser found 
that moist pale ale yeast was destroyed after keeping it at 48° to 
52° R. (140** to 149" F.) for five minutes, whereas, after drying, it 
was heated to 75° to 84° R. (201° to 221° F.) without injury. 
(Thausing. Malzbereitung und Bierfabrikation, 1898. page 721). 
Heating beer to 48'' R. (Mo"" F.) and holding ibis temperature for 
about 30 minutes effectually destroys all organisms ordinarily con- 
tajned in beer. (Wahl and Henius.) 

Some yeasts arc much more active at comparatively low tem- 
peratures than others. Wild yeast and mvcodeitv\^ ^x^ vioN. O^^cN^fc^ 



^ YEASTS AND FERMENTATION. 543 

by loi^ temperatures to the same degree as cultivated yeasts. 
Lp^r fermenting temperatures, therefore, favor their growth 
as against the culture yeast in beer wort. At higher tempera- 
tures the cultivated yeast is able to suppress the wild yeasts more 
effectually. 

NUTRITION. 

Yeasts can only feed on such substances as are in solution and 
capable of diffusion, that is, that can penetrate the membrane 
of the yeast cell. (See also Micro-organisms, and Bottom Yeast). 

Yeast builds up its protoplasm mainly from albuminoids in 
the form of amides and from mineral substances, mainly phos- 
phoric acid and potash. The sugar it splits up probably serves the 
same purposes as do the carbohydrates in the animal economy, 
furnishing the heat necessary to supply the energy to carry or. 
the vital functions (see Micro-organisms, Assimilation). The 
sugars contained in beer wort are mainly maltose and smaller 
quantities of saccharose, malto-dextrin, dextrose and levulose 
Not all yeasts can ferment all of these sugars. (See Yeasts and 
Sugars). 

Wahl and Nilson who made exhaustive researches to determine 
the behavior and importance of the albuminoids in beer produc- 
tion, found that the amount of albumen taken up by the yeast 
out of the wort during fermentation under the conditions that 
obtain in the brewery was independent of the amount of albumen 
contained in the wort. (American Brewers' Review, Vol. VII, 
pages 35 to 37). For every 100 parts of sugar fermented, 0.28 to 
0.48 parts of nitrogen, averaging 0.40, or 0.4 X 6.25 = 2.5 parts 
of albuminoids were removed from the wort. The loss of al- 
buminoids during fermentation was found to be 22 to 55 per cent 
of the amount contained in the wort, or an average of one-third. 

While the process of splitting up the sugar is being carried oh 
by the yeast, the latter shows a strong tendency to develop and 
increase. Hence, the amount of amides and phosphates should 
be proportioned to the amount of sugar to be fermented. The 
higher the percentage of sugar in the wort and the lower the 
amount of amides and mineral substances — the quicker will the 
yeast become weakened. If the proper proportions are not ob- 
served, the cells appear less well developed, they do not unite ia 
clusters, giving rise to the so-called **V>t^^' oV n>5\^ N^^^-^ V^"^^^ 
do not settle so promptly or firmV'y, 



544 YEASTS AND FERMENTATION. *■ 

A suitable composition of wort for the uses of the yea^ is one 
containing the ingredients in about the following ratio: ^ 
Sugar degree 60 — 70 (S : N.-S. =r 100 : 60 — 40). " 
Amides and peptones over 0.50 per cent. 
Mineral substances, chiefly phosphate of potassium, over 
0.2 per cent. 

THE PRODUCTS OF ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION. 

During alcoholic fermentation sugar is split up into alcohol 
and carbonic acid. Besides, as Pasteur showed, small quantities 
of succinic acid and glycerin are formed. The presence of 
crystals of oxalate of lime in the yeast indicates that minute 
quantities of oxalic acid are regularly formed. Under certain 
conditions, especially at high fermenting temperatures, so-called 
fusel oils, among which are counted propylic, butylic and amylic 
alcohol, may be generated in small quantities. They have a dis- 
agreeable taste, and seem to be regularly produced in the distillers* 
fermentation. They can be removed from the spirits by repeated 
distillation. Under ordinary circumstances and normal condi- 
tions of fermentation these fusel oils were found by Rayman and 
Kruis to be absent in beer where pure culture yeasts were em- 
ployed (Prague. 1891). According to Bechamp and Duclaux 
acetic acid is always present in wine and beer in small quantities 
and is to be considered a regular product of alcoholic fermen- 
tation. 

According to Pasteur 100 parts of saccharose yield : Alcohol. 
51.01 per cent; carbonic acid, 49.12 per cent; glycerin. 2.5 to 3.6 
per cent ; succinic acid, 0.5 to 0.7 per cent. 

Jodlbauer found the following amounts of alcohol and carbonic 
acid generated (Zeitschrift f. d. ges. Brauwesen. 1888, p. 252) : 

Alcohol. Carbonic acid. 

For Saccharose 51. 11 per cent 4O-03 per cent 

For Maltose (anhydrous).... 51. rw^ per cent 4904 per cent 

For De.xtrose 48.07 per cent. 46.54 per cent 

Prior determined the amounts of volatile (other than carbonic) 
and fixed acids generated during fermentation with 17 ditlerent 
yeasts (Malz und Bier. 1896. pp. 401 and 402). 
The results are summarized by Prior as follows: 
/. Jn the fermentation of pure hopped and aerated mall worts 
n'/t/j the 77 xcdsis examined volatile and fvxv:d organic acids were 
produced in com^idcrMe quantities. 



YEASTS AND FERMENTATION. 545 

2. The amounts of the acids generated differ for different yeasts, 
ranging from 4.7 to 10 c.c. decinormal soda solution per 100 c.C. 
fermented wort. (See table, page 546.) 

3. The amounts of fiscd organic acids (succinic?) generated lie 
between 2,1 and 5.4 c.c, those of the volatile organic acids be* 
tween 2.1 and 5.8 c.c. decinormal solution for 100 c.c. wort. 

4. The percentage of primary potassium phosphate diminishes 
slightly, corresponding to o.ois to 0.005 g. phosphoric acid 
(P,0.) per too c,c. ivori. 

5. For every 100 c.c. decinormal soda to neutralize the fixed or- 
ganic acids, there is required to neulraUze the volatile acids: 

For Nuremberg yeast R" 92.3 c.c. 

For Nuremberg yeast L" - 88.0 c.c. 

For sacch. ellipsoideus 1 105.9 c.c. 

For sacch. ellipsoideus II 131.0 c.c. 

For sacch. pastorianus 1 180.9 c.c. 

For sacch. pastorianus II 107.2 c.c. 

For sacch. pastorianus III 126.0 c.c. 

For Carlsberg yeast 1 83.3 c.c 

For Carlsberg yeast II 63.6 c.c 

For Berlin Saaz yeast 53.4 ex. 

For Berlin Frohberg yeast 80.0 c.c. 

For Nuremberg yeast A 58.3 C.C. 

For Nuremberg yeast vacuolized 84.8 c.c. 

For Nuremberg yeast C' 73.0 c.c. 

For Nuremberg yeast D" ii3-3 c.c. 

For Nuremberg yeast K" 72.2 C.C. 

For Nuremberg yeast Z" 85.2 c.c. 

Thus, while the amounts of fixed organic acids exceed those of 
the volatile acids, except for the cultivated yeast D«. the wild 
yeasts (sacch. pastorianus and ellipsoideus) exhibit the opposite 
relation, the volatile acids exceeding the fixed ones, in the case 
of pastorianus I by a considerable amount. 

The quantity and nature of the products of alcoholic fermenta- 
tion vary according to conditions, as temperature, fermenting 
period, composition and concentration of liquid, vitality of yeast, 
type of yeast. 

Besides the above named substances, there are sometimes formed 
bubslanccs in small quanlilies that become noticeaWe. ttc. -i.ts.rjs^t*, 
of the peculiar odor they impaTl to \,\\t ^wmvcv^.^^ Xv^'^'^- 




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YEASTS AND FERMENTATION. 547 

Thus sulphuretted hydrogen is produced under certain circum- 
stj^nces by some types of brewers* yeast even where a pure cul- 
ture rs used, giving rise to the so-called onion taste of beer. Wild 
yeasts give a different flavor to beer than culture yeasts and 
Brefeld remarks that the peculiar aromatic products which give 
to wine and beer much of their character are developed mainly 
during after-fermentation when the yeast has reached a condition 
of low vitality and is at the point of death (Landw. Jahrbuecher, 
1875 and 1876). Pure cultures of different yeast types arc known, 
however, to yield beers that can be plainly distinguished by dif- 
ferences in aroma (fruit-like) without aging, which is undoubtedly 
due to the generation of ether-like substances. In the case of a 
certain yeast type this aroma resembles that; of apples, in another 
that of pineapples. The onion flavor also t>elongs in this class. 

In growing and reproducing itself the yeast forms protoplasm 
and cellulose which, therefore, must also be counted among the 
products of fermentation. 

By the splitting up of the sugar into alcohol and carbonic acid, 
heat is produced. A part of the heat developed during fermenta- 
tion is caused by the mixing of the alcohol in the measure as it is 
produced with water. The heat generated is utilized by the 
yeast in carrying on its vital functions, a part is made latent in 
the building up of new substance, while a part escapes with the 
carbonic acid. The remainder goes to heat the liquid. 

INFLUENCE OF FERMENTATION PRODUCTS AND 
OTHER AGENCIES ON YEASTS. 

The products resulting from fermentation by yeast, as alcohol 
and carbonic acid, and those produced by bacteria fermentation, 
as lactic and butyric acids, retard fermentation and growth. They 
act like poisons on the organisms that generated them. 

ALCOHOL. 

The greater the quantity of alcohol produced and remaining in 
the liquid the greater will be its retarding influence until Anally 
fermentation will be completely checked. The amounts of alcohol 
necessary to stop fermentation completely vary with different 
yeasts and with the vitality of the yeast. Dr. Lindner examined 
different yeasts in this direction, pitching 29 ^^i c^tvX. v^Xv^^nrcv'?^ ^ 
maltose with different yeasts QMikTOsV;ov\?»0cv^ '^^\x\^%^<3^v^^^'^^ 



548 YEASTS AND FERMENTATION. 

page 112). Top-fermentation yeasts were found to yield fram 9 to 
15 per cent by volume of alcohol. Yeast Saaz produced a little 
over 8 per cent, Frohberg not quite 11 per cent 

Beer worts do not contain enough sugar to yield such high 
percentages of alcohol, hence fermentation in the brewery doea 
not receive a complete check from the alcohol produced. In sweet 
wines, on the other hand, the amount of alcohol produced is 
sufikient to bring fermentation to a full stop. 

CASBONIC ACID. 

Only a small portion of the carbonic acid developed during the 
fermentation remains in the beer, the bulk of it passing off into 
the surrounding air. Later, when the beer is bunged, it holds 
absorbed an amount proportionate to the bunging pressure. Lint- 
ner found carbonic acid retards fermentation and that an addi- 
tion of carbonic acid aids in preserving beer. (Zeitschrift f. d. 
ges. Brauwesen, 1885, page 100). If fermentation is carried on 
in closed vessels under pressure the growth of yeast and fer- 
mentation are retarded at the same time. Whether the fer- 
mentative energy of the individual cell has been decreased cannot 
however be deduced from this observation. According to Foth. 
who carried out a series of fermentations under pressure and 
in vacuo, the carbonic acid exerts a distinct influence on the 
physiological functions of the yeast, resulting in slower fermen- 
tation (Wochenschrift f. Brauerci, 1887, page 73) ; whereas, 
Hansen concluded from the experiments of Foth that the fer- 
mentative energy of the individual yeast cells is increased under 
pressure, while only the reproductive energy is decreased. (Cen- 
tralblatt f. Bakteriologie u. Parasitenkunde, 1887). 

EFFECT OF ACIDS. — .ANTISEPTICS. 

Generally speaking, acids retard the growth of all organisms. 
An exception to this rule is lactic acid, which retards the growth 
of bacteria, but in the quantities that are contained in beer does 
not seem to check the g^rowth of yeast or its fermenting power. 
Maercker found that l^ per cent of lactic acid had a favorable in- 
fluence on the growth of yeast; i per cent was without injurious 
influence, but 3'/^ checked it completely ; % per cent of acetic acid 
wBuenced fermentation perceptibly, while of butyric acid 0.05 
per cent was sufficient (Zeilschrlit i. Spiritusindustrie, 1881, 
, J>ra 7). 



YEASTS AND FERMENTATION. 

The, small quantities of lactic acid in wort and beei-^ |., 
fore, have no retarding influence on the growth of yeast. t 
teur showed that in neutral nourishing media or sucVi ^ 
slightly alkaline, the growth of bacteria is favored, while i^i 
tions slightly or strongly acid, like grape juice, sacch5i,r-c>m 
will flourish and be better able to suppress bacteria tihan ^ 
neutral or alkaline solutions. Wahl and Henius found tliat n ^ 
tral or alkaline beer worts generally yield beers that are nio 
strongly infected than those derived from normal, that is, slightlv 
acid worts, showing that in the latter class the lactic acid hinders 
the growth of bacteria. 

Alcohol, carbonic acid, lactic acid and the soft hop resins may 
be called the natural preservatives of wort and beer. 

Lafar found that of 15 species of yeast, all were able to carry 
on fermentation in the presence of 0.78 per cent acetic acid, 
whereas, fermentative and reproductive energy were influenced 
in different degrees, while in the presence of i per cent of acetic 
acid fermentation was checked completely with three of the 
species. 

Many acids, as tartaric, salicylic, carbolic and fluoric acids 
affect cultivated yeast more detrimentally than they do wild 
yeast and Hansen showed that, whereas tartaric acid effectually 
checked the development of bacteria in impure yeaat, the per- 
centage of wild yeast increased during fermentation. Similar 
results were obtained by Joergensen and Holm with fluoric acid 
(Zeitschrift f. d. ges. Brauwcsen, 1893, page 126). The con- 
clusion seems justified, therefore, that these acids cannot safely 
be used to purify yeast, except to free it from bacteria. 

Exhaustive studies were made by Will concerning the in- 
fluence of various antiseptic bodies on different cultivated yeasts, 
wild yeasts and bacteria (Zeitschrift f. d. ges. Brauwesen, 1893 
and 1894). According to his findings, all yeasts are destroyed 
by the presence of o.i per cent of sublimate, 0.4 per cent of sul- 
phurous acid (SOa), 0.2 per cent of chlorine, 5 per cent of alco- 
holic salicylic acid solution. 

Very small quantities of antiseptic substances have in sume 
instances a stimulating effect on the growth of yeast. This applies 
to salicylic and fluoric acids. 
Salts of the heavy metals, such as cop^ex, \tot\> x^a^'^^'vx^'3 > ^'^"^^ 



550 YEASTS AND FEKUENTATION. 

and others, have a poisooous effect on yeast Especially d«ei thii 
seem to be the case with lead. 

Prior stales that he found fermentation appreciably retarded 
in a pure yeast apparatus on account of the presence of lead in 
the tin coating of the interior of the apparatus (Bayerisches 
Brauerjournal. 1803, p. 2). 

Concentrated sugar solutions may destroy the reproductive 
and fermentative eneigy of yeast. In weak sugar solutions fer- 
mentation remains incomplete (see page 537). 



Yeast standing at ordinary temperature and ^till more quickly 
at somewhat higher temperatures (about 25° R. or 88° F.) will 
generate carbonic acid gas and speedily become weakened Co the 
point of destruction. Being deprived of sugar, it seems to fer- 
ment its own substance, chiefly the glycogen, which is inverted into 
dextrose, and fermented. 



Dead yeast easily putrefies on account of the large amount of 
albuminoids it contains which are readily decomposed by bacteria. 
The substances produced by this putrefaction are similar to those 
generated from animal matter by analogous processes. 

Yeast may become putrid it standing under beer or water, in 
which case it will give off the products of putrefaction to the 

On account of the readiness with which yc.ist putrefies .ind 
goes into auto-fermentalion, il can be pre?^ervcd or shipped with- 
out injury only with great difficulty, the nieihods employed being 
based on refrigeration, the removal of water, the addition of sub- 
stances to absorb the water, addition of antiseptics, 

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION' OF YEAST, 
Brewers' yeast is composed of countless cells that mechanically 
enclose between them a large amount of beer or water, some pro- 
teids, some hop-resin and particles of cellulose from malt husk 
and hops. The yeast cells ihemseUes. after removing the me- 
chanically adhering water, still contain about 80 per cent of water 
as a constituent part of the protoplasm and cell -membrane. 
Besides water, the I'east cell contains caT\)oh\-dtatcs, nitrogenous 
substames. fat and mineral substances. 



YEASTS AND FERMENTATION. 55 1 

CARBOHYDRATES. 

CELLULOSE. 

The cell-membrane is composed mainly of cellulose, which, like 
other vegetable cellulose, can be changed into sugar by the agency 
of acids. It does not, however, dissolve in an ammoniacal solution 
of cupric oxide, which is a characteristic of cellulose derived 
from the higher plants. The amount of cellulose has been esti- 
mated as 1 8 to 32 per cent of the weight of the dry yeast sub- 
stance. 

YEAST MUCILAGE. 

Hansen discovered that yeast develops a mucilaginous coating 
in which the yeast cells become imbedded, causing them to cling 
together and form bunches. 

The power of forming this coating undoubtedly corresponds 
in a measure to the rapidity with which yeast settles, and also 
gives rise to the phenomena known as "break" or "Bruch" of 
the beer. This mucilaginous substance is converted into dextrose 
by acids. 

YEAST GUM. 

Yeast gum has been obtained by Lintner by boiling yeast with 
water (Zeitschrift f. d. ges. Brauwesen, 1890, p. 476). Hessenlund 
obtained about 6.5 per cent of gum by boiling yeast with lime, 
and Salkowsky obtained, from distillers' pressed yeast that was 
free from starch, a white powder soluble in water, very much like 
gum arabic. (Ber. d. deut. chem. Gesellschaft, 1894, p. 497.). 

GLYCOGEN. 

Glycogen may be considered a reserve material for animals 
and yeast, as starch is for the higher plants. It may accumulate 
in the yeast as Laurent found, to the amount of 32.6 per cent of 
the dry substance (Botanische Zeitschrift, No. 48, p. 719). In the 
absence of sugar, yeast will ferment glycogen alter inverting it 
to dextrose. This it does when yeast is stored, for instance, where 
it is kept at higher temperatures, in which case it undergoes auto- 
fermentation (Cremer, Zeitschrift f. Biologic, No. 31). 

NITROGENOUS CONSTITUENTS OF YEAST. 

Of nitrogenous bodies, yeast contains proteids, albumose, pep- 
tones, amides, nuclein and enzymes. 
According to Naegeli and 1-oew lV\e p\3LStt\?L o\ ^ >j^wxv^ ^^•a^'? 
yields about 75 per cent of proteids and abovW. 2 '^^x '^.^^'^ '^^ ^>'' 



I 



552 YEASTS AND FERMENTATION. 

tones, but if the yeast is dried nearly all of the proteids are 
changed to peptones (Sitz. d. bayer. Acad., 1878, part II). A 
yeast containing 8 per cent of nitrogen was analyzed with the 
following results : 

Cellulose and yeast mucilage yj P<^r cent 

(Albumin 36 per cent 

f Substances resembling gluten-casein.... 9 per cent 

Peptone (precipitable by acetate of lead) 2 per cent 

Fat 5 per cent 

Ash 7 per cent 

Extractive substances 4 per cent 

The extractive substances included invertase, leucin. dextrose, 
glycerin, succinic acid, guanin, xanthin, sarkin, alcohol and prob- 
ably traces of inosit. 

In 14 yeasts the amount of nitrogen found varied from 7.00 to 
9.91 per cent, equivalent to 43.75 to 61.97 per cent proteid sub- 
stance figured on a dry basis. (VI Ber. d. Miinch. wiss. Station.) 

NUCLEIN. 

Nuclein is a proteid and seems to be a normal constituent of the 
nuclei of cells. It is a white amorphous powder, containing a 
much higher percentage of phosphorus than other proteids. 

A. Stutzer obtained nuclein from yeast by extracting it with 
alcohol of 95 per cent strength. He found the yeast to contain, 
figured on a dry basis: 

Total nitrogen 8.648 

Proteids, nitrogen 7773 

Nuclein, nitrogen 2.257 

As to the amount of nuclein or some other remedial agent in 

yeast, it may be mentioned that Dr. Baccker of Paris, in a paper 

read before the International Medical Congress, at Rome. 1899. 

presented a series of observations on the treatment of certain 

infectious diseases by means of sterih'zed (pure) yeast cultures. 

the results having proved extremely favorable. ** *Yeast,' or 

*barm/' as an* empirical remedy purely," says the Medical Age, 

"in days gone by, won for itself golden opinions in typhoid, 

diphtheria, consumption and other maladies." 

Professor Vaughan of Ann Arbor was the first to make experi- 

nicnts on animal and man to determme xVve t^ecV ol ^<i^%t uu- 

cleinic acid upon the number of white b\ood-eoTVu^O^^?» ^Tx^tvv 



YEASTS AND FERMENTATION. JSJ 

actions of the Michigan State Medical Society for i8<M). "The 
experiments therein referred to were begun in 1892. 

Nucleiti (nucleinic acid) is now generally used by the medical 
profession and manufactured on a large scale by Parke, Davis 
& Co. of Detroit, Mich. 

YEAST ENZYMES. 

AH culture yeasts contain at least three enzymes, namely: 
fnvertase, which has the power of inverting saccharose to dex- 
trose and levulose; maltase which has the power of inverting 
maltose to dextrose (see Yeasts and Sugars), and zymase which, 
according to Buchner's theory of fermentation, splits sugar into 
alcohol and carbonic acid and is really the i^ent in the yeast cell 
to whose activity fermentation is due. (See History of Theory of 
Fermentation, page 530.) 

Bottom fermentation yeasts contain another enzyme that is not 
found in top yeast, namely, melibiase. (See Yeasts and Sugars.) 

These enzymes are nitrogenous bodies. 

YEAST INVERTASE. 

Invertase can be obtained by extracting yeast with water and 
precipitating it out of the aqueous solution by means of alcohol, 
and drying over sulphuric acid. (Barth, Ber. d. deut. chem. 
Gesellschaft, 1878, p. 474.) The most favorable temperature for 
the action of this enzyme on saccharose lies between 42° and 
455° R. (iz6.s° and 134.5° F.). At 56° R. (158° F.), its action 
ceases. The action of invertase on a sugar solution increases with 
the strength of the solution up to 20 per cent. Wine and beer 
contain traces of invertase. According to J. O'SuUivan this 
enzyme cannot be extracted by water from some yeasts. 



VEASr MALTASE OH YEAST CLUCASE, 

This enzyme can be extracted from yeast by treating dry yeast 
powder with lukewarm water (Emil Fischer, Ber. d, deut. chem. 
Gesellschaft, 1894, pp. 2986 and 3479). The filtered solution viiW 
invert maltose and mallo-dextrin to dextrose. Its most favorable 
temperature of inversion is 32° R. {104° F.), Lintner and 
Kroeber have shown that yeast glucase is not identical with the 
enzymes of the same name contained in barley, and especiallv 
in maize, the latter enzyme, accoidina \.q G^&aXi, \wi\wL wvoi^^ 
/a i-ored in its action Iiy temperatures Itom i^S^ V> <?i'" ^- ^'^'y 
to 140' F.). 



554 YEASTS AND FEBMBNTATIOH. 

VOK TXASI MELIBIASB SIB "YEASTS AITD KAFPIKOSE," PAGE $3^ 
TKAST ZYHASE. 

This CDzyiiK wu obtained by Bnchner bjr mpturing the ymt 
cell bjr means of grinding pressed jreast with shaip sand and then 
subjecting the moistened mass to a strong pressure. After 
fihration and removal of all paiticlea in suspension bj means 
of the centrifugal macliitie, the solution has the power of splittii^ 
up (ugar into al<:<riiol and carbonic acid, thus proving that an 
enzyme is present in the solution effecting the splitting up of the 
sugar, and that fermentation is tiot dependent on the presence of 
the living yeast cell. 

The expressed yeast juice, obtained as above, is very sensitive. 
Upon being heated, it coagulates and loses its efficiency. With 
prolonged preservation it also loses its fermenting power. 

By evaporating the juice at a low temperature in vacuo, zymase 
may be obtained in a dry stale. While it is weakened, it does 
not lose its sugar dissociating power. Zymase may also be pre- 
cipitated by alcohol, and the sediment possesses some fermenting 
power though much weakened. 

PBOIEOIYTIC EKZYME IN YEAST. 

Yeast also seems to contain enzymes resembling peptase in their 
action. The investigations of Will, who examined 27 kinds of 
yeast as to their property of peptonizing albumen lead him to the 
following conclusions (Htschr. !. d. ges. Brauwcscn, 1898. pg. 
183): 

1. Every one of these 27 varieties of yeast is capable of lique- 
fying gelatin. 

2. The energy of peptonization depends on the type of the 
yeast, the method of inoculation and the temperature. 

3. The liquefaction takes place more rapidly when the yeast 
is unifornUy distributed. 

4. The liquefaction must be regarded as a function of vigur- 
ousiy vital cells brought about by the deficiency in nourisliiiK-nt 
and oxj'gen. 

Naegeli determintd the amount of fal cnniained in yeast '.o be 
adtn/r S per cent of its dry substance. Kulish found yeast fat to 
consist .of phytostear'm and glyceride oi mvT\a\\c ic\4 (.VJewSiwi 
Wcinbandel, 1S91, p. aso). 



I FERMENTATION. 



The amount of ash contained in yeast has been variously de- 
termined by different chemists as 2.5 to 1^ per cent of the dry 
substance. 

The principal ingredients of the yeast ash are potash (28 to 3g 
per cent) and phosphoric acid (44 lo 55 per cent). Magnesia has 
been found in quantities of 4 lo 8 per cent, lime i lo 4^ per 
cent, besides small quantities of silicic, sulphuric and muriatic acid 
and oxide of iron. 

VEAST EXTRACT LIKE MEAT EXTRACT. 

A yeast extract, resembiing extract of beef in its properties, is 
the basis of a patent granted to Robert Wahl and Max Henius in 
the Unilcd States of America in 1895. To produce it. 
the inventors heat the yeast to bailing point, whereby the yeast 
cells are destroyed and their membranes broken, freeing their 
contents 10 permit them to become dissolved in the water with 
which the yeast was previously mixed. The liquid portion of the 
resultant decoction is separated from the particles in suspension 
by precipitation. dec2n(atio:i or fillralion. The liquid is then con- 
Since the priority of recognizing the similarity between an ex- 
tract of yeast and an extract of meat has been repeatedly claimed 
by others years after the granting of the above patent, the spcci- 
tieation of the latter may be cited as follows : 

"Our yeast food product, since it contains a large proportion 
of easily digestible peptones and phosphates, affords a very desir- 
able tonic for the human system, and we desire to be under- 
stood as intending it also for such use. Its qualities and stimulat- 
ing action on the human system may be compared with those of 
beef extract, it being useful for culinary, as well as medicinal, 
purposes, and the very high percentage of phosphates it contains, 
and especially of phosphate of potash, renders it a peculiarly ef- 
fective tonic." 

Thi? extract of yeast has been placed on the American market, 
lieirg used in place of extract of beef, over which it takes prefer- 
ence dietetically on .account oi iVs ^viTt\^ Nt^tV'iHi.t <bv.%v!\. ^" 
analysis made by A. Nilson gave ttvc ^oWo-wXtit xe.%^i*^^ • 



556 YEASTS AND FERMENTATION. 

Specific gravity 1.260 

Water and volatile substances 4790 per cent 

Dry extract 52.10 per cent 

Consisting of: 
Tola! albutninolds (49.33 per cent of dry extract). 2S-70 per cent 

Ashes ( 19.79 per cent of dry extract) 10.31 per cent 

Glycerin, succinic acid, caramel, dextrin, gly- 
cogen, bassorin (30.88 per cent of dry extract) 16.09 per cent 
The albuminoids consist of: 
Albuminoids precipitated by sulphate of zinc 

(albumoses) 3.37 per cent 

Albuminoids precipitated by sodium pbosphotung- 
staie minus precipitate of zinc sulphate (pep- 
tones proper) , 9,25 per cent 

Albuminoids not precipitated (amides by differ- 
ence) 13.08 per cent 

Magnesium and calcium phosphates 0.63 per cent 

Potassium pyrophosphate 6,99 per cent 

Chlorine o.ig per cent 

Calculated as : 

Sodium chloride . 0.31 per cent 

Sulphates a trace 

Potassium carbonate (formed by ignition from 

organic polassiuin ^alts) 2.38 per cent 

This liquid yeast extract can be readily evaporated to dry- 
ness, and forms a rallier hygroscopical brown, hijiroui ni^-^s 
which is obtainable either in flakes, when dried in thin layers on 
glass, for instance, or as a powder, which can readily be com- 
pressed into lozenges, tablets, etc. The similarity of the product 
with beef extract is remarkable, not only as 
also as 10 general appearance and llnvor. In 
however, it may be said that the yeast extr 
sembles fresh beef broih than does beef exl 



PURE YEAST CULTURE. 



By pure yeast is meant a yeast derived from a single cell by 
methods excluding the possibility of infection. 

If yeast is mixed with the wort in the brewery and allowed 
to ferment in open tubs, it is evident that bacteria, wild yeasts and 
mycoderma that may be present in the air are apt to fall into 
the fluid, where they have opportunities to develop and sub- 
sequently settle, in part, in the yeast sediment. 

The Old JVay. — In former years, no special pitching yeast was 
employed, the wort being simply left to spontaneous fermentation. 
Frequently the fermenting tubs were not cleaned out, and the new 
wort was pumped on the old sediment. This operation being 
repeated a number of times, the sediment would acquire a certain 
characteristic composition. If the beer turned out satisfactory, 
the yeast was not thrown away when the tubs were cleaned, but 
was transferred to other vessels. In that way the barm gradually 
grew tip. What this barm really was, no one knew. 

Investigation of Yeast. — Inquiry into the nature of this body 
gn*ew active with the improvement of the microscope, which about 
the beginning of the nineteenth century became an important fac- 
tor in scientific research. Being applied to yeast, this mass was 
found to be composed of countless numbers of very small cells, 
each of which constitutes a living being very prolific in multiplica- 
tion and endowed with the peculiar power of inciting fermenta- 
tion. 



Pasteur's pure yeast. 



The full import of these investigations was not realized until 
Pasteur startled the scientific world vilvVv VC\^ Oca.'&VkiwX t-«^^\\NSN!«^'*. 
which Jf/nonstratcd conclusively lY\^X X\v^ ^^^-sX x^^vb V5» ^vf-'^^ 

557 



PURE YEAST CULTURE. 

large numbers of cells still smaller than those of the yettst 

.T, and that these minute cells were bacteria. He described 

al varieties or species of these micro-organisms as being ca- 

t of causing beer diseases, and he advised brewers to seek 

eep them out of their yeast, for which purpose he devised a 

hod to remove them or make them harmless. This method 

sisted in treating the yeast with tartaric acid, which killed the 

:teria and resulted in what was, in a sense, a pure yeast, that is, 

nparatively free from bacteria. 

Pasteur's pure yeast, however, never acquired any practical im- 

»rlance. This was due to the fact, not at first understood, that 

is mass, while consisting practically altogether of yeast without 

ly appreciable admixtures of ferments of other classes, was by 

o means of uniform composition, but contained different varieties 

>f yeast, many of which, present in large quantities, were just as 

dangerous to beer as the bacteria, although in different ways. 

These yeasts were afterward called wild yeasts. They are able 

to produce certain beer diseases, as turbidity and offensive odor 

and taste. 

Hansen's pure ye.\st. 

Wild yeasts were first found to be the causes of beer disease 
by Hansen, who traced turbidity in certain Danish beers to their 
presence. 

Hansen set himself to discover means to produce a yeast that 
should be absolutely free from any admixture of wild yeast, and 
came to the conclusion that the only way to produce such a yeast 
with absolute certainty was to develop the yeast from a single coll 
under conditions that excluded the possibility of infection. This 
IS what is known as Hansen's pure yeast. (For methods of prepar- 
ing pure cultures see "The Brewer's Microscopical Laboratory.") 
For obtaining pure cultures of yeast Hansen's moist chamber 
method is preferable. 

Selecting the Tyf^t\ — The peculiar character of a beer yea-^t is 
due mainly to that variety which preponderates in the yeast, and 
among the pure cultures obtained from the propagation of a 
number of individual cells taken from such yeast it is natural that 
;? majorjty should have the characteristics of the original yonst. 
G^c/i pure culture is examined first as lo the degree of attenua- 
on, whether high or low, next as to c\aT\f\caUoi\, v;\\t\\\^\ \a\:\^ 



PURE YEAST CULTURE. 559 

or slow, and also as to the taste which it imparts to the beer. If 
among the pure cultures are found several that show the same 
degree of attenuation and the same clarifying power and taste of 
beer that was observed in the original yeast, the conclusion will 
be justified that these are the ones that exert the desired influ- 
ences, and it will be proper to select one of them for propagation. 

Propagating the Yeast. — The yeast type that has been thus se- 
lected is propagated as described in connection with the pure yeast 
apparatus, until a sufficient quantity has been developed to start 
a fcrmenter in the brewery with it. Since it is not always certain 
that the first fermentation will take a strictly satisfactory course, 
it is advisable to finish the beer from this fermenter and judge 
the yeast by the character of this beer when finished. If the beer 
gives satisfaction, the yeast is introduced for permanent use. 

Before this is done, a standard culture is prepared for future 
reference. A few drops of the yeast are placed in a vial with a 
sterilized lo per cent sugar solution, and kept in a dark place. 
In this way the yeast can be kept unchanged for years. 

Advantages of Pure Yeast. — The great advantage of pure yeast 
in brewing operations consists mainly in the fact that the brewer 
has at all times at his disposal the same identical yeast type. 
Consequently, he is able, other things being equal, to produce a 
beer of constant, uniform character. Even if the yeast should 
become infected or deteriorate from any other cause, a fresh batch 
of the identical original yeast can be developed in a few weeks 
from the reserve culture, and a yeast of the same properties as 
was possessed by the first lot be once more introduced, the reserve 
culture having been derived from the same original cell as the 
first lot of pitching yeast. 

Pure yeast, however, is valuable in other ways also. It is a 
rule that admits of general application, that micro-organisms of 
one species will crowd out organisms of another species contained 
in the same nourishing liquid, the more effectually, the greater 
their relative number. In the same way, a pure yeast containing 
no foreign organisms, is much more resistant to disease and in- 
fection than a common mixed yeast. A pure culture yeast can be 
infected only by uncleanliness or by germs contained in the air, 
while common brewers' yeast is in itself a mo^l ^\q>\\S\k.V'c>'Cs^"^^^S^ 
infection, being frequently contaminaUd y<\x\v ^^"^wa., ^'^^ ^^'^'^ 



560 PURE YEAST CULTURE. 

and mycoderma, which spring into action at slight changes of 
temperature or composition of yeast food, while a pure yeast will 
adapt itself more readily to such changed conditions. 

PURE YEAST APPARATUS. 

An apparatus for the development of pure culture yeast was de- 
vised by Hansen. His own description, from "Practical Studies 
in Fermentation," follows: 

Hansen's apparatus. 

As shown in the accompanying illustration, the apparatus con- 
sists of two main portions and the connecting tubes, namely: 
The fermenting cylinder C, and the wort cylinder D. Air pump 
and air holder are not shown in the drawing. 

The pump A is driven by machinery and draws the air through 
a filter in order to effect a'preliminary purification. The air-holder 
B is provided with a pressure-gauge and a safety valve. It is 
chargfed with air under a pressure of i to 4 atmospheres. The pipes 
must be fitted with cocks at suitable points for removing the water 
which collects in them. This is of especial importance in the case 
of the pipe between the air-holder B and the filters g and m. 
These are best united by metal tubes with the air pipes. If metal 
tubes are used, they should naturally possess some degree of 
elasticity and must be so arranged that the filters can be readily 
fitted and disconnected. 

Through the top of the fermenting cylinder C passes a stirrer b, 
the lower end of which is fitted with two blades, one carrying a 
sheet of rubber cut in such a way that when rotated it conies 
into contact with both the bottom and the sides of the cylinder. 
From the top there passes a doubly bent tube c, and by opening its 
cock, connection is made with the inside of the cylinder. The 
lower free end of the tube dips under water in the vessel d. 

A little below the top is a horizontal tube e provided with a 
cock, and by means of which the inside of the cylinder is con- 
nected with the vertical glass tube /. This is connected at its up- 
per end with the filter g and at its lower end with a second cock 
and similar horizontal tube h to that described above. 

The top mark on the glass tube is 31.3 in. from the bottom 

ol the cylinder, the next 8 in. and the lowest 4 in. from the bot- 

tom of the cylinder. When filled to the top mark, the cylinder 

/lolcfs about 1% barrels. The g^as% WiV u ^t^ Vcv^o \V^ ^^^Vi 



PURG YEAST CULTURE. 




sens Pure \i-asl Appi 



562 PURE YEAST CULTURE. 

e and A by a packing of hemp or cottoni^ool with vaseline; 
rubber is not suitable, as it is hardened by steam. 

The filter g consists of a metal capsule containing a tightly 
packed plug of cotton-wool 8% in. long and \V& in. in diameter. 
This plug consists of at least one- thirteenth pound of cotton-wool ; 
the addition of a little more is immaterial. If firmly pressed 
in, the capsule will hold one-ninth pound and more, but this is not 
necessary. The filter is dosed above by means of a cover which 
is screwed on and which is connected with the tube from the air- 
holder. Before the filter is screwed on, it is sterilized by heating 
it for two hours at a temperature of about 302** F. (120° R."). 

At the opposite side of the cylinder there is a small tube / 
scarcely % in. long and fitted with rubber tubing, the latter being 
closed by means of a pinch-cock and a glass stopper. Passing 
from the bottom of the cylinder is a tube k through which con- 
nection can be made with the wort cylinder D ; this tube is made 
in two pieces to prevent too great rigidity, and in addition to the 
two large cocks shown, it is provided with two smaller ones 
which are made use of during the process of steaming described 
below, partly for running off the condensed water and partly for 
introducing the steam. 

The cock shown at / is for withdrawing the beer and the yeast. 
The valve is screwed down in opening the cock and is screwed 
up when this is closed. In the figure it is closed. Its construc- 
tion prevents infection from occurring whilst the liquid is being 
drawn off, as the liquid cleanses the cock on passing through it. 
The pipe carr>'ing the cock is carried through the side of the 
cylinder and is bent toward the bottom, its end being ilA in. 
above the latter. It is, in short, so arranged that no air from 
without can enter the cylinder whilst the contents are being drawn 
off. 

The wort cylinder D must be raised somewhat above the level 
of the fermenting cylinder. (The wort can. of course, also be 
forced into the fermenting cylinder by means of compressed air, 
but in this case the wort cylinder must be provided with a safety 
valve.) Its height is also greater than that of the latter, but its 
diameter is the same. At the top is a filter m exactly a? at g, 
and connected with it is a pipe (indicated by the dotted lines) 
passing inside the cylinder. The lower clcscd end of this pipe 
/jas some small perforations through \v\\'kV. xV ^u ^i^«\^ -^.w ^Y.\t 



PURE YEAST CULTURE. 563 

after passing through the filter. The tube n corresponds with 
the.tul^e c of the first cylinder, and like the latter its open end 
dips into a vessel of water o. In the case of the wort cylinder 
it is very important that the bore of the tube n, and of its cock, 
should not be too small, in order that they may not become 
choked by hops or other matter; a suitable diameter for the 
tube is % in. Around the upper portion of the cylinder, a little 
below the top, there is a pipe in the form of a ring p, the inner 
side of which is provided with small perforations. One end of 
this pipe is closed and the other is connected with a cold-water 
tap. In addition to the cocks on the connecting pipe k between 
the two cylinders, the wort cylinder has three others q, r, s. The 
cock s is for the introduction of the wort, and is put in connec- 
tion with the wort main u between the copper and the cooler. 
The cylinder stands in a shallow tray provided with an outlet / 
for the water which flows over the sides of the cylinder, whilst 
the latter is being cooled. The dotted lines at / show the bars 
on which the cylinder rests, and also the ring-like portion and 
bottom of the cylinder. 

If the fermenting cylinder is not standing in a room with even 
temperature it is necessary to arrange the fermenting cylinder in 
such a manner that the temperature of the liquid contained in it 
could always be controlled, and that it could be lowered when 
desired. This is done by means of the jacket, shown in 
C, which surrounds not only the sides but also the bottom of the 
cylinder; the bottom of the jacket is fixed with screws and can 
without much difficulty be removed when it requires cleaning. 
For the introduction of a thermometer there is a tubular aperture 
through the jacket and the side of the cylinder. The jacket is 
provided with a tap near the bottom, forming the inlet for the 
cold water, and another near the top and on the opposite side for 
its exit; a third tap at the bottom serves for removing the sedi- 
ment which is gradually deposited by the water. 

The wort cylinder is here also provided with a jacket, which, 
however, can very well be omitted, as the perforated ring serves 
the same purpose sufficiently well. Nevertheless the jacket has 
the advantage that it encloses the water from the ring so that 
the operator is not liable to be splashed. It adds, however, con- 
siderably to the cost of the cylinder, and vl vx\^^s \\. \^'=»'^ s^.vcv"s^.^ 
to manipulate. 



564 PURE YEAST CULTURE. 

The middle portion of the cover is made of copper , and is 
provided with a brass flange with twelve bolt holes. Betveen 
the cover and the collar of the cylinder a rubber washer is in- 
serted and fits into a groove; a perfectly air-tight joint is thus 
ensured. 

In order to prevent the stirrer being raised out of its bed at the 
bottom of the cylinder whilst in use. a ball-socket is provided. 
The axis ends in a ball which rests in a hemispherical socket, and 
two pieces accurately fitting the upper portion of the ball arc 
bolted on; the axis can be rotated but cannot be raised from its 
socket 

With regard to the tinning of the cylinder, it must be pointed 
out that the tin should not contain an appreciable amount of 
lead. If this is the case, the yeast grown in the apparatus will 
according to Prior, be unsatisfactory. 

In putting up the apparatus, it ought above all to be borne in 
mind that it should remain in its position undisturbed. When 
possible, it will generally be best to place it in the fermenting 
cellar. There is then, as a rule, no trouble with regard to regulat- 
ing the temperature, and in drawing off the beer and the yeas* 
there will also be less work involved, for those occupied can 
in the interval, do other work close at hand. If the temperature 
of the fermenting cellar is below 43° F. (5° R.) it is advisable to 
have the fermenting cylinder jacketed. In putting up the appa- 
ratus it is, of course, necessary at once to consider whether one or 
two fermenting cylinders are to be employed; in any case a single 
wort cylinder will suffice. 

The apparatus having been fixed, it is necessary in the first 
place to test whether the cylinder is tight. To do this, steam is 
cautiously introduced through k, whilst the other cocks arc clo>od ; 
water-pressure may also be employed. 

STERILIZING THE APPAR.\TUS. 

Before the apparatus is set working it is necessary thoroughly 
to sterilize the two cylinders, the pipe which unites thcin, 
and also the pipe through which the wort passes on its way to 
the wort cylinder. Tiiis is done by blowing a strong current of 
steam through the whole. The filters are sterilized, a> al- 
rc/ic/y mentioiwd, in a sterilizing oven. The tcrniontini? cyliiiier 
/5 sterilized by steam, admitted thToug,V\ o\\c vA xW cocV^ v^w \\\^ 



^ PURE YEAST CULTURE. 565 

pipe k^ Whilst the high tension steam is passing, the different 
cocks are opened from time to time, so that it can escape through 
these as well as by the bent tube c; this operation takes half an 
hour. Shortly before this the filter is screwed on, and then all 
the cocks are closed except that on the bent tube. Simulta- 
neously the cock of the filter is opened in order that air may pass 
through the filter g and the tube h into the cylinder. The latter 
cools down as the air enters and the steam is gradually turned off. 
In short, the cooling is effected by the current of air, which mixed 
with the steam escapes through the bent tube c. So long as a 
current of steam is seen to escape, the vessel of water d is not 
required; this is only required as an indicator at a later period. 
If the steam were shut off suddenly, there would be a danger of 
the filter not admitting a sufficient volume of air to prevent a 
diminution of the pressure due to cooling, and the result would 
be either that impure air would be drawn into the cylinder, or 
the latter might collapse from the external pressure of the 
atmosphere. Under the conditions mentioned and at the ordi- 
nary temperature of the fermenting cellar, the cooling takes about 
two hours. 

With regard to the small vessels of water d and o at the bot- 
tom of the bent tubes, it may be stated once for .all that their only 
object is to indicate the direction of the air current, whether 
outward or inward. 

OPERATION OF THE APPARATUS. 

The wort cylinder and its two pipes s u and k are sterilized 
in the same manner, but the process of cooling is here omitted. 
When the steaming is nearly finished, the cock of the air-filter is 
opened and the wort is admitted. The wort employed is the ordi- 
nary hopped lager beer wort, which has been sterilized by boil- 
ing in the copper, and is run as hot as possible through the pipe u 
and the cock 5 into the cylinder. Shortly before the steaming 
is finished the pumping of the boiling wo<-t on to the cooler is 
commenced, and ten minutes later the cock s is opened. The 
wort is allowed to run into the cylinder until it reaches the up- 
per cock q, and the cock s is then closed. It is advisable to place 
a small bucket under the cock q to catch the wort which rvvtvs. ^>^v, 
and when this occurs the cylinder is known to eow\.«iAxv \\v^ ^^iw^^ 
volume of wort. The hot steam and air esc^L^ve v^xXX^ \\\to>x'?^^ ^\ 



566 PURE YEAST CULTURE. 

and partly through the bent tube n. It is advisable to run off 
the first small quantity of wort which enters the cylinder- by 
means of the cock r, as it is mixed with water from condensed 
steam, which gives it a disagreeable taste. When the desired 
quantity of wort is in the cylinder the cocks q and s are closed. 
Air, sterilized by passing through the filter, is now forced through 
the hot wort for an hour before the cooling is commenced, and 
the aeration is also continued during the process of cooling. Gen- 
erally, a pressure of from i to 2 atmospheres in the air-holder 
suffices. It is merely necessary that the sterile air in the cylinder 
should always exert a slight pressure in excess of the atmospheric 
pressure, and thus prevent any impure air being drawn in. and en- 
sure the full amount of oxygen being taken up by the wort. It 
is evident that the operator must not forget to first open the cock 
n. If this is not done, there is a risk of injuring the apparatus. 
As soon as the wort is ready for cooling, the perforated ring p 
is connected with a water tap and the sprinkler allowed to play 
against the sides of the cylinder until the temperature of the wort 
is reduced to about 50** F. (8* R.). In an ordinary fermenting cel- 
lar this takes about an hour ; the further cooling must be eflfected 
by means of iced water. The air is passed through the liquid con- 
tinuously, and in escaping through the bent tube carries some of 
the wort with it; the rousing of the wort produces a 
good (leal of foam, but this never gives rise to contamination. 
The aeration must not. however, l>e very vigorous or there may 
be too great a loss of wort. It is only when the wort has cooled 
to about 52** F. (9*^ R.) that the foam comes through the tube; 
this is rendered less troublesome by introducing warm water into 
the vessel o. The wort, now ready for undergoing fermentation, 
is run through the pipe k into the fermenting cylinder. 

In order to avoid rousing the wort by the aeration whilst it is 
passing into the fermenting cylinder, the tiltcr may be connected 
with a forked tube, one limb of which is a coniinuation of the 
air-tube mentioned above, whilst the other (mly just passes 
through tile top of the cylinder without coming into contact with 
the litiuid. These two limbs must be so arranpcil that either 
can be C'pened or closed by a cock. The air adiiiiited whilst the 
iiort is hf'iDg run o{i has. of course, to pass through the last- 
mcntiotwil limb. 'J'his arrangement. \s> uot, however, essential. 
// it is th-'iight desirable that l\\e woti s\\o\\\c^ Oi<:v*>s\\. \\=> ^^(iCv 



^ PURE YEAST CULTURE. 567 

ment,^ an hour can be allowed for this to settle. To guard 
ag^xist impure air being drawn in, the filter must not be com- 
' pletely closed, the current of air being merely checked. There 
is, however, no objection to the sediment remaining in the wort, 
which may therefore be transferred to the fermenting cylinder 
as soon as it is cooled. By this time a very considerable sedi- 
ment will have formed, and as the mouth of the pipe iS; is at a 
moderate height above the bottom of the wort cylinder, only a 
small portion of the sediment is carried through. 

The wort at first introduced should not reach above the small 
tube i, through which the yeast is introduced. The yeast is 
previously collected in large two-necked glass flasks or tin cans, 
and in the transferring operation a spirit lamp may be made use 
of if a gas flame is not at hand. 

The stirring apparatus is now set in motion and the yeast well 
mixed with the wort. As soon as this is done the remainder 
of the wort is added until its level rises to the upper mark on the 
glass tube /, the volume then measuring about iVi barrels. The 
column of liquid in this tube is forced by the pressure of the air 
passing through the filter into the cylinder, the cock on the 
upper horizontal tube e being closed, and the cock on the lower 
tube h opened. When it is not desired to continue the aeration 
during the fermentation, the latter cock is, of course, also 
closed, but only after the cock above the filter has been closed. 

After about ten days the desired portion of the newly formed 
yeast can be drawn off. It is here assumed that the cylinder has 
been exposed to the ordinary temperature of the fermenting 
cellar; if the temperature has been higher, the yeast will natur- 
ally be ready for removal in a shorter time. The beer is run 
off at the cock I, and when froth appears this is closed. Some 
wort from the wort cylinder — which by this time has been re- 
charged with wort for a new fermentation — is now passed in 
until the level rises to the second mark from the bottom on the 
glass tube /. The yeast is now well stirred up by means of the 
stirring apparatus, and the mixture of yeast and wort is drawn 
off into a perfectly clean vessel (cleansed with hot water and 
then steamed). When the level of the liquid has sunk to the low- 
est mark on the glass tube, the cock is closed and wort again 
run in to the second mark. The yeast Is 3i^"a\xv ^\ax\^^ >3i\v '^^'^^ 
drawn off to the lowest mark; the amouw\. VvN^v^^^^'cv xvo^ 



568 PURE YEAST CULTURE. 

V 

measures about 13 finals. The portion remaining behind is /suffi- 
cient to start a new growth. ^ 

It is advisable to have two marks in the vessel into which 
the yeast is drawn oflf, one indicating 6% gals., and the other 
13 gals. Great accuracy is not required in these measurements. 

The yeast obtained 16 sufficient to pitch 8 barrels of wort, and 
a new fermentation is started as soon as possible in an ordinary 
and well-cleaned fermenting vessel. If this cannot be done at 
once, the vessel containing the yeast must be covered over and 
set aside in a cool and clean place. 

Whilst the wort and the beer are being drawn off from the 
two cylinders, care must naturally be taken that sufficient air is 
continuously passing through the filters. Otherwise the liquids 
will not run freely and air will be drawn in from without. As 
soon as the yeast has been withdrawn from the fermenting 
cylinder, wort is run in until it reaches the top mark on the glass 
tube; the contents of the cylinder are mixed by means of the 
stirrer, and the new growth then commences. 

OTHER PUKE YEAST APP.\R.\TUS. 

Other pure yeast apparatuses were constructed by Bergh and 
Joergensen, Brown and Morris, Elion, Kokosinsky, van Laer, 
P. Lindner, Wichmann, Wahl and Henius. and others. Xearij all 
of those apparatus showed only slight modifications of the origi- 
nal Hansen apparatus. 

Joergensen was the first to construct an apparatus consisting of 
a small pitching cylinder and a larger one to be used as a 
sterilizer and fermenter. The Lindner and Wichmann apparatus 
were made on the same lines, and so was the Wahl and Henius 
apparatus. 

WAHL AND HENIUS* APPAR.\TUS. 

This apparatus is composed of a fermenting cylinder and steril- 
izer of a capacity of 48 gallons, and pitching cylinders and yeast 
reservoir of a capacity of 8 gallons. 

In the illustration A is the fermenting cylinder; C, the wort 
conduit with two valves (a. b) ; D, steam connection; E. vent- 
pipe for the beer; F, glass tube, which is connected witli the 
cylinder by H and I (inside of the cylinder the pipe I terminates 
j'/i 3 ring-shaped perforated tube): G. air-filter (connected with 
the air-pump) ; Af. doubly bent pipe ; K, ?l^\\a\ot \ V., \W^\\\ou\e- 



J PURE YEAST CULTURE. 569 

ter: a connection between the fermenting cylinder and the pitch- 
ins cylinder or starter B ; P, glass tube (connected with the 
cylinder in the sante way as F) ; Q, air-filter; R ti 




a doubly bent pipe; S, small pipe with rubber tube ard 
glass stopper. 
The iermenting c^liiider A conla'ma a co\\ v\\^ci\\^\ ™V\'^ tN'd^'f 



S70 PURE YEAST CULTURE. ^ 

Steam, water or brine can be made to circulate, and has at^its 
bottom an outlet pipe with valve and cap for the yeast. 

The apparatus, having been tested for tightness by means of 
water or steam, is sterilized in the same manner as the Hansen 
apparatus, the steam entering through D into A, and through 
N into B, which is sterilized first When sterilization is over a 
is opened, and the wort conduit thoroughly sterilized with steam 
before the wort is allowed to enter it. The boiling hot wort now 
runs into the cylinder, and when the latter is three-fourths filled, 
a, b and e are closed, and the air allowed to enter the cylinder 
through </. After a few minutes the water (or brine) is sent 
through the coil, and the wort cooled, care being taken that air is 
passing through it all the time. 

Part of the cooled wort is forced under air-pressure up into B, 
the pure culture added through S and thoroughly mixed by 
forcing the air in through /. According to the temperature of the 
wort and the room, B will start to ferment in a day or two, where- 
upon it is filled up with wort from A. A few days later, when B 
is in full fermentation again, it is stirred up (with air through /). 
and while air still is entering through /. and R is closed, is run 
down into A and mixed carefully with the wort remaining in that 
vessel. Part of this mixture is forced back into B and now both 
are allowed to ferment. 

When the fermentation is over the beer in A is removed 
through E — the air entering through r— and, c having been 
closed, the yeast is stirred up by the stirrer K and air that passes 
through d. Now the total yeast is taken out through the bot- 
tom opening, the wort conduit C is again sterilized, and the not 
wort run into the cylinder to be cooled. This accomplished, the 
3'east in B is stirred up, air being admitted through /, and let 
down into A, mixed with the sterilized wort, part of which is 
then forced back into B. ard both left to ferment as above. In 
this manner the apparatus may be kept in continuous o{>cT.'ition. 

The principal advantaj>res of this apparatus are: It occupies 
little space, is not very expensive, and yields comparatively a 
larger amount of pure yeast. 



4 



> 



MALTHOUSE OUTFIT. 



TRANSFER OF GRAIN. 

The machinery used in transferring or conveying the different 
grains in the storage elevators or barley and malt in the malt- 
house and brewery is practically the same in construction and 
operation. 

The grain, etc., is unloaded from the wagon or railroad car by 
gravity, that is, it is dumped or shoveled into a chute deliver- 
ing to the "boot" of the elevator or to the conveyor. 

A power shovel is often used when unloading cars. This con- 
sists of a wide shovel or scoop, propelled or drawn forward by 
means of a rope attached to, or running over, a power windlass 
or shaft. This windlass is supplied with a friction wheel, or 
clutch, to allow the alternate winding and unwinding of the 
rope, whereby the shovel is drawn forward or the rope unwound 
so as to allow the shovel to be moved backward for the next 
operation. Corners and angles between the windlass and shovel 
are overcome by having the rope pass over swivel pulleys or 
blocks and tackles, enabling the shovel to be operated at various 
points surrounding the windlass. 

These power shovels are now in general use in floor malthouses 
to transfer the barley or green malt from any part of the 
floors to the openings through which the malt falls into the ele- 
vator for further transfer. 

This shovel has the advantage over the old method of loading 
the malt upon a truck or wheelbarrow, wherein the malt is 
carted to the opening, that the shovel is much more rapid in 
operation, and crushing of the malt berries by the wheels of the 
truck is practically avoided. (For \U\.\?»U^V\ciw cA '^Qr*,^'^ ^^<5m€^^ 
.see next page.) 

57 i 



HALTIIOUSE OUTFIT. 



ELEVATOSS AHD COHTeY<»S. ^ 

The ordinary appliance tor elevating grain, barley, malt, clc, 

in the brewery, is the bucket elevator. This consists of a number 

of sleel, iron or wooden buckets, attached at equal drstances 011 an 

endless chain or belt. The buckets, while turning around a piilbv 

. or sprocket wheel placed at the lowest poini of travel, dip ir 




grain receiver or "boot." sctxjping up a certain aiiuiiini aciiT 
to thfir capacity, and pass upward to and around ilit top piilk 
wheel, where they are inverted and their conienl^ drop out. 
charging into a bin or hopper, or being conveyed further, a^s 
lie desired. 
The conveyor is an appliance used vri move aw\ ittW*;':^ ■ 



- HALTHOU5E OUTFIT. 573 

in. a horizontal direction. It consists of a wooden trough or box. 
somelimcB lined with iron or made entirely of iron in which ii 
placed a closely-fitting spiral iron propeller screw. This screw, in 
revolving around its axis, pushes the grain with its blades in the 
direction of the spiral movement. 

SIZES AND CAPACITIES OP CONVEYORS. 

The following data are furnished by a leading malcer. and rep' 
resent average dimensions : 
Outside diameter Standard 



ill inches. 



8 ft. 

8 ft. 
ID ft. 
lo ft. 
10 ft. 



Maxinium capacity Revolutions 
per hour^bushels. per minute, 
loo 100 



2,500 

3.500 
5.500 
6,000 



Another conveyor for transferring grain in a horizontal direc- 
tion is the belt conveyor, which has the advantage over the 




r that grain can be conveyed for long distances, 
and that during fransit the berries cannot be broken, as may 
happen in a looscly-filting spiral conveyor. This device also re- 
quires less [)ower since tlit friction of the grain against the blades 
of the spiral conveyor or conveyor Uom%\\ \% t;\\w.Vn«>.'i^^- 

This belt conveyor consists ot and \s o^ta-Wi ^"^ S-sS^o"* 



574 MALTHOUSE OUTFIT. ^^ 

(see illustration) : An endless belt B runs over two pultnrs 
at either side (not shown in drawing), one of which is the 
driver, and is supported along its route by a series of pulleys or 
rollers. The grain falls upon the belt at one side, and is con- 
veyed along until the belt runs over pulley b, when the belt 
suddenly descends while the grain continues in the same direction 
and falls into spout c d, delivering into hopper e. The carriage 
X is movable forward and backward by means of rollers run- 
ning upon rails extending the whole length of the conveyor, so 
that the grain can be delivered to any number of hoppers c 
placed along the conveyor, which hoppers deliver to bins under- 
neath. The grain can again be divided so as to deliver into two 
bins by means of the double spouts shown on page 581. Here 
the grain, falling into a, can be delivered through d ot e by 
pulling on the cords connecting the lever at the top, whereby the 
one spout is closed and the other simultaneously opened b>- 
means of the slides / and c. 

GRAIN AERATORS OR COOLERS. 

Should grain become heated while stored in a bin. many grain 
storage elevators are so arranged that the grain can be aerated 
or cooled. This is done in a very simple manner by running the 
grain out of the bottom of the bin into a biickti elevator and 
discharging it back into the bin at the top. 

GRAIN AND BARLEY DRYERS. 

Should grain contain too much moisture a device is some- 
times installed for drying it. This consists of a scries of in- 
clined endless belts, running in boxes placed in a zigzag posi- 
tion above each other, each receiving warm air from a healing 
device and fan. The moist grain is elevated or delivered to the 
top belt, and in turn falls on each succeeding lower one. If 
not dry when delivered at the bottom the grain is again run 
through, after which it passes through a cooling device to be 
cooled to storage temperatures. 

This device can also be used to dry skimmed or iloat barley 
from the steep tanks in the malthouse. 

GRAIN MEASLRES. 

All grain, malt, etc.. is bought and sold by the bushel, and the 
nttnibcr of Inishch in a lot is calculated by weight. When grain 
is shipped or received in cars or >\agons X\Aese ^xe vj^ix^Xv-tOi >*;\\\\ 



-'^ MALTHOUSE OUTFIT. 575 

and without the load, the difference being the total weight of the 
grain. This is then divided by the bushel weight, determined 
by a special balance for that purpose, which gives the number of 
bushels in the load of grain. Most g^ain storage elevators are 
supplied with a large scale hopper or bin wherein the grain can 
be again weighed while in the elevator, either after receipt, or 
before delivery. 

AUTOMATIC MALT WEIGHING SCALES. 

Automatic scales are sometimes used and consist of a box ar- 
ranged in such a manner upon a scale that a certain weight of 
malt entering at the top forces it down, shutting off the supply 
and opening the bottom discharge valve. As soon as the box is 
empty it rises by its decreased weight to its original position, 
closing the bottom and again opening the top. This operation 
is continuous. The box is generally arranged to operate with a 
charge of one or more bushels of 34 pounds each. The amount 
discharged by each operation is registered on a dial. No atten- 
tion is required except to start the machine and to stop it when 
the dial indicates the amount wanted. 

This apparatus is not strictly accurate, as the moving parts are 
numerous and often stick together. 

GRAIN AND MALT CLEANERS. 

As grain, barley, malt, etc., contain substances that are un- 
desirable, such as chips of wood, foreign seeds, small stones, malt 
sprouts, etc., it is necessary to clean them before they can be ujsed. 
Malt is now almost universally cleaned by the niaUstcr b'^lore 
delivery to the brewer. 

BARLEY CLEANERS. 

Grain is cleaned by the following methods : 

1. Forced draught; 

2. Sifting or screening; 

3. Gravity cleaners. 

Forced Draught. A current of air is forced through the grain 
while it is being fed in an even, thin sheet. The lighter particles 
such as dust, rootlets, etc., are carried away and the heavier berry 
falls into a receptacle below. 

Sifting or Screening. The grain is passed through and over a 
series of screens of different size ot me^V\ \i^ "^tv o^c>^-3i5Cvc\.^t v^^- 
tjon of the screens. In the first senes oi ^ct^^xvs N>cvfc ^rev^'^^^ '^'^^ 



576 MALTHOUSE OUTFIT. ^ 

larger than the size of the berry, allowing the berry to^fall 
through and retaining the larger particles. In the second seriet 
the meshes are somewhat smaller, retaining the berry and drop* 
ping the smaller particles, such as seeds, broken corns, etc. Some 
constructions have a revolving cylinder instead of oscillating flat 
sieves. The advantage claimed for the cylinder is that a small 
berry becoming wedged into the sieve will fall out when it 
reaches the top position and not clog the sieve. 

In some styles of grain cleaners the arrangement is a combina- 
tion of the draught and sifting methods. 

These are now extensively used for both grain and malt. 
For the latter a somewhat different construction of sieve mesh 
is used on account of the malt sprouts. 

In the grain cleaner the grain first undergoes the action of 
a fan where light substances are blown away by the air, then 
over a scalping screen, that is, a screen with meshes larger than 
the berry, where the larger, heavy substances are retained. It 
then passes over a screen with meshes smaller than the grain 
where the smaller particles drop through, and is finally again 
subjected to the action of the fan to remove particles not at first 
removed, or that may have become separated by friction while 
running over the screens. 

Another style of barley cleaner consists of a machine having 
at the top a perforated circular conveyor bottom which contains 
a spiral conveyor with brushes attached, which distributes the 
grain over the whole width of the machine, and discharges at 
the end all substances larger than the perforation. The grain 
falls into a hopper with automatic valve the whole width of the 
machine, which regulates the grain when it falls on a division 
board dividing the grain into two parts. Each part passes the biic- 
tion chambers separately, whereby all the light substances arc re- 
moved. The grain then falls on the shoe of the shakers and 
grader screens, where the grain is spread very thin so that every 
berry has access to the surface of the shaker screens, of which 
there are two sizes, fine and coarse, in order to grade the barley. 

Through the fine screens all small barley, also broken kernels, 

cockle, peas, seeds, etc.. pass into the cockle reels or cylinders. 

i*}j}ch separate the small barley from all broken kernels, seeds. 

etc. Over the Zinc screens passes the \arg;c barley to the second 

or coarse screens, which will on\y aWov; cXvi^w, \^\^^ \i^\V>S ^^ 



> 



MALTHOUSE OUTFIT. 577 

pass>through into the discharge spouts, while the larger sub- 
stances like oats, corn, etc., are cast off into the screenings pile. 
In another style of combined cleaner the barley first drops on 
a screen, where sticks, straws and stones, or other foreign sub- 
stances are taken out. The screen is very wide, so as to allow 
the barley to spread out into a thin sheet, and to give the berries 
an opportunity to pass through the perforations and allow none 
to tail over. After passing through the screen the barley falls 
into hoppers, which conduct it into the case. The grain then 
falls upon a rapidly revolving cylinder head, from which it is 
distributed evenly around in the space between the beaters and 
the case. The beaters throw the barley into oblong depressions 
in the case, whence they rebound to the beaters, and in being 
thrown back and forth between the beaters and the case, the 
barley is thoroughly scoured and clipped. All the impurities 
that are loosened are immediately drawn through the slotted 
openings to the fan, thus not allowing any of the dirt to be 
rubbed into the crease of the kernel, from which it cannot be 
removed. After the grain leaves the case it falls into a suc- 
tion spout and meets a strong current of air which divests it of 
remaining impurities before it leaves the machine. 

MALT CLEANERS. 

One style of malt cleanej: operates as follows: 

The malt is drawn from a garner into a hopper to an auto- 
matic feed, which is constructed with a regulating valve, and 
with an oscillating valve operated by two levers or arms con- 
nected with each side of the shoe, in order to secure a perfect 
and positive feed at all times. In the hopper is also placed a 
polisher, which is so constructed that it will remove the sprouts, 
and, while brightening it up, will not break or injure the malt. 
As most malt contains more or less metal, such as iron, wire and 
nails, there is placed in the hopper a heavy bank of magnets to 
remove them. The malt is fed in a thin, even sheet into the 
tirst suction leg, where the dust and light impurities are carried 
by a perfectly controlled air current to a dust room. The 
greater part of the sprouts are at the same time deposited in the 
first separating tip. Both separating tips are provided with a 
conveyor that carries the 'sprouts out oi, ;vtvd ^vsOcv-^x^^'^ >^^vc^ ^^^ 
either side of, the machine, as may b^ mo^V. coxvN^v^.^^^^ ^^^'^ '^^'^'^ 
S7 



5/8 MALTHOUSE OUTFIT. 

removal. From here the malt drops and is spread evenly ^over 
the whole width of the upper or scalping screen, which throws 
off any coarse foreign matter, such as straws, sticks, headings, 
etc. The malt next passes over a malt screen the entire length 
of the shoe. Under this is a fine screen, which removes cockle, 
sand, small seeds, etc. From here it passes into the last suction 
leg, in which a final separation is made of any impurities that 
may remain, the malt dropping out of the bottom of the leg in a 
cleaned condition, while the impurities are drawn into the sec- 
ond tip and removed by the conveyor. The sieves of this ma- 
chine arc all adjustable in the shoe, so as to be changed to 
finer or coarser ones, while the machine is running. In order 
to keep the bottom screen from clogging, this machine is sup- 
plied with an automatic brush, which travels underneath the 
bottom screens to keep them clean. The fan-shaft is extended, 
so that it can be driven from either side of the machine. The 
two suction legs are the full width of the sieves in order to 
secure perfect separation. There arc two fans in this machine. 
one on each side of the air tnmk for securing a free passage of 
air at any point and also avoiding sharp currents. This air 
trunk is so arranged with valves that any desired air current 
can be obtained at any point of the suction legs where it may be 
desired. 

Gravity Cleaners. These consist of a^ tall, upright spout or box 
inside of which are placed a series of steel pins or wires having 
different distances between them and the whole arranged in rows 
with one end of the wires free, similar in construction to an 
ordinary hair comb. These wire combs are placed in the box 
in an alternate or zigzag position, at right angles to each 
other, the end of one almost touching the other ; in fact, iliey 
occupy the position that the steps of a staircase would occupy 
if they stood on end upright. The grain is fed at the top and 
falls on the first "comb," thence rebounds to tlie second and so 
on to the last. All particles smaller than the berry fall or 
pass through the wires or "teeth" and are discharged into sepa- 
rate receptacles at either side, while the grain or malt berries fall 
into another. An advantage possessed by this system of uire 
teeth is that the grain in striking them causes them to vibrate 
3jjcf dislodge any berry that might have a tendency to clog. 
These gravity cleaners require no power aivd c;x^v\ vVvvi^^lorc be 
placed wherever convenient. 



MALTHOUSE OUTFIT. 579 

Iif some malthouses the grain is passed through a gravity 
cleaner, after being cleaned with one of the above mechanical 
devices, as an extra safeguard. 

MALT STORAGE. 

The proper storage of barley and malt is a matter of consider- 
able importance, and is usually done in square bins like those 
described for malt in the brcwhouse (which sec). Of late, how- 
ever, a new form of storage receptacle has come into use which 
possesses fea\ures that will gradually enforce its universal in- 
stallation. This is the steel tank bin. 

These bins are constructed to hold many carloads of grain or 
malt. They possess advantages in the fact that malt or grain can 
be stored in them without absorbing much moisture; that it is 
easy to banish the objectionable weevils and other insects which 
cannot find their way through the steel plates of the tank; or if 
present are easily removed when the tank is empty and cannot 
infect subsequent contents; that the risk from fire is lessened 
to a minimum and consequently a great saving in insurance rates 
is effected. 

BARLEY WASHING MACHINES. 

The washing of the barley previous to entering the steep tank 
is usually accomplished in one of three manners. One method 
employs an injector-shaped vessel, where the grain and water 
are simultaneously allowed to enter, being there thoroughly mixed 
and the grain washed, whereupon both pass over a sieve, where 
I he grain is intercepted and transferred to the steep tank. The 
second method proceeds in a closed vessel having an agitator, 
wherein the grain and water are stirred together and the barley 
thus washed. The third way is to pass water through the con- 
veyor while the barley is being moved. 

STEEP TANKS. 

The steep tanks, in which the barley is soaked or steeped, con- 
sist now almost universally of cylindrical iron hoppers, with 
conical bottoms. Attached to the point of the cone is a steep 
tank valve, which is usually supplied with two opening devices, 
one for draining off the water, and another for dischar^vw^, ^Js^ft. 
barley. Some steep tanks are suppWed >n\\\v ^tv ^^t'a.'CvASf, ^^nVl^ 
for injecting slit into the Steeping gram. 



MALTHOUSE OLTl'lT. 



5&> 

Other steep tanks consist of two tanks placed one over^lhe 
olher, the grain being partly steeped in the upper one before' 
dropping into the lower. When there is more than one sleep 
tank they are placed in ro»'s or tiers, and above thcni runs a 
spiral conveyor having an opening over each tank, so that in 
order to drop the grain into any tank all that is necessary is to 
open the corresponding slide in the conveyor. The tanks are 




r pipes for carrying off the float 
i properly steeped it passes either 



also supplied with overflow wale 
barley and chaff (skimmings). 

When the barley or grain i 
10 the growing lloors. r,r into pneumatic drum,>^, ete. 

Several devices for turning the malt on ihe srowing floors by 
ntacbincry ha\c been invonlcJ and tried, bni did not meet with 
aril- general iiitroduciion. since tVicy weve cc.m?\kai.eii in detail 
and often got oat ol order, causing Itctiucw^ 4«\a."i^, 



MAt-THOUSE OUTFIT. 581 

FLOOR MALT HOUSE. 

Floor malting is very simple, as far as mechanical equipment 
is concerni^d, and requires practically no machinery except the 
power shovel described above. 

The malthouse has different numbers of floors, consisting; of 
different body construction, b^t nearly all finished with a top 
coating of cement. The floors have a slight pitch to the sewer 
pipe to ensure drainage when washed. 

The barley is elevated into Ihe sleep tanks which are placed 
en the lop floor of the malthouse, from which it falls upon the 
Browing floors below. 




The green malt is usually elevated by a bucket elevator to the 
kiln, and is there distributed by one of three appliances. The one 
now most commonly in use is a revolving or movable spoilt 
(shown in illustration). The malt is dropped by the elevator 
into the hopper top, and by moving the spout the mall falls lo 
different parts of the kiln, where it is spread out by hand. To 
tlic spout arc attached two rods in such a manner that they form 
.1 triangle with the spout. To the lower or horizontal rod a 
sliding weight is attached, by moving of which the slant of the 
spout can he changed, .^no^hc^ style is the movable buckets (see 
illustration). The green malt falls into one bucket which is then 
pushed to where wanted and dtimped. Another stv^t ".^ '*>'i ^iiSv- 
nary spiral conveyor, which runs across \\\t VvVti \ti\?,vV-«\'i.t \v.-A 
has openings at different distances apait at "rts \>ti\Vov.\. '^"i "^^^ 



582 MALTHOUSE OUTFIT. 

ing the difFerent slidei the green malt can be dropped itbert 
wanted in heaps and likewise spread by hand. 

The constmctiop of the kilns is practically the fanie as those 
used for dram malt described belo»'. 

MECHANICAL MALTING DEVICES. 
Of late years quite a niunber of mechanical devices for re- 
placing the otd-style pining floors have been coming into use 
and are rapidly supplanting them. The advantages are prin- 
cipally as follows : Smaller buildings and less space to produce a 
certain output ; continuous operation both summer and winter ; 
more regularity in the growing process, etc. ; reduced capital in- 
vested ; less exposure of the growing grain to outside at- 
mospheric influences and consequent lessening oE danger of 
mould, etc. ; malt is not crushed by the workmen or shovel in 
turning; and. last, not least, reduced cost of labor. 

FNEUUATIC FLOOK OR BOX HALTING. 

This system of mailing employs a box-shaped receptacle for 
holding the steeped barley during the growing period. Travel- 
ing across this receptacle lengthwise is a carriage supporting a 
number of revolving spiral propellers for ihe purpose of aerating 
the growing barley by lifting or turning. This carriage travels 
from end to end automat ically, being propelled by wire rope 
transmbsion. 

The floor consists of perforated or slotted metal, through 
which the properly attemperatcd air passes. This air first p.-isses 
through the attempcrators. consisting of perforated ?inc pl.ilcs, 
over which water is continuously trickling, effecting a moistening 
of the air to the saturation point, and, at the same time, purify- 
ing it and equalizing the temperature. In cold weather the air 
first passes through a system of steam coils to be warmod. while 
in warm weather the air is cooled by the evaporation taking place 
in the nioistcncis. This air can thus be kept al a imiforiii tem- 
perature all the year round. 

The moistening of the growing barley can be accomplished by 
passing water through the shafts of the screw propellers, which 
are provided with sprinklers, so that as they travel through the 
grata the saiue is equally moistened. The growing boses are also 
n:arfe douhlg, one above the other, so t\\at \\\t v^Q^';^^ ":*" be ear- 
ned oat in a more economical mannev a^ ^o -it^uX^uo^, tVjL, 



MALTHOUSE OUTFIT. 583 

Another system of pneumatic box malting is very much similar 

m general details to the one above described, the main dtfFerence 
being in the shape of the receptacle containing the growing barley. 
Here this box or receptacle is round, having at its edge and near 
the top a circular cogwheel or ring attached, with the cogs point- 
ing inward. The stirring and turning device is attached to an 
horizontal shaft revolving on an upright central shaft as an axle 
by means of s cogwlieel at its end htting into this circular cog 
ring, in fact, similar in construction to a one-armed mash tun 
stirrer. The advantage claimed in this circular device is that 
each portion of the growing barley is turned at regular intervals 
at every revohition of the shovels, while in the first system where 
the turners travel from end to end and back again the middle por- 
tion is the only one turned at regular intervals, while those at 
the ends are turned twice in quick succession and then left undis- 
turbed for some time. 

This round system, however, has found only limited installa- 
tion, while (he square system is in extensive use and has. by long 
experience given good results. 



The cooled or heated and moistened air used in pneumatic floor 

systems circulates through the whole space in the rooms, as well 
as through the barley receptacles, consequently a very large vol- 
ume of this treated air must be furnished. This quantity of air 
is considerably lessened by the employment of drum-shaped 
receptacles for containing the growing barley. 

Drum systems differ from each other mainly in the construc- 
tion of details and methods of using the prepared air. They are 
all, however, similar in the following points, namely: At every 
revolution of the drum every portion of barley contained under- 
goes the same change that it did in previous revolutions, hence, 
there is uniformity in turning; the circulation of the prepared air 
passing through the growing barley can lie well regulated; there 
is little barley exposed to fho air in the unfilled portion of the 
(IruMi, consequently (he grain does not dry out much; and there 
are no shovels or stirrers 10 injure the barley berries. 

In the construction of the drums (here is also this similarity in 
•nil systems: That they consist of two concentric ^wl<i^w.tv\ ^tts^ 
cylinders, a smaller one placed \ns\Ac a Wftct dvw., \V«.\i^<^fs \»i- 
ing placed in the space between the Ivio cvWtiAwi.^s*''-^*^'^^*'^"™'* 



5^4 MALTlidOSE OUTFIT. 

the same heads and revolving on the same central shaft, the whole 
being supported by four friction wheels or pulleys and revolved 
by means of a worm gear. The drums are also supplied with slid- 
ing doors so as to allow examination of the contents during the 
process, and also for filling and emptying. 

One construction of malting drum now in use has two inlets 
for air, one at one end of the central cylinder for injection of 
moistened air, and one at the other end for dry air. The moist 
air in this system is injected upon the. growing barley with con- 
siderable force, thereby loosening the barley and causing belter 
turning while the drum revolves. Two thermometers and two 
wheel throttles are inserted, one at each end of the inner cylin- 
der, in order to allow the observation of the temperature of the 
injected air and to regulate its pressure. 

Another system of malting drum in extensive use passes the 
air through the growing barley in practically the opposite manner 
described in the foregoing. The air passes from around the out- 
side larger perforated cylinder inward, and finds its exit through 
the inner perforated cylinder, both being encased by a third not 
perforated cylinder. Furthermore, the air here is not forced in 
by compression, but is sucked or drawn through by an exhaust 
fan. The air for purification and attemperation is drawn 
through a tower or cylinder filled with coke, at the top of which 
water is sprayed under pressure, being cold in summer and warm 
in winter, in ord'*r to preserve an equal temperature of the air. 
This drum also has a thermometer and valve for observing the 
temperature and regulating the draft. 

Another form of drum has the inner cylinder tapering or cone- 
shaped. ^\ith the sn^'lll end near the suction end of the <irunK The 
advantage claimed here is that at the smaller end of the inner 
cone, which is surrounded with more grain, the suction is greater, 
and this greater suction, passing through this larger body of grain, 
is proportionally reduced, consequently the air passes with equal 
force through every part of the drum, causing a more even 
growth. 

In still another system the drum consists of two concentric 

cylinders, but allows tho inner one to revolve independently of 

the outer or larger one. so that the two cylinders can be given 

<!iifcre:n speed. By these two different speeds it is claimed that 

///<» growing h:iiky i> more thorough\\ Xv\TT\ev\. 



MALTHOUSE OUtFIt. 585 

MALT KILNS. 

After the growing barley, now called green malt, has reached 
the desired stage of growth, the next operation necessary is 
quickly to check this growth. This is done by drying the moist 
malt upon the kiln. Here it is not only deprived of its moisture, 
but also receives certain new characteristics, the latter depending 
I'pon the amount of moisture contained at certain temperatures. 
The temperatures in the kiln therefore must be easily regulated. 
The green malt, in discharging from the drums, falls into a 
horizontal conveyor, which discharges it by means of a bucket 
elevator to the kilns where it is distributed as above described. 

Kiln floors. The kiln consists of perforated floors below 
which are furnaces supplying the heat for drying. 

In order to save fuel, building space and labor, the kiln floors 
are placed one over the other, usually two in number, although 
occasionally, especially in large plants, there are three such floors. 
The dryer malt is placed upon the lower and the more moist upon 
the top floor and the heat applied from below, so that the 
greater amount of moisture is nearest the exhaust and does not 
pass through the dryer malt. 

Dumping Floors. The kiln floors arc constructed of perforated 
or slotted metal and in order to allow the malt to drop upon the 
floor beneath are made to open partly and are then called "dump- 
ing" floors. These consist of a number of strips of perforated 
metal which, when all laid horizontally, form an even floor, but, 
each being centrally pivoted at the smaller end, can be tilted or 
given a quarter turn so that each strip assumes a vertical position 
and any malt resting on it is dropped or "dumped" on the floor 
below. The pivot or bearing on one end of these strips usually 
extends through the wall and is supplied at the outside with a 
lever handle for the purpose of turning and closing from the out- 
side. 

A mechanical device for turning the malt upon the same kiln 
has lately been installed. This consists of a series of short con- 
veyor screws each attached to a vertical shaft, and these shafts 
in turn supported by and revolving in an overhead beam or travel- 
ing crane running from end to end of the kiln. As the revolving 
screws travel through the malt they lift the lower layers and allow 
the upper to fall in their place, thus U\tw\v\% \\\^ vcvj^x vin^\\"s - 



586 



MALTIIOUSE OUTFIT. 



The furnaces for furnishing the heat to the kilns are usually 
open at both ends and are supplied with draft regulating air 
shafts. The fuel is usually anthracite pea coal or coke, and spe- 
cial care should be taken to add little fuel often in order to/e- 
duce the smoke production to a minimum. 

COMBINED DKUM AND KILN. 

As the handling of the green malt from the drum to and upon 
the kiln necessitates considerable labor, and the installation of 
the kilns considerable capital, one system of malting now in use 
does away with the extra kilns by also using the drums as kilns. 

The manipulation of these drums differs little during the grow- 
ing period from those used for germination only. But at the 
time fi^'owth is completed, the green malt, instead of being taken 
out, remains in the drum and the cool, moist air used in the 
growing period is replaced by dry, hot air and the drum is used 
as a kiln. In this system the drum is in uninterrupted operation 
from the time it is filled with steeped barley until the latter is 
taken out as finished nMlt. 



MALTING OPERATIONS. 



GENERAL OUTLINE. 

Malting is the process of preparing the grain — commonly 
barley — for use in the production of beer wort. Broadly, it 
embraces every manipulation from the moment the crude grain 
leaves the elevator or storehouse up to the time the finished 
malt is conveyed to the storage bin or to the hopper to be 
measured into the crusher mill. In a more confined sense, the 
term is sometimes applied only to the three operations of steep- 
ing, germination and kiln-drying. 

IMPORTANCE OF MALT. 

Among all the materials, undoubtedly the greatest importance 
tttaches to the malt. It is only in malted grain that we find not 
only the materials necessary to give substance to the beer, in fact 
to supply the greater part of the extract, and all the essential 
ingredients which make up the character of the beer except those 
which are derived from the hops and the water, but also the 
enzymes — diastase and peptasc — that prepare those ingredients 
by the inversion of the starch and peptonization of albumen. 
Unmalted grain may supply starch ; malt alone supplies the 
important albuminoids and the enzymes. 

It follows that while it is possible to make beer, using as the 
starch-yielding basis only barley malt, it is impossible to prepare 
a beer wort from unmalted cereals only. A certain amount of 
malt is indispensable to supply the enzymes in sufficient force to 
invert the starch both of the malt and of the unmalted cereals. 
The latter are, therefore, properly iw^\\. '3l^\v\tv^v^, ^\^^ ^>^'^nx- 
tutes. 

5S7 



MALTING OPERATIONS, 



Fulness o£ body (palate), foam-holding capacity, tasie, aroma 
and color of the beer are largely derived frotn the malt. The 
complete dependence of ihc character of beer upon that of the 
malt is illitslratcd by the two extreme types of Bohemian 
and Munich beers which display the greatest differences of 
character, although the identical mashing method may hr. fol- 
lowed and the malt prepared from the same barley, provided 
only due regard was had in the malting process to the character 
of beer to be turned out. 

PARTS OF THE KERNEL. 

The barleycorn consists in the main of the "husk." the 
"germ" and the "endosperm." The husk is mainly for pro- 
tection, the germ contains the vital principle endowed with the 
faculty of growth, under suitable conditions, into the new plant. 
the endosperm contains the bulk of the nourishment to sustain 
(he germ until, in the natural order of things, the roots are suffi- 
ciently developed to draw sustenance from the soil in which the 
grain is growing. 

The germ of the l.arlcycom develops, during grnivlh, ihc ".icr.v 
spire" or "phimula" and the '"radicle." The fcirincr is thai part 
from which develops the green blade which appears above the 
ground where barley is planted, and eventually produces the st.tlk. 
The radick sends out a. number of shoots that develop into the 
roots of the plant and are commonly called "rooilels." 

In germination, the rootlets protrude at the germ end of the 
grain, while the acrospire. starting from the same end. grows 
up toward the olher end of the grain, keeping under the husk 
along the back nr solid side of Ihc grain. In the natural process 
of growth it finally breaks out at the end opposite the rootlets 
and grows up into the til.ido. 

In mailing, it is not allowed to reach this point, growth being 
checked suddenly by kiln-drying hofurc ilu- .icro=pire quite 
reaches the opposite end, experience having demon si rated that 

(hat degree of ikveloniiient of the aernfiptre. 



MALTING OPERATIONS. 589 

PRINCIPLES OF MALTING. 

The nourishment for the germ stored up by nature in the 
endosperm consists, in the main, of starch, albuminoids and a 
small amount of mineral substances. It is necessary that this food 
shall be made soluble and modified, so as to be available by 
the growing germ. This is done by diastase and peptase, re- 
spectively, two enzymes which are developed in the grow- 
ing malt in proportion to the needs of the germ for increased 
quantities of food, and their function is to attack the starch and 
nitrogenous substances, changing them into sugar and amides 
which, together with phosphate of potash, constitute the three 
main articles of food on which the growing germ subsists. 

The germ cannot obtain its food and grow properly unless 
it is given a sufficient quantity of water, nor unless the tempera- 
ture is congenial. Oxygen also is necessary to carry on the life 
of the germ. 

Under proper conditions of life as to amount of moisture, 
degree of heat and supply of oxygen, then, the germ will take 
up sugar, amides and mineral substances. The sugar is 
split up into carbonic acid and water, and jointly with the 
amides and mineral substances goes to build up the body of the 
acrospire and radicles, and supply the vital energy of the germs. 

SUPrLYING THE MOISTURE. 

The required moisture is supplied by steeping, that is, im- 
mersing the grain in water to allow it to take up a sufficient 
amount thereof to start germination. In the progress of growth 
much water evaporates, and it is always necessary to make up 
the loss by sprinkling during the more advanced stages of 
germination. 

TEMPERATURE DURING GERMINATION. 

Since by the decomposition of the sugar into carbonic acid 
and moisture, heat is generated, the temperature of the barley 
heaped on the floor of the malthousc will bo increased. The 
temperature in the heap will rise in proportion to the amount 
of maltose consumed by the growing germ. The higher the 
temperature of the heap, therefore, and the greater the size that 
the radicles and acrospire have attained, the greater will Vv<i. 
the amount of maltose split up wUVutv ^ ^w^xv ^^tvo^^ "a:^^ "^^ 
thinner must the layer of malt be sptt^id Xo V^^^ ^^^ \^\>cv's^^^'2^.^' 



S90 MALTING OPERATIONS. 

of the heap within the proper bounds. Too high a temperature 
of the heap favors the development of fungus growths and im- 
pairs the uniform growth and character of the malt. 

OBJECTS OF GERMINATION. 

The immediate objects of germination are: 

1. To open up the endosperm, making the same sufficiently 

porous so that starch and albuminoids will be readily 
invertible in the mash-tun. 

2. To obtain sufficient quantities of diastase and peptase 

to effect inversion. 
These objects must be obtained with a loss of as little substance 
as possible. 

OPENING UP TUE ENDOSPERM. 

The removal of starch, albuminoids and mineral substances 
consumed by the growing germ, by solution and inversion, takes 
place along diminutive canals intersecting the endosperm. 
These canals are enlarged by the removal of the consumed parti- 
cles as germination progresses, and the endosperm becomes 
more and more porous and spongy. At the same time the 
enzyme "cytase" emanating from the scutellum part of the berry 
permeates the endosperm, and gradually dissolves the mem- 
branes of cellulose in which the starch granules are encased, 
thus facilitating the solution of the food particles. The modifi- 
cations which the endosperm undergoes in this process are pre- 
cisely the ones required to fit it for use in the preparation of 
beer wort, since the diastase and peptase generated in germina- 
tion are needed in the mashing process for the inversion of the 
starch and nitrogenous substances (albumen) of the endosperm. 
Thus, while the germs themselves are not wanted in brewing, 
and the consumption of nourishment by them from the grain mate- 
rially depletes the endosperm, thereby diminishing the amount of 
matter available for the preparation of wort, nevertheless, the gen- 
eration of the en.Tvmcs and consequent modification of the contents 
of the barleycorn arc operations absolutely imlispcn fable f«^r the 
production of beer wort ; the endosperm becomes more mellow, 
that is. more readily permeable by water, which is important for 
the quick inversion of the starch in the mash-tun, and the nitro- 
genous substances become modified so that they will be acted 
upon by the peptase in the mash-tun, yielding the all-important 
3/buniinoids necessary to give characlct \o ^i \)ct\. V\\\\YA.Ued 
crcals do not yield any desirable a\but\V\tvo"\ds \tv v\vt m^^Vwrcv, 



MALTING OPERATIONS. 591 

Malting, then, consists, in the main, of the operations neces- 
sary to bring about these modifications of the endosperm, event- 
ually making the malt so prepared stable, and adding flavor and 
color by kilning. To this end, germination is induced and 
fostered, and, at last, interrupted at the critical moment when 
it has proceeded to a certain degree. 

INTERRUrTING GERMINATION. 

This is done by expelling the moisture by kiln-drying. Malt 
should be so dried as to possess, when finished, the desired color, 
aroma, mellowness and diastatic strength, all of which properties 
are governed, to a large extent, by the conditions of drying. 

The modifications that take place in the dry-kiln depend, in 
the main, upon the proper adjustment of temperature to the 
degree of n\9isture in the malt. This is a very delicate task. 

TEltfPERATURES IN DRY-KILN — COLOR — AROMA, 

Temperature affects the strength of diastase more severely 
while the malt is moist than after it becomes dry. The more 
moisture is expelled before the temperatures are raised high in 
the kiln, the greater will the diastatic power of the malt remain. 

With reference to obtaining the color and aroma that may be 
desired, the relation between moisture and temperature is also 
of the greatest importance. Under the influence of higher tem- 
peratures — aho-ve iii° F. (35° R.) — the moisture will tend to 
liquefy, or gelatinize, the starch, in part, and in that condition 
the diastase will invert the starch, producing maltose and malto- 
dextrin. The heat increasing, these products of inversion will be 
caramelized, giving color and aroma. Again the liquefied starch, 
as well as the inversion products, will fill up the capillary canals, 
and there settle and be dried, resulting in a malt less mellow and 
inferior in diastatic and peptonizing power, the latter being af- 
fected presumably by the same conditions as the diastatic power. 

The less moisture, therefore, a malt contains when those 
temperatures on the kiln are reached at which the starch gela- 
tinizes and is inverted, the paler will be its color, the less pro- 
nounced will be its malt flavor, the less will its mellowness and 
diastatic power be impaired ; while the longer the moisture is in 
evaporating, the tighter will the husk close around the endo- 
sperm, resulting in a malt with higher bushelwcight, but oi 
greater resistance toward atmospheric m^uwvc^s, VC«.^ vwassXN^'^^, 
which is absorbed by malt the more read'\\y m %VoT^^t,N>cv^ Q^^vfys.-^ 
the kiln-drying process has been carried out. 



59^ MALTING OPERATIONS. 

POINTS ABOUT MALTING. 

CLEANING, SEPARATINC AND WASHING BARLEY. 

The barley, as it comes from the elevator, always contains 
much dust, seeds from other plants, half or injured kernels and 
kernels of other cereals. 

The dust, containing numberless foreign organisms, promotes 
mould and decomposition. 

The foreign seeds may impart to the malt a foreign taste, and 
the injured kernels also promote the growth of mold. 

Moreover, if the size of the kernels is very irregular, then 
in steeping the smaller kernels would become sufficiently steeped 
more speedily than the larger ones, which might take hours 
more to become thoroughly soaked. The result would be ir- 
regular growth. 

It is necessary, therefore, to clean the barley, separate and 
grade the kernels according to size. and. if desirable, wash it. 

This is done by machines known as barley cleaners and 
separators, the chief parts of which are described in "Malthouse 
Outfit." (Pages 575-578.) 

STEEPING. 

Steeping is the process of soaking the barley with water, and 
is performed by immersing the grain in the steep tank for a 
period of time under certain conditions. It aims to impart to 
the grain sufficient moisture to start and carry on germination 
and. also, to dissolve from the husk the coloring matter and 
other extractible substances which otherwise would give the 
malt a raw taste. 

Different varieties of barley will absorb different amounts of 
water in a given time. The period of steeping depends on : 

1. The character of the water, whether soft or hard. 

2. The temperature of the water. 

3. The character of the barley, whether the hull is thick 

or thin, whether the endosperm is mealy or glassy, 
whether the diameter of the kernel is greater or 
smaller. 

4. The age of the barley. 

CH.\RACTHR OF STEEP W.\TER. 

There has Itcen much discussion as Vo lV\e proper character of 
fAe steep water. Soft water dissoUes iiom v\\^ Xi^A^N \oq \wo.Ocv 



MALTING OPERATIONS. 593 

soluble albuminoids and mineral substances which the yeast 
requires for food. The best water for steeping is a medium 
hard, pure spring or shallow well water. The temperature of 
the water should not exceed 55** F. (10" R.), otherwise moldy 
growth will be encouraged. In winter, the water should be 
warmed to the proper temperature before it is run into the 
steeping tanks. 

The softer the water, the higher its temperature, the smaller 
the diameter of the berry, the thinner the husk, the more mealy 
the barley, the younger the barley — the less time is required for 
steeping. 

Barley should never be oversteeped or be allowed to become 
sodden, otherwise its vitality may be seriously impaired. Sprink- 
ling on the floor can be resorted to if there is not enough 
moisture in the grain, but where there is too much, it cannot 
be removed. It is safer to understeep than the opposite. 

Since grain always contains some mold spores which find favor- 
able conditions for growth during the germinating period, and 
may, under circumstances, have an effect on the flavor of the final 
product, it may become advisable, when moldy growth is feared, 
to use some antiseptic to keep them in check, such as bisulphite 
of lime or other suitable substance, which should be added to the 
sleep water for the first steep of the grain. 

SIGNS OF SUFFICIENT STEEPING. 

1. When cutting through a grain, the contents should show 
completely and uniformly wetted, with the exception of a minute 
speck in the center of the endosperm. 

2. When taken by the ends between thumb and index finger, 
and pressed, the kernel should not prick the skin. 

3. The kernel should be elastic enough to be bent over the 
finger nail without breaking. 

4. At the end where the radicle is located the hull should ap- 
pear to open. 

5. Upon biting gently into a kernel, the endosperm should 
move to both sides without breaking or cracking. 

6. A sample of barley taken from the steeping tank should 
show an increase in weight of about 45 per cent. 

Of these indications, Nos. 1 and 6 are \.\vq. \wo%\. x^x-s!^^. 



594 MALTING OPERATIONS. 

PERIOD OF STEEPING. 

This is a matter in which the individual judgment of the 
maltster must of necessity be allowed much play. Only approxi- 
mate hours can be given, as follows : 
For Two- Row Barley: 

California 50 to 60 hours 

Dakota. Montana, Utah 60 to 72 hours 

Six-Row Barley: 

Iowa, Minnesota or Wisconsin No. i 48 to 56 hours 

Iowa. Minnesota or Wisconsin No. 2 45 to 52 hours 

Iowa, Minnesota or Wisconsin No. 3 36 to 48 hours 

Canada 45 to 56 hours 

CHANGES THAT TAKE PLACE DURING STEEPING. 

The barley takes up a large amount of water; the volume of 
steeped barley is 25 per cent greater than of dry barley, four 
bushels of dry barley yielding five bushels of steeped. The in- 
crease in weight is about 45 per cent*, or 100 pounds of dry barley 
give about 145 pounds of steeped. 

A certain amount of various matters, both organic and mineral, 
is extracted from the barley by the water, the total amount being 
about 1.5 per cent. Among the substances so dissolved out are: 
Cane sugar, g^m, diastase, coloring matter, phosplttoric acid and 
about one-half of the soluble nitrogenous constitiitents. 

GERMINATING. 

The grain having reached the desired degree of" steepage, it is 
sent to the germinating department. 

According to the traditional mclhod. which still remains the 
most common, germination is conducted on a smooth floor con- 
structed for this purpose, the process being called "flooring," 
"growing," or "germinating." Of late years some improvements 
have been introduced in this branch of malting, being based 
on artificial or forced aeration either on a perforated floor or in 
revolving drums. Another important distinction is that by the 
old method the work is almost entirely done by hand, whereas 
t/ie recent /niprovements may with nutch propriety be called 
mecJmnical mah'mg, most of the woiV. W\t\^ ^oxv^ \i^ vcv^i^iVvvtiery. 



MALTING OPERATIONS. 595 

COMMON FLOOR MALTING. 

The grain is sent from the steep tank to the germinating floor 
after the water has been drained off. It was customary, of old, to 
shovel it out of the steep tank on drays and convey it to the 
Hoor. In a modern malthousc the steep tank is provided with a 
conical hopper bottom, and situated above the malting floor, so 
that, the trap in the bottom being opened, the grain slides down 
on the floor in a hear. 

The lot of grain so sent to the floor is called a "piece." 

The first heap is called a "couch," that name being derived 
from the practice under the former English law, when the duty 
was paid on steeped barley, which was measured by the govern- 
ment ganger in an open frame called the couch, designed to hold 
a certain bulk and provided with a removable end which was 
taken out as soon as the grain had been gauged, and the malt then 
moved out on the floor through the open end. Such couches are 
still commonly used in England, but not in the United States, 
where the term couch has been applied to the first heap, the 
practice of malting, however, being derived mainly from Ger- 
man methods. 

The couch is set at one end or side of the floor, and the malt 
gradually worked over toward the opposite end, or side, at 
which the dryjciln is situated. 

The chief points to be observed in carrying on germination are: 

• 

1. To provide sufficient moisture; 

2. To maintain suitable temperatures; 

3. To aerate the grain (ventilation) ; 

4. To protect the growing grain from deleterious in- 

fluences. 

All these essential conditions should be so observed as to op- 
erate upon all individual grains alike, in order to secure a uni- 
form growth. Too high temperatures must be avoided since they 
promote the development of micro-organisms and facilitate un- 
even growth. 

Growth should not be allowed to proceed too rapidly. The 
saving of time that might thus be effected is far more than made 
up for by the fact that an unduly swift develo^iw^w^ <^^ "^^ 
acrospire and radicles will not aWow ol \\v^ xtc^vyiV^ vcv^^^^- 
ing of the endosperm which is among \.\\e cV\e\ o\i\<i<:X^ oV %jr^v^^"^- 



» 



59^ MALTING OPERATIONS. 

nation. Forced growth^ therefore, is to be strictly avoided, 
cessive temperatures have a forcing influence. 

The requisite moisture is provided, in the first place, by steeping. 
Subsequently, at more advanced stages of development, if the 
grain gets dry, sprinkling is resorted to. In some floors, and 
generally in pneumatic malting, moist air is introduced: 

Turning the Heap. — ^Temperature is maintained not only by 
regulating the warmth of the air in the floor and that of the • 
floor itself, having an eye to the temperature outside, but also 
by breaking the couch and turning the piece. This is resorted to 
when the temperature in the heap rises too high. The higher the 
pieces arc set, the less frequently they are turned, the higher 
the temperature of the surrounding air, the warmer the couch — 
the quicker will the temperature rise in the heap. 

Aeration is provided by suitable ventilation of the whole floor. 
Turning the heap also serves to aerate the grain by dispelling the 
carbonic acid generated and bringing the previously covered 
grains into contact with the air. In pneumatic malting a current 
of air is forced through the grain by powerful fans. 

Protection from deleterious influences, besides those above 
enumerated, consists mainly in restricting the opportunities for 
mold to develop chiefly by observing the strictest cleanliness, 
avoiding crushing of any grains, keeping out injurious gases 
like coal gas, etc. 

GENERAL RULES FOR FLOOR WORK. 

The following general rules may be set down for floor work:i 

Turn the piece regularly and so that the kernels near the sur- 1 
face are brought nearer the center of the new heap, and those 
that have been nearer the center arc brought to the surface or 
bottom. Each succeeding heap is spread lower than the preced- 
ing one to keep down the temperature, because as the germs grow 
in size, needing more food, more heat is generated. 

In turning, the bottom parts of the old heap should become 
the top parts of the new heap, and the top parts be at the bottom. 

The heaps should in all parts be made equally high. 

Pure fresh air is essential to proper growth. There should 
he good ventilation. The temperature of the air admitted should 
prcfcrMy not be lower than 55^ F. (lo* R.). 
7/ there is too much cvaporalion, \i vVvt %tov«u\^ barley bc- 
comes too dry, in which case the tadkVes— s^^owv^— nn\\\ \it ?.^wdi 



MALTING OPKUATIONS. 597 

to wither, the barley should be sprinkled with water of approxi- 
mately the same, temperature as that of the heaps. 

The most scrupulous cleanliness should be observed, the floor 
should be kept clean by water and applications of bisulphite of 
lime. Injured or crushed kernels give rise to lactic acid fer- 
mentation and mold formation. 

Coal gas, illuminating gas, is exceedingly injurious to the grow- 
ing barley; the floors should not be lighted by gas. Larger 
quantities of sulphurous acid are also injurious. 

As soon as the malt has started to sprout it should be sprinkled 
and turned, after which the heap is set somewhat higher, and the 
temperature is allowed to rise to 68° F. (16° R.), when it is 
broken and spread out thinner. If the heap is sprinkled before 
the sprouts appear, growth is apt to be checked. 

METHODS OF FLOOR WORK. 

There are two principal different methods of carrying on the 
floor work: 

Warm Sweat Method. — The temperature of the heaps is al- 
lowed to rise high, vi^., 77 to 86° F. (20 to 24° R.). The radi- 
cles develop rapidly, the acrospire very unevenly. Germination 
is rapidly completed. 

Cold Sweat Method. — The temperature of the heaps is kept 
low, about 63.5** F. (14** R.). The acrospire develops gradually 
and more uniformly, but germination takes longer. The cooler 
a heap is kept, the better is the quality of the malt regarding 
solubility, diastatic power and aroma. 

"Sweat" is the moisture which will appear on the surface of 
the barleycorns during germination, the vapors passing from 
the interior of a warm heap and condensing near the surface. 
The appearance of this "sweat" is a sign of healthy growth. 

In England the temperatures arc kept quite low on the floor, 
about 50° to 55° F. (8° to 10° R.) ; in Germany they range up to 
about 70° F. (17° R.) ; in America up to about 77^" F. (20° R.). 

INDICATIONS OF PROPER GROWTH. 

During the growth of the barley a fine fruit-like odor, remind- 
ing of cucumbers, should be noticeable. The more mold, the 
more this odor is covered. 

The color of the germ should not chau^^. 

The acrospire should develop umioTn\\'^ \t\ ;s\\ V^xv^^\'5». 



598 MALTING OPERATIONS. 

The radicles should never look withered. They should, toward 
the end, be allowed to grow into one another and mat. 

Sweat should appear a few hours after turning a heap, making 
its appearance the sooner after turning, the higher the tempera- 
ture rises. 

SIGNS OF SUFFiaENT GROWXn. 

The acrospire should be developed to % of the length of the 
kernel ("three-quarters up"). 

The radicles should be developed to i% of the length of the 
kernel. 

Upon the kernel being pressed between the thumb and fore- 
finger, the endosperm should be squeezed out and should have 
the consistency of mealy flour. 

The radicles should cling together firmly so that in lifting a 
number of kernels between the fingers, they should draw with 
them six to eight times the number of kernels held. 

KILNING. 

The malt is called green malt until it has entered upon the 
drying stage which follows germination. 

The proper condition of mellowness having been reached, steps 
are taken to interrupt growth as promptly as possible. Tliis is 
done by expelling a large share of the moisture in the malt. 

Currently in the United States, this is done by conveying the 
green malt straight into the kiln. The kiln having almost in- 
variably two floors, the green malt is dumped on the upper floor 
and there dried slowly to the requisite degree. 

In the older beer-producing countries it is quite a common 
practice to make a distinct operation of preliminary dr>'ing. In 
Germany the malt is frequently air-dried in the so-called 
"Schwelke" at ordinary temperature before being sent into the 
kiln. In England it is ''withered" by heaping the malt into a 
thicker piece and leaving it for hours. \vhcrcl)y the temperature 
is increased, ventilation impeded and growth at least partially 
checked. This is made necessary by the general use of one-floor 
kilns in England. Withering may also be accomplished by spread- 
ing the germinated malt very thinly upon tlie floor, thus facilitat- 
ing the escape of moisture. 

American maltsters often turn the malt twice in the last three 

or four hours, so as to ventilate it, reduce the temperature and 

check growth. As a rule, air-dry \ng \^ coT\i\^<i\t^ v>\\)<i\'^wovis in 



MALTING OPERATIONS. 599 

lh« United States. Air-dried malt is used in distilleries for the 
manufacture of whiskies. Green malt contains about 35 to 40 
per cent of moisture, air-dried malt about 13 to 15 per cent. 

While the malt is on the upper kiln floor, where nothing is 
sought to be accomplished beyond driving off moisture, the tem- 
perature should be kept comparatively low until the moisture has 
been, for the greatest part, expelled through the agency, mainly, 
of currents or draughts of air. 

The desired degree of dryness being obtained, the malt is 
dumped on the lower kiln floor. The regulation of temperatures 
on the lower kiln floors is governed by the desired quality of the 
final product. 

AMERICAN MALTING OPERATIONS. 

The description here given follows the practice of some of the 
large American establishments: 

FLOOR MALTING OPERATIONS. 

The barley from the bins is loaded on the conveyor and carried 
automatically to the cleaning machine. The entire cleaning 
process is automatic, and the refuse carried off by mechanical 
devices. Foreign seeds go into one bin, and often there is another 
for broken barleycorns. This offal goes to feed dealers, while 
the chaff that is collected separately is used in the brewery for 
fuel or otherwise di.sposed of. 

From the cleaning machine the barley drops into the separator 
underneath. The different grades, two or three in number, go 
to the automatic scales, by which the men are enabled to charge 
the steep tanks with the requisite quantities, turning the barley 
into a fresh tank as soon as one has been filled to the proper de- 
gree. Sometimes the barley is measured into the tank or is 
gauged by the height in the tank. Hopper scales are frequently 
used. 

Before running in the grain for washing there should be one 
and one-half to two feet of water in the tank. The tank being 
properly charged, turn on the water and let it run over at the 
top. At first, the water should stand one to two feet above the 
barley when the tank is full. Where there is plenty of water, 
keep it running, preferably at the bottom, and it will keep the 
barley stirred up and float the skimmings off at the top. Other- 
wise, skim them off with a ladle. The skimmings go to a s.q.^-^.k-^vjl 
bin or trough, and are sohl for iee(\. ^ce.^ v\\^ >»4;\>.'e.\ w^xwwv^ 



600 MALTING OPERATIONS. 

three or four hours, but drain it off entirely once a day. Whete 
the water cannot be kept running, change it twice the first day, 
and once a day thereafter. 

For steeping, the grain is kept in the same tank. Temper the 
water in the tanks before running it on the grain so that it is 
about 50-55** F. when it reaches the steep tank. Keep the tem- 
perature of the room so as to preserve this degree in the tanks as 
nearly as can be. Steep for about forty-eight hours, modifying 
for dryness of air, hardness of water, type and condition of bar- 
ley, etc. When the time is nearly past, sample the grain at short 
intervals, according to the tests elsewhere described. 

The grain being fully steeped, drain the water off at the bottom. 
Frequently the steep tank has a conical hopper bottom by which 
the barley is dropped on the malting floor ; otherwise it is loaded 
on trucks and wheeled to the floor. In couching, the head malt- 
ster directs the placing of the loads so that on leveling the grain 
will form a heap eight to ten inches in height, extending along a 
longitudinal side of the floor and occupying rather more than one- 
third and less than one-half of the floor space. About every 
six hours the malt'sters turn the barley to enable rapid superficial 
drying. Keep the temperature in the room between 50° and 60° 
F., as uniformly as practicable. See to good ventilation all the 
time. At the expiration of about twelve hours, the barley being 
dry, the heap is drawn together, that is, the men shovel the grain 
together and level it at twelve to fourteen inches. Leave it at 
this height, turning every eight hours, until the rootlets mat well. 
Use the thermometer freely, pushing it down into the couch. 
If the temperature approaches 75** F., break down tlic heap and 
extend it to a layer of less depth. This repeated breaking down 
or flooring of the heap gradually extends it over that part of the 
floor which was originally left free. 

When the g^ain mats strongly, sprinkle with water, either by 
hose and spraying pipe or by a sprinkling can. If possible, enough 
water should be given to save another sprinkling. Turn every 
five or six hours thereafter, breaking down the heap more and 
more, until the layer is only five or six inches deep and covers 
almost the whole floor. Growth will take about five days. When 
the malt is mellow, and the acrospire about three-quarters up. 
turn the malt once or twice in the last three or four hours so as to 
lenti/ntc the heap thoroughly and stop further growth. Most 
Americnn bnrlcy, being rather reiTacVoiv \\\ \w?\\.\vi^, ^\\c>v\^ tssA 



MALTING OPERATIONS. 6oi 

be turned too much. There arc some exceptions, as California 
barley, which grows even on the shovel. Turning should be de- 
layed until the temperature of the malt imperatively requires it. 
After clearing the floor of green malt, wash it well with diluted 
bisulphite, or milk, of lime. Then wash well to remove all traces 
of the chemicals. 

KILNING OPERATIONS. 

The malt ready for the drying-kiln, it is conveyed to 
the elevator at the end of the floor by means of scrapers sus- 
pended from the transmission shafting under the ceiling. The 
scrapers are handled like plows, being set in place and guided 
by the maltster, while operated by machinery. The receptacles of 
the elevator are charged by the scrapers, and on reaching the 
upper floor of the kiln, dump the malt automatically. On the 
upper kiln floor the men level the malt to an even height. The 
dry-kiln in the United States commonly has two floors, and is 
heated by an open fire. Above the upper floor in the dome are 
drafts to carry off the vapors, and often a suction fan to promote 
drying. The temperature should be kept at 75-90® F. on the 
upper floor. Where the suction is such that a powerful draught can 
be maintained through the malt, there is no need of turning the 
malt, but it is sufficient to loosen it up once. With a less perfect 
draught, turn once about three or four hours after loading the 
kiln. Where ventilation is insufficient, turn after six or eight 
hours, and again after nine or ten hours. 

The upper kiln is loaded about 18 inches high. All tempera- 
tures referred to in kilning American malts are read from ther- 
mometers, the bulbs of which are immersed in the malt extending 
about half way between surface of malt and kiln floor or about 
nine inches from surface. Usually three thermometers are placed, 
one at each end and one in the center. The charge on a kiln floor 
is usually 2,500 bushels in the larger malting establishments, or 
5.000 on both floors. 

The malt, being hand-dry, which takes about twenty-four hours, 
is dumped on the lower floor, commonly by mechanical dumping 
floors which turn in sections on an axis and drop the malt be- 
low. Spread the malt evenly on the lower floor. The initial tem- 
perature here should be 120-130** F., leaving it about that point for 
twelve hours, more or less, until the malt is absolutely dry. Then 
raise within one and one-half to two Uouts Vo VW ^xsaX N.^xvx'^^'^'s^-"^'^^ 
and keep at that height for about Ivjo \\o\xxs. 



602 MALTING OPERATIONS. 

Final temperature for pale malt should be about 145° F., for 
market beer 165-180**, for high-dried malt for darker beer up 
to 220* F. The curing stage being over, cover the fires and cool 
the malt slowly. 

Hard coal, being smokeless, is commonly used for fuel. The 
fireman should see to the maintenance of the proper temperatures 
by watching his fire and the dampers. 

The malt being cooled down, it is shot through traps from the 
lower kiln floor to the cleaning machine stationed so that -the 
malt drops into it without any assistance. The rootlets or 
"coombs" are here removed. The clean malt runs into one 
bin. the roots into another, and there remain until the malt is 
used for brewing, or the rootlets sold for feed. 

KILNING AMERICAN MALT FOR PALE BEER. 

Time of kilning. 48 hours. 

After loading, the temperature is raised during the next ten 
hours to 90° F. (25-26** R.). during the next four hours to 120° 
P- (39** R-). J^nd kept at this temperature for ten hours. Now 
the malt, is dumped on the lower floor, where the temperature 
is raised during the next four hours to 130° F. (43-44* R.) ; dur- 
ing the next twelve hours to 150** F. (52-53* R.) ; during the 
next three hours to 180* F. (65-66* R.). and held at this tem- 
perature during three hours when the malt is removed from the 
lower kiln to the bin, and the lower kiln receives a new charge 
from the upper kiln, and the upper kiln is reloaded, the time of 
unloading and recharging the kilns being about two hours. 

KILNING AMERICAN MALT FOR EXTRA PALE BEER. 

Time of kilning, 48 hours. 

On the upper floor the malt is treated as for pale beer. The 

malt reaches the lower kiln with a temperature of 120*^ F. (39* 

R.), which is gradually raised during the next four hours to 125* 

F. (41-42° R.). and during the next twelve hours to 130° F. (43- 

44* R.). Tlicn raise witliiii the next three hours to 145* F. (50- 
51*^ R.), and hold this temperature for three hours. 

KILNI.N'G AMERICAN MALT FOR DARK DEER. 

Time of kilning. 24 hours. 

On the upper kiln the mall is heated in five hours to 90* F. 

(^5-26" R.), in the next two hours to 120° F. (39° R.), held 

during the next five hours at 120* F. (2ff ^.^. ^^\n dumped 



MALTING OPERATIONS. 603 

on lower floor, brought in two hours lo 140** F. (48** R.), in the 
next five hours to 180** F. (65-66* R.), in the next two hours to 
220° F. (84** R.), held here two hours, and unloaded. 

MECHANICAL MALTING OPERATIONS (AMERICAN). 

Drum Malting. — Take for a sample a plant of fifty drums, using 
a Wisconsin barley, which is representative of the average quali- 
ties of barley used for trade malt. This barley runs about forty- 
eight pounds to the bushel. 

There is little difference in steeping for drum malting from 
steeping for floor malting. The barley is steeped for about forty- 
four hours at 50-55** F. The water is forced in at the bottom 
of the steep tank, and also drained off at the bottom, except for 
the first hour or so, when it is kept flowing so as to carry off the 
skimmings from the top, a workman standing over the tank and 
helping in the removal of the skimmings. After that, the water is 
shut off and the mixed grain and water allowed to stand about 
ten to eleven hours. The water is drained off and renewed four 
times within forty-four hours at about equal intervals. 

When the desired degree of steepage has been reached, the 
water is drained off completely, which takes about three hours 
for a tank of 250 bushels. A spout in the hopper-bottom of the 
tank is then opened, and the grain runs into the drum, which is 
located on the floor below right under the steep tank, and cal- 
culated to hold just one full charge of the tank. When the drum 
is full it is started revolving. The temperatures are kept as 
follows: First day 55** F., second day 60** F., third day 65', 
fourth day 70^, fifth day, first half, 75°, the last 12 hours being 
given to air-drying or withering. Every drum having a ther- 
mometer, the temperatures can be readily regulated by increasing 
or reducing the draft of air or giving an extra turn of the drum 
so as to turn the malt if it sweats too much. 

The drum is turned about as follows: For the first three 
days, one full revolution every two hours; fourth day, every iVj 
hours; first half of the fifth day, the same; after which the drums 
are kept revolving for 12 hours, making one revolution in about 
40 minutes. 

The drum is connected with an air shaft leading from the coke 
tower or atomizing room, where the air is drawn through cokr 
and water, so as to be filtered and at the same time cK^^s^^< 
with uioisture. The air is drawn v\\yov\^\v nXv^ ^\>\vcv Xs.^ "^ ^'^' 



604 MALTING OPERATIONS. 

About 12 hours before germination is finished, that is, when the 
continuous revolutions of the drum begin, this moist air supply 
is shut off, and air drawn through from the room itself, so as 
to dry the malt. It thus becomes much drier than floor malt 
when it reaches the kiln. 

While in the drum, the grain is sprinkled twice with a hose, 
about one barrel of water being given for a piece of 250 bushels. 
After each sprinkling, the drum is given an extra turn, so as to 
mix the grain and water well. The first sprinkling is given after 
the grain has well broken out, answering about to the stage of 
the third day on the floor. About 12 to 14 hours later, sprinkle 
again. 

At the end of the fifth day, when the acrospire has reached a 
length of %-% of the grain, and the malt has been air-dried 
as described, it is dropped through the door of the drum into 
a trough running along the floor, several men being sent into 
the drum to shovel it out In the trough an ordinary worm con- 
veyor pushes the malt to the dry-kiln adjoining the malthouse. 
The charges of ten drums, aggregating about 2.500 bushels, 
are unloaded and conveyed to the kiln in about two hours. 

m 

The dry-kiln has the usual two floors, open fire, vents and 
dampers. Besides, it has an automatic turning device, which 
travels along the railing of the floor, with blades to scrape up 
the malt from the floor and worms to carry it to the surface, so 
as to turn it thoroughly. The temperature on the upper floor 
is kept at 90** F. for the first twelve hours, then raised to 100** 
for the next twelve hours. The vents are so regulated as to 
carry off the vapors, which are much less than with floor malt, 
owing to the air-dry condition when the malt reaches the kiln, 
and the dampers set to maintain the temperatures. At the ex- 
piration of twenty-four hours the charge is dumped on the lower 
tloor, where it starts at 1 10", and is kept at that temperature for 
twelve hours. The last twelve hours the heat is regulated ac- 
cording to the desired product. It high-dried malt is wanted. 
the temperature is gradually raised and the last three hours kept 
at 200 up to 240**. For ordinary pale malt the final ♦emperature 
shou'.o be about 170''. 

.Vficr kiln-ilryiiig, the mall is treated the same as floor mail. 

The drums arc cleaned with water only, the men being sent 

//7/c f/icm with a hose, and flushing out by means of a force pump. 

O/ie mnn cnn ckaii ten drun\s in iS: \\ovus. ^o *Jk\^\^VvicV\\\\^ 



MALTING OPERATIONS. 605 

are used in cleaning, the drums being varnished inside and in- 
capable of holding dirt. 

Barley of the Canada and Californin type requires six d<iys iti 
the drum. 

A plant running fifty drums can be operated by eighteen men, 
including the superintendent and the warehousemen, shipping 
clerk, etc. It will produce 2,500 bushels a day. The establish- 
ment need be but two stories high and 50x300 feet in extent. 
The power plant consumes about seven tons of coal at $1.10 a 
ton daily, including elevators, dynamo, etc. 

Pneumatic Floor Malting. — For pneumatic floor malting 
the grain is steeped in the same manner as for drum malt- 
ing. Upon reaching the desired steepage the whole charge of 
the tank, grain and water together, is shot into a compartment 
below instead of a drum. The compartments are so designed 
ab to hold a full charge of a steep tank, and have drains to 
carry ofT the water. 

When charged, the malt lies about thirty to thirty-si.x inches 
high on the perforated floor, after it has been properly leveled. 
The drafts and fans are set in operation and the air sucked 
through the grain. In many cases, of late, a downdraft of air 
has been introduced, instead of the upward current originally 
designed for this system. The velocity of the draft and its sat- 
uration with moisture should be regulated, as nearly as can be, 
to suit the condition of the piece it is to pass through, being 
increased if the temperature rises too high, and diminished if it 
drops too low. The malt is turned about the same as in floor 
malting, and sprinkled as may be required. 

When the desired growth has been reached, the malt is scraped 
out of the compartment into the conveyor, and taken to the 
elevator which carries it to the kiln. 

In all other respects the treatment does not differ from that 
above described for the other methods of malting. 

The floors are kept clean by scrubbing with bru.shes and the 
usual chemicals. 

MALTING IN ENGLAND. 

OrAIJTV OF ENGLISH MALT. 

According to Sykes. a good sample of malt should V^^s^ ^^^v^^ 
grown, the acrospire should be irom IvjoAXvvx^s Vo ^\^\^^-v^^^:^'^'^^'^'^ 
up tlT^ back, nnd it should not conUvu moxo: \\ya\\ ^ '^^^ ^^^^^'^ ' 



6o6 MALTING OPERATIONS. 

"idlers." The endosperm should be tender and friable ; the corns 
should be crisp, and, when bitten, should crumble between the 
teeth; a broken corn, when drawn across a board, should leave a 
niark such as a piece of chalk would do. Malt, on leaving the 
kiln, should be practically free from moisture. If a malt has 
absorbed even small quantities of water, it rapidly deteriorates, 
slack malt being one of the most frequent causes of trouble in 
the brewery. Broken corns should not exceed 2 per cent. Malt 
should not be used until it is about six weeks old. It should 
have a pleasant aromatic odor. The weight should be 40 to 44 
pounds to the bushel. 

The amount of extract may vary from 75 to 95 pounds per 
quarter. The diastatic power ranges between 30° and 45°, ac- 
cording to Lintner's scale. The diastatic power of green malt 
ranges from no** to 125°. The acidity is usually 0.2 to 0.3 per 
cent, and should not exceed 0.4, figured as free lactic acid. The 
amount of ready-formed sugars, according to Moritz & Morris. 
should not exceed 16 per cent, except in the case of very highly 
dried samples. Malts containing a higher percentage than this 
are stated to give bad results in brewing, while abnormally low 
percentages (under 10 per cent) point to insufficient germination. 

STEEPING. 

According to Thatcher, the steeping liquid employed should not 
be above 54"^ nor below 50° F. The water should be drawn off 
from the bottom of the cistern every 12 hours, adding fresh at 
the top in the form of a sponge. This should be kept going with 
the waste top open five to ten minutes. Afterward the. cistern 
may be filled. The grain should be steeped until it is soft enough 
to be pierced by a pin. The skin should be easily removed, and 
the grain broken by the thumb-nail. A short steep takes 40 to 47 
hours, a long steep 80 to 85. an average sleep 56 to 60 hours. 
Sprinkling should be resorted to only upon necessity. Bisulphite 
of lime may be used in the steep, about half a gallon to every 
quarter of barley on the second day of steeping, or j to 5 ounces 
for every four gallons of water, if applied during sprinkling. 

GROWTH ON THE FLOORS. 

77re gniin may Jic upon the floors 2 to 10 inches high, accord- 
//7^ ro the judgment of the nialtster. \s ^to\\\.\\ \v\oQ.'i^ds, the 
hickness is lessened. The proper lemvcT^Uuv \\\ vV ^^x^Cwx \\cn\^ 



MALTING OPERATIONS. 607 

the commencement of the steep during the whole time it is upon 
the floors is 50** to 54° F. Higher temperatures develop mold 
and force the grain too much, resulting in fretty fermentations. 
The grain should be ploughed or turned every 3 to 5 hours. 
Sprinkling, if done at all, should take place when the growth of 
the grain flags; it should not be later than the fifth or seventh 
day after the grain has left the cistern. Plenty of air is necessary 
for success. Germination on the floors takes 10 to 15 days. 

Germination is arrested by withering. This should not take 
place upon the kiln, but upon the floors by spreading the malt 
very thinly. The grain, when properly withered, should be fairly 
dry and floury if opened and pressed by the thumb-nail. All 
foreign barley should have the acrospire grown right up without 
piercing the end. For English barley the acrospire should be 
grown right up when high mash tun and kiln temperatures are 
used. For beers intended to have great pal ate- fullness the grain 
should not be grown so far. Where low primary mash tun tem- 
peratures are used the malt must not be grown so freely. It 
must be dried higher on kiln. For stouts and porters and sweet 
beers, and where the ales are required for long storage, a large 
amount of dextrin is desired to prevent undue early attenuation. 
In these cases the growth of acrospire and diastase on the kiln 
nnist be severely checked. 

KILNING. 

Depth on kiln, 4 to 6 inches. Until practically hand-dry it is 
only safe to fork the malt, but afterward it may be thoroughly 
turned. The first day the temperature should not be higher than 
95° to 100° F. When the greater proportion of moisture is ex- 
pelled, generally on the second day, raise the temperature slowly 
to 120° F., the third day slowly to 140^ to 150°, the fourth day dry 
off at the desired limit for whatever quality of malt is required, 
which varies from 185° to 200° F. for pale malts, and 200** to 
225^, or even 230**, for high-dried malts. In all cases, the grain 
must be kept at the drying-off heat for at least 5 to 6 hours. 
The temperature is measured by introducing the thermometer into 
the grain, and this temperature should be the same in any part 
of the kiln. After being properly dried the malt must be ^.VVo.vh^^ 
to cool gradually, when it is troddeu vo t^vcvon^ >>cv^ xo'^^'Cv^v^- 
Then the malt should be well heaped up ou vVv^NsaVcv^ ^V^^^ ^^^"^"^ 



6o8 MALTING OPERATIONS. 

it is Stored in bins which are generally placed around the ex- 
terior of the kiln walls on account of the dryness and warmth of 
the position. It should remain on storage 6 to 8 weeks or 
more, before being used. 

Southby says that drying and curing cannot be properly ac- 
complished under from three to four days, including the time re- 
quired for loading and unloading. He recommends bringing the 
whole load of the kiln up to ijo** F.. with as little delay as 
possible. This temperature must not be exceeded until the bulk 
of the moisture is expelled, and the moisture should be reduced 
to about 6 to 7 per cent by the time the temperature reaches 140**. 
About 3 to 4 per cent more of the moisture ought to be expelled 
by the time the temperature arrives at 155°. which should be 
when the kiln has been loaded for about 60 hours. Another 
12 hours and the temperature should have risen to about 175° F., 
and then it should be maintained at 175° to 185** for the following 
12 hours, when the malt will be perfectly dried and cured, and 
can be at once removed from the kiln. 

The moisture of the perfectly dry malt should not exceed 1.5 
per cent, and is frequently found less than i per cent. Perfectly 
dry malt, according to Southby. will keep forever without de- 
terioration at the temperature of very hot climates. 

Besides pale malt there is used: .A-mbcr malt, which is simply 
pale malt that has been subjected to a high final temperature on 
the kiln so as to give it some color and destroy the action of the 
diastase. 

Dloii'u or Brown Malt, which is dried rapidly over a fire of 
beech or birch wood. This has a much higher color than amber 
malt, and contains but little, if any. diastase. 

Black' or Patent Malt, which is absolutely roasted like coffee, 
and the roasting sliould be so carried out as to produce the larg- 
est amount of sohible coloring matter. 

Crystal Malt is prepared by moistening the malt during the 
drying process with a solution of sugar and then drying it off at 
a higli temperature. 

Resides iliese. caramel malt may also be employed. 

For pale ales only the palest malts can be used. For mild 
.i/cs. p.ilc iiKih /s n>cd with a little black malt. Porter and stout 
nre hrcwcd in Dublin from high-drWA v;v\c uva\\ ^vxvX XAwO^. \w^U 
o/j/y, while London brewers generaUy ^relei ^x ?,V\s\ c^wv^vmwv^ 7J\ 



MALTING OPERATIONS. 609 

the three qualities of colored malt, viz., amber, brown and black« 

in addition to the pale malt. When black malt only is used in 

brewing porter and stout, one of black, by measure, to seven of 

pale is sufficient for the blackest beers, and one of black to twelve 

of pale is about the smallest proportion used even in Ireland 

where the black beers arc generally far less highly colored than 

in London. 

MALTING IN GERMANY. 

QUALITY OF GERMAN MALT. 

Three types of malt are distinguished in Germany, viz., Bo- 
hemian, Wiener and Bavarian. In the production of all of these 
two-row barley is universally employed. In regard to purity, 
that is, freedom from dust, foreign seeds, etc., appearance, color 
of husk, condition of endosperm, color and general appearance 
of sprouts, length of acrospire, the same general remarks apply 
as to the valuation of American malts. As to the taste or aroma 
of the malt, that of the Bohemian type should have no caramel 
and very little malt aroma; the Vienna malt, on the other hand, 
should possess it distinctly, and in the Bavarian this aroma 
should be very strong, without a bitter empyreumatic taste. 

In the following are given some of the most important character- 
istics of German malts from laboratory examinations, according 
to Thausing. 

a. Amount of Moisture. — This differs according to whether the 
malt is kiln-dried, low or high. Taken fresh from the kiln it 
contains 1.5 to 3.5 per cent of moisture. When properly stored it 
absorbs 2 to 3 per cent of moisture, so that when ready for brew- 
ing the malt will have about 3.5 to 6.5 per cent. 

b. Aroma of the Malt Mash. — This should always be pure, 
whether it is neutral, as for pale malt, or weakly aromatic, as 
for Vienna malt, or strongly aromatic, as for Bavarian. During 
the process of mashing the odor changes constantly. 

c. **Brcak" of the Malt Mash. — If at the end of the mashing 
period the mash beakers are allowed to stand quietly, the grains 
will settle and the wort over them will appear clear. If this 
takes place quickly it is a good sign. 

d. Power of Inversion, Diastatic Power. — After the mash in 
the beaker has reached a temperature of 70° C. (158° F., or 56° 
R.) in carrying on the laboratory mash (see. E.Y."a.xt>A\-v2^A^^ ^^ 
Malt in the Laboratory), the lime up Vo \\\<i v^\w\. ^^'v <:.^\\\^^^^ 

39 



6lO MALTING OPERATIONS. 

accharificatioii (Vcrznckeningszeit) should be for Boheiuum 
malt 10 to 20 minutes, for Viemia.malt 35 to 35 minutes, for 
Bavarian malt 35 to 45 minutes. 

(American malts almost invariably show complete saccharifica- 
tion when the end temperature of the laboratory mash is reached. 
Their diastatic power is, as a rule, greater than tliat of Bohemian 
malts.) 

e. Filtration of the Wort — ^The quicker the wort runs from the 
filter, the better. High-dried and freshly-dried malts yield worts 
with slower filtration than low-dried and stored malts because 
in the latter case the husk and endosperm is less finely crushed 
in the mill. 

f. Appearance of the Wort — ^While flowing from the filter 
the wort may look brilliant, clear, slightly opalescent, strongly 
opalescent, or turbid. Wort must never be turbid at this point, 
or opalescent, but alwajrs clear and, better still, brilliant. Bavarian 
malts more often yield worts that do not run clear than do malts 
of paler color, which fact indicates that this malt, which was ex- 
posed to high temperatures in the kiln, was not sufficiently grown 
when it reached the kiln or was improperly treated in the kiln, 
generally being taken out too early. 

The color of the wort should be as near as possible that of the 
beer to be produced. It is described more minutely as light or 
dark Vienna and light or dark Bavarian. For Vienna beer it is 
not desirable to use color malt for deepening the color, which 
cannot be avoided, however, for Bavarian beers. The paler the 
color of the wort, the shorter should be the time^ of complete 
saccharification, and the more sugar may and shoukl the wort 
contain. It is customary to determine the color of the wort by 
normal iodine solution. Light malts give worts with a color 
equivalent to o.i to 0.3 iodine solution, medium light worts 0.3 
to 0.6, dark worts 0.7 to 1.5. The different color tints of the scale 
are obtained by strongly diluting a o.oi normal iodine solution 
(1,27 g. iodine in i 1. water brought into solution by 4 g. iodide 
of potassium). Color No. i is a solution which contains in 100 
c.c. of volume 5 c c. of 0.01 normal iodine solution, so that the 
iodine solution for the color o.i contains only 0.5 c.c. of o.oi nor- 
mal iodine solution in 100 c.c, etc. (See also laboratory tests in 
Bre\%'er's Chemical Laboratory.) 
g. Yield.- -The yield is given cilVieT \ti V\\o%\^vcv% q\ ^^Vnsdt 



MALTING OPERATIONS. 



6ll 



per 100 kilograms of air-dry malt (containing water), or per lOO 
kilograms of malt in a water-free condition. (This practice is 
also followed in the laboratory of Wahl & Henius.) The yield 
calculated on malt in a water-free state varies from 70, 75 to 78 
per cent. A yield under 70 per cent is very low, over 78 per cent 
very high, a good average being 75 per cent. (The average in 
American malts is about 1.5 per cent less.) 

h. Sugar in Extract (ratio of sugar to non-sugar). — A good 
Bohemian malt will gfive a higher sugar percentage than a 
Vienna malt of equal grade, and a Vienna, in turn, a higher 
one than a Bavarian. Generally speaking, a Bohemian malt will 
give 51 to 52.5 per cent, Vienna 48 to 49 5, Bavarian 45 to 48 
per cent of sugar, or, rather, copper reducing substances (Rohmal- 
tose), given in percentage of water-free malt. 

Prior gives the following table: 

COMPOSITION OF TYPICAL GERMAN MALTS (PRIOR). 



Reducible sugar in extract. 

Cane sugar i n extract 

Time of sacchariflcation . . . 
Odor and taste of ma)t 



Color of wort in 0.1 c.c. normal 
iodine 



I'ilsener Malt. 



6^ to 70 p. c. 

3 to 5 p. c. 

10 to 20 mln. 

slightly green 



0.2 to 0.25 c.c. 



Wiener Malt. 



67 to 69 p. c. 

4 to 6 p. c. 

15 to 25 min. 

no aroma or 

only slight 

0.8 to 0.4 c.c. 



Bavarian Malt. 



62 to 66 p. c. 

6 to 10 p. r. 

20 to 45 min. 

aromatic, 

sweet 

0.7 to 2.0 c.c. 



In the production of Bavarian beers caramel malt or color malt 
is generally employed. Prior obtained from 100 parts of caramel 
malt 57.78 parts of extract, which showed the following com- 
positions : 

COMPOSITION OF CARAMEL MALT EXTRACT (pRIOR). 

Cane sugar 2.45 p. c. 

Reducible, readily fermentable sugars (chiefly mal- 
tose, dextrose and levulose) 1 1.02 p. c. 

Hard fermenting sugars (chiefly isomaltose) 13.04 p. c. 

Dextrins, roasting products, nitrogenous compounds, 

mineral matters , . . 3127 p. c. 

STEEPING AND FLOORING. 

Leyser-Heiss recommends renewing the steep water every 12 
hours if the water has a temperature of 7° to 10° R. (48* to 54.5** 
F.). Under unfavorable circumstances the water should be re- 
newed every 6 to 8 hours. The steeped \>3ii\t^ \^ ^'^^^•a.^ ^^ ^^ 
fioor at a depth of 0.3 to 0.5 m. {wSi to \^n \tvOc\fci^ ^o '^icv•a^ •vicsR 



6l2 MALTING OPKRATIONS. 

barley does not lose too much water. To spread the grain 
(Nasshaufen) lower is advisable only in case the barley has been 
oversteeped. The couch is turned every lo to 12 hours. The 
heaps are gradually thinned out and turned if the temperature 
in the "Brechhaufen" has increased 3** to 4° R. (6.75° to 9° F.) 
above the temperature of the room, in the "Junghaufen" if the 
increase is 4° to 6** R. (9" to 13.5** F.), in the "Althaufen" if the 
increase is ;** to 8' R, (15-75** to 18** F.). The "Brechhaufen" 
reaches this temperature after about eight hours, the "Junghau- 
fen" after about six, and the "Althaufen" eight hours. The 
maximum temperature should be 17** to 18** R. (70° to 72.5" F.), 
and the period of germination 6 to 8 days. At the end of the . 
germinating period, especially if the desired degree of mellowness 
has not been reached, the heaps may be left for 18 to 24 hours to 
mat (angreifen lassen). Sprinkling should, according to Lcyser- 
Heiss, take place during the first stages of growth, i. e., the stage 
of the **Nasshaufen/' using about 40 to 50 liters of water for 
every 55 hectoliters of malt. The grown malt is taken to tiie air- 
drying floor (Schwelke), where it is spread not more than 0.05 
m. (about 2 inches) high, except if the mellowness is to be 
increased by the further growth on the drying floor, or to 
prevent freezing in winter 

The three different types of beer known as Bavarian, Wiener 
and Bohemian, require correspondingly different treatment of the 
malt from which they are produced. The malt for dark Bavarian 
beer should have a strong malt flavor, a darker color of the en- 
dosperm and less diastatic power than the Bohemian malt from 
which the light-colored beers, with relatively more alcohol and 
less extract, are produced, in which the aromatic malt flavor is 
but very little pronounced compared with Bavarian beers, while 
in the production of the Wiener type of beers a malt is em- 
ployed which may l)e considered as standing between the Ba- 
\arian and the Bohemian types. 

The following description of operations, condensed from Mich- 
el's "Lehrlnich der Bierbraiierei.' will be fciind useful in un- 
derstanding the systems of malting as employed in the pn>«'iuc- 
tion of these three typical German beers. 

.MALT FOR BAVARIAN BEER. 

Since Bavaria grows barley of excellent quality and in suth- 
c/cnt quantities, very little barky Is \n\^Q\V<:^ \xv \X\^\. ^Ciwwx\^. 



MALTING OPERATIONS. 



613 



The steep water is about 10* R. (54.5** F.). Time of steeping, 
90 to 120 hours. Amount of moisture taken up by the barley, 
44 to 45 per cent. The duration of steeping is longer than in the 
production of Wiener and Bohemian malts. Sprinkling is, there- 
fore, not necessitated to the same degree. The grain is then 
spread on the floor 20 to 25 cm. (about 8 to 10 inches) high, and 
is turned in the morning and evening. As soon as the tempera- 
ture begins to rise the height of the heap is reduced. The heaps 
are turned regularly every 12 hours, unless the temperature 
rises too high, until the fifth or sixth day, at which time the 
malt should show a strong development of radicle. It is then 
allowed to lie 15 to 18 hours in order to mat. Generally the 
malt is allowed to mat twice, and if necessary, the temperature 
is supposed to rise to 18° R. (72° F.). 

FLOOR RECORD OF A SAMPLE MALT FOR BAVARIAN BEER. 



Time of Turning. 


Temperature 
In Heap 


Remark.s. 


Day. 


Hour. 


1 


6 p. m. 


9°R. 




2 


6a. TD. 


8.6« R. 




2 


6 p. m. 


9^ R. 


Mdlt begins to chit. 


3 


6 a. m. 


10° R. 




3 


6 p. m. 


12" R. 




4 


6 a. m. 


H** R. 


Radicles begin to sbow. 


4 


A p. m. 


le** R. 




4 


12 p. m. 


17° R. 


Abundant sweat. Heap thinned out. 


5 


12 m. 


17° R. 


Allowed to mat. 


6 


9 a. m. 


18° R. 


Matting has taken place. 


7 


» a. m. 


18.5° R. 


Malt strongly matted. 


8 


9 a. m. 


17° R. 


Matting has progressed but little. 



The temperature in the room was kept at 7° to 8** R. (48® to 
50° F.). Height of malt kept at 20 cm. (about 8 inches) during 
the first 5 days, and reduced to 18 cm. (about 7 inches) for 
the last 3 days. The radicle in many corns exceeded one and 
one-half times the length of the corn, the acrospire reaching 
thrce-fjuarters of the length in a majority, when the malt was 
ready to go on the kiln. 

KILNING MUNICH MALT. 

The total time of kilning is forty-eight hours. During the first 
twenty-four hours the green malt rests on the upper floor, being 
spread about ten inches thick, and receiving such temperatures as 
nafiirally follow from the regulation of heat o\\ VV\^ V<^^^\ '^'^^>'^. 
given below. 



6i4 



MALTING OPERATIONS. 



After the malt has been dumped from the upper to the lower 
floor — the upper being loaded afresh with green malt — the tem- 
perature for the first twelve hours in the lower chamber under 
the upper lloor is kept at 104° to in** F. (32° to 35° R.)- The 
drafts or dampers are then gradually closed, and the temperature 
of the lower chamber slowly and steadily raised during the fol- 
lowing six hours, at the end of which time the heat should be 
133" to 140' F. (46° to 48^ R.). During the remaining six hours 
the malt is heated slowly — the temperature being raised steadily 
and uniformly, during three hours, up to the final temperature, 
at which the malt is kept for the final three hours, the dampers 
l>eing closed tight during that period. 

The leniperalurcs at the different stages, from hour to hour, 
for the final six hours, are given below. These figures can serx'e 
only as a general g^iide. subject to the judgment of '.he maltster 
during this last critical period of malt-making. 

TEMrER.XTURES FOR THE LAST SIX HOURS ON LOWER KILN FLOOR FOR 

MUNICH MALT, ACCORDING TO MICHEl^ 



Hours. 


remperatiire on 
Kiln Floor. 


18> 


In Mai 


t. 
6^70= R. 


Air In Lower Cha 
Ho-U9=F. 48 


m»»er. 


18 to 191 


207 =F. 


TO«R. 


-18J<»K. 


h'Z \{ 


19 to 20 


•227= 


87*= 


191 


198' 


72 74^ 


I49-ln6^ 


.v: 


;Vi" 


» to 3L 


239« 


92* 


207-21 -i' 


7>* 80' 


I.i" 


162- 


.V> 


bS' 


21 to 22 


2S0' 


97* 


21 i 


216' 


80 ^<2'' 


162 


167^ 


SH 60- 


ti to 23 


250' 


97'» 


2 6 221" 


82 HI' 


167 


I7r 


6»» 


6-r 


23 to 21 


250^ 


97' 


2^11 


-223*» 


84-K.>*- 


171 


-18*^ 


6.' 


rt7^ 



The lower kiln is then cleared, and the malt from the upper 
floor d'.mipcd down on the lower, and the upper floor freshly 
loaded with green malt. 

•MOISTURE IN MALT OF MUNICH TYPE. 

On reaching upper kiln 37 to 40 per cent. 

-•\fter the first 12 hours 20 to 24 per cent. 

After the next 6 hours 10 to 14 per cent. 

.•\fter the next 6 hours 5 to 6 per cent. 

Finished malt iK» to 2 per cent. 

MAi.T FOR wi::nf,r r.EER. 

Barley with as light a color as possible is used. Sleeping period. 

37 to 84 hours. Moisture after steeping. 38 to 42 per cent. The 

tenipcrnture of the couches should never rise higher tlian 15° R. 

Mi^ F). and at the time when ihc TCK>\\e\s W^\t\ vo vJ^vxtVoi^jy 



MALTING OPERATIONS. 



615 



should not be over 12* R. (59* F.). Growth throughout is 
slower and at lower temperatures than in the production of 
Bavarian malt, the germinating period lasting 9 to 10 days. It 
is of special importance to obtain as strong and perfect a de- 
velopment of acrospire as possible, while the radicle remains 
somewhat shorter. The heaps are turned every 6 to 8 hours. 
The malt is never allowed to mat 



FLOOR RECORD OF A SAMPLE MALT FOR WIENER BEER. 



Height of Heap. 



18— 16 cm. ( 7-6.3 In.) 

15-14 cm. ( 6—5.5 In.) 

12 -14 cm. (4.7-5.5 In 

12-13 cm. (4.7—5 in 

18-14 cm. (5-5 5 In.) 

14 cm. (5.5 In.) 

14cm. (5.5 in.) 

14 cm. (5 6 in.) 



J 



Days. 



1. 

2 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

a 



Brechliaufen 

JunKbanfen. 

Wach5ihau fen. 
it 

Altiiaiifen. 



Weight. 



3 Time). 

4 

5 

5 

3 

2 

2 

I 



»< 
It 
«• 
»t 
II 
ii 
II 



Temperature. 



8-lPR. (50 -57«P.) 
11— H*»R. (.57-63.5op.) 

i5-i6«R. (oa-es^F.) 

WR. (68" F.) 
16«R. (68"?.) 
16*'B. (fl8«P.) 
le-R. (68" P.) 
WR. (68° P.) 



The grown malt is generally taken directly from the malt floor 
to the upper kiln and is spread 12 to 18 cm. (about 4.5 to 7 
inches) high. The malt is air-dried at 28* to 30" R. (95** to 100** 
F.), all the draughts being opened. As soon as the malt is air- 
dry, the draught is checked and the temperature raised to 50* 
to 55* R. (144° to 156° F.), time of kiln drying, about 24 hours. 

KILN RECORD OF A SAMPLE MALT FOR WIENER BEER FOR THE LAST 

12 HOURS. 

Hours. 



On lower Iciln floor. .. . „ 

Temi>erature in degrees R. * *^ *** '^ 

Inthealr 23 21 26 28 

In the malt 35 33 40 40 



V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII 



30 33 38 43 
48 52 55 61 



.SI 61 67 67 
68 75 76 80 



MALT FOR BOHEMIAN BEER. 



The barley should be of very light color and have a thin husk. 
Time of steeping, 57 to 72 hours. Amount of moisture in steeped 
barley, 38 to 42 per cent. Low temperatures are maintained. 
The first couch is made 20 cm. (about 8 inches) high, and the 
temperature in the room 8° to lo** R. (50° to 54.5° F,). If the 
temperature is lower, the couches are laid as high as 30 cm. 
(about 12 inches). Heaps are turned regularly in the morning 
and evening, until the radicles show development, i. e., until they 
become visible. After that the heaps are turtved tN^\>3 ^ \^ *^ 
hours and spread lower. If the rad\c\es Vv^n^ dfcNOvQ^^*^^ v^^ ^"^^ 



6i6 



MALTING OPERATIONS. 



the length of the corn (Junghaufen) and the heap at a tempera- 
ture of about 12" R. (59P F.) after lying 12 to 15 hours shows 
only little sweat, the malt is sprinkled with about one-half to i 
liter of water per hectoliter of barley, and immediately turned and 
laid 12 cm. (about 4.5 inches) high. The heap is then left un- 
disturbed until the temperature has risen to 14^ R. (63.5** F.) or 
at most 16'* R. (68® P.), which may take 12 to 18 hours. Time 
of growth, 9 to 10 days. 

KILNING HLSENER MALT. 

Time in kiln, twenty-four to thirty hours. Thickness of layer 
on upper kiln, six to eight inches. Temperatures of air in the 
lower chamber and in the malt on the lower floor for the last 
fifteen hours, taking the maximum duration of kilning of thirty 
hours, of which fifteen was spent on the upper floor. 



Iloiirs 


• • • • • • • 


1 
"i 




1 


1 
2 


3 


4 


1 

.s 


1 

6 


7 


8 


Tomi>erature of 1 


lir in 1 


) 


'F 


77 


i — 
1 «« 


81 


81 


90 


9> 


93 


111 


lower chamber 


.. . s 


1 


^R 


30 


' 30 


1 2J 


.>•■> 


en 


•-V 


1 31^ 


a=i 


Tem|»eniture of 


malt ( 


\ 


V 


100 


iioo 


113 


113 


115 


117 


llO 


131 


on lower floor. 


•••..• 1 


1 


^R 


ft) 


30 


36 

1 


3rt 


37 


3S 


■ :fc» 


44 



Hours 

Tomjwralun* of air ln» » 'F 

lower chamber \ * ^R 

Temi>erature of mull on » 1 'F 

lower th>or \ 1 - R 



9 



117 

38 

144 



10 

40 
149 

.T2 



11 

130 

43 

151 



13 

131 
14 

:>4 



13 

•5« 

I7H 
(V5 



14 

156 
55 

ITS 



15 

156 

55 
1:8 

65 



Draft holes arc kept entirely open during the first twelve hours 
of the fifteen, and arc then gradually closed during the last three 
hours, up to one-fourth. 

COLOR MALT. 

According to Prior, color malt is produced by masting malt 
nioistoncil with a little water in revolving drums. This process 
should be carried on in such a way as to prevent the formation 
of a<samar. which gives to the color malt a bitter taste. Color 
inaltN c<nt;i:n n*- dia>tase. but yiebl almost as mucli extract as or- 
dinary mali^. 

Prior >:atcs ho observed that ordinary malt fresh fmm the kiln 

/i/Vi'cJ int'^ l.in< in a warm condiiion .-utters deterioration on ac- 

cottnf of the fernperatiire incrcaMUg uvAxeniWv. \\\\\v:\\, \\v>\\<i\^t. 



K MALTING OPERATIONS. 617 

IS not the case if the malt has been first allowed to cool rapidly. 
Malt improves during storage for a time. If stored very long, 
^ however, it deteriorates, the more so, the gfreater the facility for 
the absorption of moisture. 



% 



CHEMICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL DATA AND PRO- 
CESSES. 

According to Brown and Morris (Journal Chem. Soc., 1890), 
the diastase of the malt is formed during germination in the germ, 
not in the endosperm itself, diffusing gradually from the germ 
through the endosperm as growth proceeds. Diastase is only 
formed in such measure as required to satisfy the needs of the 
growing germ for food. The latter may be artificially fed by a so- 
lution of cane sugar, when no diastase will be formed. The diffu- 
sion of the diastase through the germ and transformation of the 
starch into food for the germ is preceded by the breaking down of 
the cell walls composed of cellulose, which envelop each starch 
granule. This destruction is effected by the enzyme cytase. The 
starch throughout the endosperm is changed into maltose which 
finds its way to the germ, but is here in turn transformed into 
saccharose before utilization as food. 

Kjeldahl determined the diastatic power of malt during ger- 
mination. Figured on the dry basis the following comparative 
amounts were found according to the Kjeldahl method (Med- 
delelser fra Carlsberg Laboratoriet II, 1879) : 

Diastatic power. 

1 day 70 

2 days 7S 

3 days 80 

4 days 105 

5 days 150 

6 days 190 

7 days 220 

8 days *. 226 

During the first three days while the barley was in the steep, the 
diastatic power is about the same, and it changes but little dur- 
ing the first three days of growth. 

According to Moritz. & Morris the d\7k.sV;\."?>t \s ^vsVc-^nvvv^^ 
throughout the body of the growing Xi^tW'^'coTw c\v\\V<i ww'^'^^^^'^"^ 



6l8 MALTING OPERATIONS. ^^ 

The relative quantities, as given in terms of cupric oxide reduced, 
are: 

Grams Cu O 

Diastase in 50 endosperm halves (germ end) 9-7970 

Diastase in 50 endosperm halves (opposite end) 3-53io 

Diastase in radicles of 50 corns 0.0681 

Diastase in acrospires of 50 corns 0.0^56 

Diastase in scutella of 50 corns 0.5469 

CONSTITUENTS OF GREEN MALT. 

The germinating malt, according to Prior, contains the follow- 
ing substances: 

1. Water; 

2. Cellulose; 

3. Starch; 

4. Cane sugar and rafhnosc or melitriose; 

5. Glucose and levulose; 

6. Gummy substances; 

7. Fat; 

8. Albumen, soluble and insoluble; 

9. Peptones; 

10. Amido acids ; 

11. Amides; 

T2. Ammonium salts; 

13. Enzymes, viz., diastase, cytase. laccase. glucase, peptase; 

14. Volatile and fixed organic acids; 

15. Primary phosphates; 

16. Mineral substances. 

(See also "Chemistry" and ''Brewing Materials.") 

READY-FORMED SUGARS OF MALT^ ACCORDING TO o'sULLIVAN. 



Barley I. Barley II. 



lii'fore I ^fter llefore After 

Germination.; Germination, cii'rniinaiion Germination. 



! I'ercent. | Percent. Percent. Percent 

Cane -iiiizar ' o.i^ 4.5 1 39 4..'>0 

Malio-e. ... 1.2 1.98 

Gluc«»s«- 1.1 :i.l ryZ 1.57 

Levulose ... 0.2 .... 0.71 

roi.i/ -J.O ! ft.O -l.OX H.76 



MALTING OPERATIONS. 



619 



ftEADY-FORMEO SUGARS OF MALT, ACCORDING TO BROWN ft MORRIS. 





Barley after 48 hours' steep. 


Barley after 10 days' germi- 
nation. 




Embryos. 


Rndos perms. 


Embryos. 


Endosi>erms. 


Cftne SQsrar 


Per cent. 
5.4 
1.8 

• • ■ 


PfT cent. 
0.3 
0.2 

• • ■ 


Per cent. 

24.2 

1.2 

« • • • 


Per cent. 
2.2 


Invert sugar 

M ftUose 


2.2 
4.5 






Total 


7.2 


O.R 


254 


8.9 



Nitrogen. 
Ptfi cent. 

Raw barley 0.0600 

Steeped barley 0.0354 

Green malt 0.1671 

Kiln-dried malt... 0.1194 



Nitrogen. 
Per cent. 


Nitrogen. 
Per cent. 


Nitrogen. 
Per cent. 


0.0169 


0.0417 






0.0294 


• «•••• 


0,0290 


O.1417 


0.050s 


0.0057 


0.2257 


0.0029 



A. Hilger and F. van der Beeke (Archiv. f. Hygiene, 1890, 10, 
p. 477, from Prior's Chem. u. Phys. d. Biercs) investigated the 
changes that take place in the nitrogenous substances during the 
growth of barley. The following table gives results: 

Albumen Peptone Ammon. Amido-acid Amide 
Nitrogen. 
Pdr cent. 

0.0046 
0.0009 
0.0058 
0.0233 

Accordingly, the increase in the amount of soluble nitrogenous 
substances during germination would be as follows, the figures 
being for soluble nitrogenous substances in percentages of the 
total amount of nitrogenous substances contained in the water- 
free malt : 

Raw barley 6.74 per cent 

Steeped barley 3.75 per cent 

Green malt 5 days 21,96 per cent 

Kiln-dried malt 24.44 per cent 

Buiigener and Fries determined the amount of soluble nitrogen- 
ous constituents of a sample of barley and of the malt made from 
it as follows: 

Barley. 
Per cent. 

Total nitrogen 1.690 

Nitrogen as albumen 0.161 

Nitrogen as peptone 0.040 

Nitrogen as amides precipitable by mer- 
curic acetate 0.052 

Nitrogen as amides not precipitable by mer- 
curic acetate CkA^^ 



Malt. 
Per cent. 

1.580 
0.230 
0.060 

0.182 



^.-SSi- 



yALTING OPERATIONS. 



Total solnblc nitrogen 0.355 o-^A^ 

(See also "PepUse and Albumen" in Chapter "Chemislry.") "■" 





Cml.[L»n[, 


l^r 


C^l. 


t^ 






8 1 1 «.t 
SB 1 JO 

ill ft 


it 

i! 


4.^ 


t.i 












Amid. .'.r. 





FUNTY AND UKALY CORKS. 



n- sugar. . 



The difference between bard and mealy corns 
vestigaled by Prior, with the following results: 



Water 

Yield of extract . 
Reducing sugar in 
Cane sugar in ex 
Total sngar to ni 
Diaslatic power . 
Nitrogenous iiialters 

Calculiiled for dry matie 

Yield of extract 

Diast.ttic power 

Nitrogenous [iialiers 

Of which passing into wi 
Prccipilaled by boiling ... 
Reinaining in solution . . . 

Behavior of malt and m 

Saechariticaiion ,. . 

Dr.iinage nf ivorl 

Condition of wort 

-Break" of wort in boiling 



ealy Corns. 


Flinty Corns. 


1 1. 45 P- c. 


11.23 p. c. 


67.43 p. c. 


62.40 p, e. 


61.93 P- c. 


(.,.«} p, r. 


S 99 P. c. 


S43 p. c. 


:o.47 


1 : 0.50 



76 IS P- 

16.7.V 
II 48 p 



Tlio tn!)!cs lead 10 (he follmving coiicliisii 
I. The water coiilfiit ot mealy and rlirity c 
<iiffcrcncc in i/tc condition ol" the ciidoipcnn. t 
and im/cjH-ndent of the water conicirt. 



MALTING OPERATIONS. 62I 

^ 2. The yield of extract of the mealy corns is considerably in 
^^excess of that of the flinty ones. 

3. The amount of reducing sugar in the extract of the mealy 
corns is about i per cent greater than in the extract of the 
flinty corns, and that of cane sugar about 0.5 per cent. 

4. The diastatic power must be taken as equal in both, but 
should certainly be greater for the mealy corns it in the solution 
of the material for the tests the white mealy berries had been 
picked out instead of being mixed with brown mealy kernels. 
This is demonstrated by the color of the wort, which is twice as 
dark for the mealy corns. In that case the difference in the sugar 
contents of the extracts would also be greater. 

5. The total amounts of nitrogenous matters are equal, but in 
the mealy corns 0.54 per cent more of these matters pass into 
solution than in the flinty ones. The amounts precipitated by 
boiling are equal. 

6. The mealy corns saccharify completely m 45 minutes, 
whereas the flinty ones were not saccharifled in 60 minutes. The 
diastatic power being equal, the greater stubbornness in sUcchari- 
flcation is due wholly to the physical condition of the flinty 
corns, in which respect they are very different from the mealy 
ones. The difl^crcnce of reducing sugars must also be attributed, 
in the present case, to the differences of physical condition, not 
to any difference in diastase contents. 

7. The wort which was obtained from the mealy corns was 
slightly opalescent, i. e., it had a faint haze. In boiling it had a 
fair "break," whereas the wort from the flinty corns was strongly 
hazy and "broke" badly in boiling. This behavior is probably 
connected with the modification of the nitrogenous matters during 
germination, such as the formation of peptones and amides, 
which is more extensive in the more mellow, mealy corns. The 
greater amount of soluble nitrogenous matters in the wort from 
the mealy corns may be due to the same cause. 

The investigation shows that the white, flinty corns in malt are 
quite unfit for brewery use, and that any considerable percentage 
of them materially detracts from the quality of the malt. 

Glassy or stony malt, according to the scientific station of 
Nuremberg, contains no diastase, or only traces of it. If mashed 
by itself it gives worts of a deep brown color^ contaiuvw^ V^xs?^ 
quantities of unconverted starch. 



622 



MALTING OPERATIONS. 



influence of drying temperatitres on properties of malt^ 

(prior). 



Tempentore In "R. 35* 

Wmter in i>erccnt 8.44 

DiasUtic power 122.7 

Dimttatic power calculated for dry iLatter. 134.0 

Time of saccharincatlon 7 mln. 

Maltose in extract in percent 74.57 

Maltose to non-maltose 1:0.34 

Color of wort Inc. c 0.1 normal Iodine solution ' 

Brown corns in percent ■ 



Decrease of water content In percent 

Decrease of diaMatic power calculated for dry matter. 

Decrease of maltose content in per cent 

Increase In depth of color 



INFLUENCE OF DRYING TEMPERATURES ON PROPERTIES OF MALI. 

The influence exercised by temperature in air-drying and kiln- 
ing malt upon the properties of the product and the composition 
of the worts obtained in the mash is explained by investigations 
by Prior, the results of which are laid down iu the tables above. 
The experiments were directed particularly to those modifications 
which the malt undergoes at different temperatures with respect 
to water content, diastatic power, sugar content in extract of 
worts, color of worts, time of saccharification, and condition of 
endosperm. 

The conclusions are as follows: 

MOISTURE. 

The water content diminishes steadily with the temperature. 

DIASTATIC POWER. 

The diastatic power decreases materially at such low tempera- 
tures as 45 ** and 50° R. (133° and 144.5° F). but the decrease 
at these temperatures remained equal. It follows that when the 
temperature of the malt on the kiln has reached 45^ R. (133° F.) 
the diastatic power does not suffer by a further advance up to 
50** R. (144.5* F.). This is true, however, only if the water con- 
tent does not exceed 8 to 9 per cent when this temperature sets 
in. and if the kiln floor does not have a higher temperature, for 
t/ie succeeding sample which had been heated at 55° R. (156° P.) 
shows a further diminution of diaslauc povj^i o\ \ia ^^ ^q.ycv- 



MALTING OPERATIONS. 



623 



DfFLUENCE OF 



DRYING TEMPERATURES ON PROPERTIES OF >«ALT 

(prior) . — Continued. 



45« 
6.15 
80.0 
85.2 
8mln. 
74.82 
1:0.34 
0.25 



60« 
5.80 
fO.O 
85.0 
lOmin. 
74.68 
1:0.84 
0.25 



2.20 
48.8 



2.55 
40.0 



^50 


60*> 


f5« 


70«» 


75" 


4.41 


4.31 


3.88 


8.17 


2.86 


09.44 


60.44 


68.(i0 


45.67 


26.77 


72. « 


72.6 


66.5 


47.2 


26.4 


10 mln. 


10 mln. 


12ixiin 


13 mln. 


20min. 


72.88 


70.62 


60.f6 


68.5Q 


63.86 


1:0.37 


1:0.42 


1:0.44 


1:0.46 


1:0.57 


0.3 


0.8 


0.4 


0.5 


1.75 


0.5 


1.0 


2.5 


7.5 

• 


20.0 


4.03 


4.13 


4.56 


5.27 


6.08 


61.4 


61.4 


67.5 


^6.8 


107.6 


1.81 


4.07 


5.03 


6.10 


10.83 


0.06 


O.Ob 


0.15 


0.25 


1.5 



SO- 

1.74 

14.81 

15.1 

20 min. 

60.75 

1:0.65 

2.5 

37.0 



. 6.70 
118.0 
13.94 
2.26 



pared with the preceding period. The decrease in malt heated 
to 60® R. (167** F.) is equal once more to that heated to 55** R. 
(156** F.), so that the same is true for these two temperatures as 
for the two preceding ones, with regard to the diastatic power. 

From 60° R. (167" F.) upward the diastatic power dimin- 
ishes every 5 degrees at a rate which increases with the rise of 
temperature and is quite substantial at the temperatures 70**, 
75'' and 80^ R. (189.5°, 201** and 212° F.), amounting finally to 
u8.9^ 

Calculating the diminution of diastatic power per hour of heat- 
ing time, the following values are obtained : 

Temperature 45'' 50** 55** 60° 65** 70"^ 75° 80" 

Diastatic Power 4.1 4.1 5.1 5.1 5.6 7.2 9.0 9.9 

SACCHARIFICATION. 

The time required for saccharification increases in proportion to 
the decrease of the diastatic power. 

MALTOSE in EXTRACT. 

The maltose (sugar) content in the extract remained the same 
in the two samples treated at 45° and 50** R. (133* and 144.5° F.) 
as in malt that was first air-dried at 35° R. (111° F.). But the 
diastatic power having fallen from 134° to 85°, the greatest pos- 
sible sugar production takes place in the mash even at a diastatic 
power of 85° under the prevalent conditions. Hence, it is quite 
iiri material for the amount of sugar formed in the extta.d ^V\^nX\^\. 
the diastatic power is 85° or more. 



624 MALTING OPERATIONS. 

At the succeeding temperatures the maltose content in the cx^ 
tract decreases, the greatest decrease being 13.94 per cent at 80^ 

R. (212** F.). 

The diminution of the maltose content in the extract is not« in 
all probability, to be attributed to the decrease of the diastatic 
power exclusively, since the same diastatic power is observed in 
the samples dried at 55** and at 60** R. (156'' and 167** F.), whereas 
the maltose content in the extract is 2 per cent less at 60* R. 
(167* F.). This is connected with the fact that roasting products 
begin to be formed at 55* and 6o' R. (156* and 167* F.) from the 
carbohydrates of the malt. 

COLOR AND AROlkfA. 

The color of the wort up to 50** R. (144.5® F-) is the same as 
that of worts prepared from malts dried at 35^ and 45** R. 
(Ill** and 133** F.). When 55° and 60^* R. (156** and 167° F.) 
is reached the color begins to deepen, some individual corns 
turning brown, which confirms the observation of Lintner, Sr., 
that roasting products begin to be formed at these temperatures. 
From 65' R. (178** F.) upward the production of roasting prod- 
ucts increases materially. Malt dried for 12 hours at 80" R. 
(212° F.) had acquired a somewhat bitter and enipyreumatic taste. 
It is not advisable, therefore, in practical work, to maintain high 
temperatures too long. 

The best temperature for obtaining aromatic malt, according 
to Prior, is between 65" and 70° R. (178^ and 189.5° F.). It 
seems advisable to prolong the time of kilning at medium tern 
perature of 65° to 70° R. (178° to 189.5° F). to extend tht 
roasting process above 75° R. (201** F.) for not too long a time 
and not exceed 80"^ R. (212* F.) for the final temperature, or 
at least not materially. This proceeding serves to yield enough 
roasting products while the diastatic power of the malt is pre- 
served as far as ncccssar>', and the formation of substances hav- 
ing, and imparting to the beer, an enipyreumatic and bitter taste 
is avoided. 

The malt prepared with a maximum temperature of 50° R. 
1144.5' F.) has been designated as Pilsencr malt, but as it con- 
tains noticeable, though not large, quantities of roasting products 
// approaches more nearly the character of a Wiener malt. Ia 
preparing Bavarian or Munich m^\l vV\t 2a\\\ ^VowX^Xi^ \<i ofeivam 



MALTING OPERATIONS. 625 

the largest practicable amount of roasting products, that is, to 
have a high final temperature of 80^ to 85° R. (212° to 223° F.) 
in the malt, and to take care that the malt while exposed to 
temperatures from 45° to 60** R. (133° to 167** F.) still retains 
sufficient moisture, as the conditions necessary for the formation 
of roasting products exist only in the presence of sufficient 
moisture. 

According to Lintner, the products of torrefaction or roasting 
products, like caramel, are produced from isomaltose, this sub- 
stance, as he supposes, changing with quite low temperatures 
(51** R. = about 147** F.), and forming aromatic substances of a 
dark color (caramel). Since it has not been possible, however, to 
detect isomaltose among the products of starch inversions, this 
hypothesis must be dropped. According to Prior, it is more prob- 
able that levulose furnishes the caramel, inasmuch as levulose is 
a constituent of green malt and caramelizes readily, especially in 
the presence of moisture and acids. Levulose also caramelizes at 
higher temperatures in a dry state. 

F. R. Czcrny found ("Allg. Brauer u. Hopfen-Ztg.," 1893, 
p. 1059) that malts with particularly well developed acrospire are 
rich in torrefaction products if they are treated accordingly in the 
kiln, i. e., if they are subjected to higher temperatures in the 
presence of proper amounts of moisture. 

'During malting much acidity develops. Prior determined the 
amounts of volatile and fixed organic acids, as well as the 
primary phosphates formed during malting in a Bavarian barley. 
The total phosphates were also determined. (See table, page 626.) 

From these results it appears : 

In green malt two days on the floor (Brechhaufen) the acidity 
has somewhat increased, the volatile acids either remain the same 
— for Bohemian barley — or increase slightly — for Bavarian barley. 
The fixed organic acids show a decrease, while the primary phos- 
phates show an increase in about the same measure as the fixed 
organic acids diminish. 

From the second to the fourth day the total acidity is increased 
in a high degree on account of the formation of acid phosphates, 
while the amount of volatile acids remains lV\c ?»^vcve.. ^\ovcv. "C^^ 
fourth day to the sixth, the total acidity ol \.V\e^ ^T^<ix\ tv\'3\^ V^onxv 

40 



HALTING OPERATIONS. 





1 




-i 










•i 


zsssei^ 








-j 


BgasssS 








-s 


IPlii 


IHlli 




1 


pMlmiS 








-rti^a 








" 




s 


-J 








i 


"t 




i i 


•i 






i ■ 3 

s 
a 1 


-.fan mi 


sasssil 











MALTING OPERATIONS. 627 

tie Bohemian barley increased somewhat, while that of a Bavarian 
barley diminished slightly. This difference may be due to a differ- 
ence in the treatment, especially in the temperatures. From the 
sixth to the eighth day a slight decrease of total acidity is noted 
for both cases. The same is true of the volatile acids, while the 
fixed organic acids show a decrease on account of the chemical 
interaction with the phosphates in consequence of which a larger 
amount of primary phosphates were formed. 

The acidity of the sprouts is much greater than that of the 
corns. Prior gives the following table on this subject : 

ACIDITY OF MALT IN KILN (pRIOR). 




Green malt. 

Corns 

Sprouts 



44.23 p. 
39 24 p. 
fti.07 p. 



c. 
c. 
c. 



Total 
Acidity. 



Volatile 
Acids. 



31.75 p. c. ; 3.2R p. c. 
)l2.)ifi p. c. j 2.75 p. c. 
40.00 p. c. ! 6.*S p. c 



Fixed 

Organic 

Acids. 



Calculated on dry matter: 



Green malt. 

Corns 

Sprouts 



56.02 p. c. 

48.14 p c. 

106.46 p.c. 



fi.83 p. c. 

f>.3S p.c. 

16.18 p.c. 



6.75 p. c. 

5.75 p. c. 

12.50 p. c. 



12.10 p.c. 

0.46 p. c. 

32.06 p. C. 



Primary 

Pho- 

phaes. 



23.2S p. c. 
21.00 p. c. 
25.00 p. C. 



41.68 p. c. 
3 1.56 p. c. 
85.91 p. c. 



During the air-drying of the malt (Schwelken) the acidity in- 
creases by the formation of fixed organic acids and primary phos- 
phates, while the volatile organic acids diminish somewhat by 
volatilization with water vapors, thus proving that the physiologi- 
cal processes, which take place during germination of the malt, 
continue during the air-drying process. These changes can be 
seen from the following: 

Green Malt. Air-Dried Malt. 

Water 42.00 p.c. 8.44 p. c. 

Redufint; sugars 7.31 '* 12.58 " 

Fermenting capacity 51.55 " 122.7 

Calculated on dry matter: 

Reducing sugars 12.5^ " 13.74 " 

Fermenting capacity 88.88 *' 134.00 " 



The acidity of malt during the kilning period has also been 
studied by Prior and is shown in the table, ow w^yA. \v"aj^si. 



628 MALTING OPERATIONS. 

CHANGES OF ACIDITY IN AIR-DRIED MALT (FRIOR). 



Water 

Toul acidity 

Volatile acids 

Fixed organic acids. . 
Primary phosphates. 
Corresponding P2O5.. 
ToUlPjOj. 



Green Malt. 



Bavarian 
Uarley. 



43.83 p. c. 
37.75 CO. 

S.68 ** 

4.38 " 
3S30 ** 

0.*»g. 

0.&S4 " 



Bohemian 
Barley. 



43.47 p.c. 
Si.OOcc. 

2.M •• 

3.38 '* 
».&0 •' 

O.20O5g. 

0.480 ** 



Air-dried Malt. 



Rantrian 
Barley. 



17.39 p.c. 
68.00 c.c 

3.50 '• 

7.7.i " 
CO.iVO *• 

0.4i96ir. 

0.810 " 



Bohemian 
Karley. 



1 1 . 15 ]> c. 
63.00 c c. 

3.60 •• 

8.75 '• 
52.25 •• 

0.371 g. 

0.78i '• 



Amount of o.i normal soda solution required for 100 g. dry mat- 
ter: 

Total acidity 

Volatile acldi 

Fixed organic acids 

Primary phosphates 

Corresponding P2O5 

Total P/O;, 



66. 4 j c.c. 

4.63 " 

7.71 " 
86.80 ** 

0.403 r. 

0.911 *' 



02.3^ C.C. 

4.68 •' 

6.20 " 
54.10 ** 

0.384 g. 

0.860 ** 



82.31 C.C. 

4.24 •* 

9.38 '• 
73.24 •• 

0.9c»)g. 

0.903 * 



70.91 C.c. 

3.91 '• 

9.85 •• 
58.81 •• 

0.418 «. 

0.880 '• 



ACIDITY OF MALT ON KILN (PRIOR). 



Bavarian Barley. 



Boliemian Barlcv 



N umber of c.c. 0.1 normal 
soda solution per 100 g. 



Water J 

Totalacidtty < 

Volatile aclJ i 

Fixed organic acid 

Primary phosphate I 

Corresponding P> 05 ' 

Total 1*2 (Hquaniilalively 

N umber of c.c. 1 normal s<>da 
solution per 100 ^. dry aatter. 

Total acldltv 

Voiatlle acids 

Fixed organic acids 

Primary phosphate 

Corres|x>nding P:>():i 

Total l*j 0% quafitiiativclv ... 



■o 


C i 


4> 


-0 


-Dr 

alt. 


eS • • 


< 


s25 


17.39 


3.81 ! 


68 00 


79.5 1 


3.50 


5.0 


7.16 


10.0 


605 


66.5 


0.4296 


04722 


819 


0805 


82 31 


82.55 


4 24 


5.19 


938 


10.38 1 


7S.t4 


OD.OI 


0.5iO 


0.400 


0.i«(l3 


OK** 






2.91 
78 5 

4.25 

9 5 
67.8 

0.4810 

0883 



80 85 
4.38 
9.78 

69 78 
0.4» 
0.8H9 



,11.15 
63.00 
. 3.50 
i 8 76 
52.25 
0.371 
0.782 



,70.91 

3.94 

; 9.8> 

'5H.81 

C.IIH 

880 



368 

72.50 

3 7.i 

8..T0 

'64.00 

; 0.4n4 

I 0901 



75 27 
3.75 

, 8.82 

U472 
. 0.9;V) 



as 

I *-^ ^ 

2.19 
73.00 

1.25 

825 
63.7.^ 

4.53 

; 0.8><5 



74.03 
4 35 
8.43 

6.M8 
0.4f5:< 
0.90> 



The acidity of the malt from Bavarian barley taken from the 
kiln at 50° R. (144.5^ t'-) J'<i ""^t cliange during kihi-drying. On 
the other hand, there sccuis to be an increase in the amount of 
fixed organic acids and a corresponding decrease in the amount of 
primary phosphates. In tlic malt from Bohemian ])arley there is 
nn undoubted increase in tlie total acidity produced by the gcn- 
emt/on (yf primary phosphates in consequence of tlie formation of 
Ulxcd ortr;inic acids. These dirtcrcuces caw \k <i^v\a\\\vi^ N^n vUq 



, MALTING OPERATIONS. 629 

fact that the formatioa of acids is dependent, in a measure, on the 
amounts of moisture at different temperatures until 50* R. (144.5' 
F.) is reached, so that malt need only be held a little longer in 
a moist condition at 40** R. (122° F.). the optimum temperature 
for the lactic acid ferment. The malt dried according to the 
Bavarian system contains, therefore, a somewhat lower acidity 
than the other, which shows that at temperatures above 50' R. 
(144.5° F.) acid formation is checked, and that the generation of 
acids in malt is a consequence of the activity of the acid bacteria 
in the grown malt. 

LOSSES AND GAINS IN STORING AND MALTING 

BARLEY. 

Aside from such losses as are due to accidental causes, like 
the depredations of animals and insects (rats and weevils, for 
instance) the weight and volume of barley undergo certain 
changes during storage and malting which vary according to 
circumstances. These changes in weight and in volume, with the 
exception of those due to the removal of extraneous matter in 
cleaning, stand in very little relation to one another, since there 
may be a large loss in substance without a corresponding loss 
in volume during storage and malting. 

LOSS THROUGH EVAPORATION. 

The freshly harvested barley loses quite a large amount of 
moisture after being brought into the storage rooms and bins, 
its weight decreasing according to the percentage of moisture in 
the barley and atmospheric conditions as to dampness and tem- 
perature. The loss in weight may be as high as 5 per cent in a 
few weeks, when the barley contains a high percentage of moist- 
ure and is stored in a dry and warm room, while a comparatively 
dry barley may, on the other hand, increase in weight in a 
humid, warm atmosphere. 

LOSS OF SUBSTANCE. 

During storage there is also a constant loss due to giving off 
carbonic acid, indicating a process of respiration going on in the 
corn, and the amount of starch and of albuminoids is conse- 
quently diminished. 

This respiration is accompanied by the development of heat 
in cf)nsequcncc of which the tempcralvut o\ VVe. X^^SlxV^ \vt»^^ •^^ 
times to such an extent as scrious\y to \T\\w\e \\ve. \s^x\«^ ■ "^^^^^ 



630 MALTING OPERATIONS. 

fore, the barley must be watched and cooled by turning or mov- 
ing if a rise in temperature is noticed. The more moisture the 
barley contains (freshly harvested barley, for instance) the 
quicker will the temperature rise, the oftener must the heap be 
turned. 

Barley loses its germinability gradually during storage, .and 
the loss in this respect is the more rapid, the more moisture the 
barley contains. Under ordinary circumstances 5 to 10 per cent 
of the germs will cease to develop after one year's storage of the 
barley, and after about five years all the germs have lost their 
vitality. If barley is dried, however, so that the moisture is 
reduced to about 10 per cent, the germs are not so readily aJF- 
fected. 

According to Haberlandt (Thausing. 1898. page 337) the per- 
centages of germs of barley containing various amounts of moist- 
ure, that germinated after different storage periods, arc as fol- 
lows: 

Per cent of Per cent of moisture Period of 

germs grown. in barley. storage. 

91 per cent 12.08 per cent 2 years. 

22 per cent 12.08 per cent 7 years. 

96 per cent 9.06 per cent 2 years. 

86 per cent 9.06 per cent 7 years. 

The changes in volume, due to storage of barley, do not 
fluctuate so much as those in weight, some American niallstcrs 
finding them to amount to less than i per cent, others regarding 
them as entirely insignificant. 

In Germany the losses in volume are regularly determined in 
some localities. According to observations of Prussian grain in- 
spectors this loss amounts: During the first tliree months after 
harvesting to 1.3 per cent: second. 0.9 per cent: third. 0.5 per 
cent: fourth, 0.3 per cent; and may be figured nt ^4 per cent for 
each succeeding year (Thausing. 189S). 

SHRINKAGE OF IIARLKV VVK TO ClSASlSr,. 

Acc< Tiling to inf<Tniation furnished by .\nierioan nialfng 
plants "perating on a large scale, the shrinkairo. or losses, due 
fo the rcmovaJ of foreign matter, hrokeu or und.r-i/td c-^rns. 
'•v.. f/irrinfr prcJiniiiury cleaning by b\o\vcT ?i\v\ sVwvt. -.wwAww^iCi 






MALTING OPERATIONS. 63 1 



fto the following percentages, dependent upon the quality and 

kind of the barley: 

1899. 1900. 

Dakota barley No. 2 2 per cent 4 per cent 

Canada barley No. i i per cent 3 per cent 

Canada barley No. 2 2 per cent 4 per cent 

Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa No. 1 i per cent 3 per cent 

Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa No. 2.... 2 per cent 4 per cent 

Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa No 3 4 per cent 6 per cent 

The loss in final cleaning and grading by blower and needle 
machine amounted to 5 per cent in 1900 barley, while 1899 barley 
gave only 3% to 4 per cent. 

The loss in skimming was: 

1899. 1900. 

Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa No. i . . . . 2 per cent 3 per cent 

Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa No. 2 3 per cent 5 per cent 

Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa No. 3. . . . 5 per cent 7 per cent 

The barley crop of 1900 was abnormally poor in quality, uhile 
the crop of 1899 is to be considered as normal. 

Average total shrinkage for 1900: 

Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa No. i 10 per cent 

Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa No. 2 15 per cent 

Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa No. 3 17 per cent 

For valuable information due to extensive tests made on 
American soil in this line, the brewing trade is indebted to 
C. Birkhofer. In order to ascertain the exact loss in weight 
entailed during the operations of cleaning, skimming, steeping, 
germinating, kiln-drying and finally of cleaning the malt. Mr. 
Birkhofer experimented with three kinds of barley, differing 
largely from each other in quality, arriving at the following re- 
sults : 

Thirty-eight thousand six hundred and fifty pounds (38,650) of 
heavy Wisconsin Scotch barley of excellent quality, 55 pounds 
bushel -weight and 10 per cent moisture, furnished 32.785 pounds 
of sprout-free malt, with 3 per cent of moisture. Consequently 100 
pounds of barley would yield 84.8 pounds sprout-free, kiln dried 
malt. The ungerminated kernels amounted to about 2 per cent. 
The total loss amounted to 5,865 pounds = 15.2 per cent, which 
was distributed as follows: 



632 MALTING OPERATIONS. 

Loss in cleaning 200 ix>unds 0.52 per cent 

Skimmings 50 pounds 0.13 per cent 

Sprouts 1,100 pounds 2.87 per cent 

Moisture 2,757 pounds 7. i per cent 

4.107 pounds 10.62 per cent 

The difference betiiveen the total loss and the above summary 
is equal to 5,865 — 4.107 = 1,758 pounds, or 4.6 per cent. This 
figure represents the loss in weight of the barley through ex- 
traction of substance during steeping and by exhalation of 
gaseous products during germination (carbonic acid). The 
absorption of moisture by the fresh kiln-dry malt during two 
months* storage amounted to 3 per cent. A hundred parts of 
barley, consequently, furnished 84.8 + 2.5 = 87.3 per cent of 
stored malt with 6 per cent moisture. 

From 132,900 pounds No. 3 (Chicago grading) Minnesota bar- 
ley with a bushel-weight of 50.5 pounds and 11 per cent nioi?lure 
there were obtained 104,200 pounds sprout-free, kiln-dried malt 
with 3 per cent moisture. Consequently 100 pounds of barley 
would give 78.4 kiln-dried malt. The number of ungerminated 
grains amounted to 5 per cent. The total loss of substance 
reached 28,700 pounds = 21.6 per cent, and was distributed 
among the different stages as follows: 

Loss during cleaning 1.730 pounds 1.3 per cent 

Skimmings 3.720 pounds 2.8 per cent 

Sprouts 3.854 pounds 2.9 per cent 

Moisture 10,893 pounds 8.0 per cent 

20.197 pounds 15 per cent 

The loss in steeping and germination (exhalation of carhoiiic 
acid) was 8,503 pounds = 6.35 per cent. The absorption of moist- 
ure during two months' storage amounted to 3 per cent. Conse- 
quently 100 parts of barley gave 78.4 -\- 2.4 = 80.8 parts of stored 
malt with 6 per cent moisture. 

A lot of 71.700 pounds No. 4 Dakota barley, very light in 

weight, considerably damaged by rain, with a busliol weiglit of 

47 pounds, and 11 per cent moisture, furnished 54.0S0 pounds 

kiln-dry malt with 3 per cent moisture. Consequently lOO parts 

of barley furnished 75.4 parts of sprout- free, kiln-dry malt. The 

un^cnninated grains were 8 per cenl. TW XvAvvX \oss v.A vv\v 



MALTING OPERATIONS. 



633 



, Stance amounted to 17,620 pounds = 24.6 per cent, and was dis- 
tributed as follows: 

Loss in cleaning 1,716 pounds 

Skimmings 3,206 pounds 

Sprouts 2,294 pounds 

Moisture 5,535 pounds 



2.40 per cent 
4.47 per cent 
3.20 per cent 
7.70 per cent 



12,751 pounds 17.77 per cent 
Loss in steeping and germinating. 4,869 pounds 6.8 percent 
Consequently 100 parts of barley furnished 75.4 + 2.6 = 78 
parts of stored malt with 6.3 per cent moisture. In nine experi- 
ments recorded by the same author the following maxima and 

minima were determined: 

Maximum. 

Bushel weight of barley in pounds 55 

Bushel weight of kiln-dry malt in pounds. 37 

Weight of sprouts from 100 pounds 

barley in pounds 3.2 

Loss of cleaning and skimming from 100 

pounds of barley 6.9 

Loss in steeping and germinating 6.8 

Total loss of substance 24.6 

Barley used for the production of 100 

pounds kiln-dry malt 1330 

Barley used for the production of 100 

pounds stored malt 128.0 

The following table will show at a glance the differentiation of 
barley and malt, according to the above tests : 



Minimum. 
46.5 
32.5 

2.8 

0.65 
4.6 

15-2 
1 18.0 

114.0 



COMPARISON OF BARLEY AND MALT. 



BuHJu'lwcik'lit 

Length of radicles 

Kernels not ^?ro\vn 

Lengrh of acrosplre 

Amount of nioistiire In malt from kiln 

Loss In cleanlniT 

Loss In sktmmlny 

LosR in sprouts 

Loss of ex t ract us food for germs 

LoHs on kiln, moisture 

From lOu Ins. of liarlev \vas obtained malt 

fresh from kiln with 3,' moisture.. 
Sfalt after 2 months stornee Q'i, moisture . 



Wisconsin 
Scotch 
Iiarlej\ 



55 llM*. 

W 
2 



r,' 



^4 






3 

0.52 ', 
0.13 
2.87 'i 
4.« r 
7.1 T 



t' 



HA C»\V>%, 



Minnesota. 
No. 3. 



50 5 

W 
5 

3 
1.3 

2.8 
2.9 
«.35 
«.0 



lbs. 



r' 

,u 
rf 



\ 



\ 






Dakota. 
No. 4. 

47 lbs. 

r-4 ':■■ 

h % 
3 

2.4 ' 
4 47 : 
3.2 '. 

7.7 ■:: 

Its .^\\V«.- 



634 MALTING OPERATIONS. 

MALT INCREASE. 

Barley and malt arc bought and sold in America by Height, 
but in terms of bushels — a bushel of barley agreed to 
represent 48 pounds, a bushel of unclcaned malt, 34 
pounds, a bushel of cleaned malt, 3s pounds. Since 
the loss in weight from cleaned barley to malt does not 
amount to so much as the difference between the bushel -weight 
of .barley and that of malt, the maltster obtains a greater number 
of bushels of malt than he has put bushels of barley into his 
steeping tank. Thus 38.450 pounds of Wisconsin barley cleaned, 
or 58,450 ^ 48 = 801 bushels, yielded 32,785 pounds, or 32.785 -=- 
33 = 993% bushels of malt fresh from the kiln, germ-free, which 
represents an increase of 993% — 801 or 190% bushels, or 190^ 
X 100 -:- 801 per cent = 24 per cent. 

This w^as an exceptionally heavy barley with little loss in 
skimmings. Ordinarily, the increase is much less. In case of the 
Minnesota barley the figures would be as follows: 

One hundred and thirty-one thousand one hundred and seventy 
(131,170) pounds cleaned No. 3 (Chicago grading) Minnesota 
barley or 131,170 -^ 48 = 2,732 bushels gave 104.200 pounds, or 
104,200 -^ 33 = 3.157-6 bushels of malt fresh from kiln and germ- 
free, an increase of 3.157.6 — 2.732 = 425.6 bushels, or 425.6 X 
100 -4- 2.769 rr 15^! per cent, which increase may he considered 
the average. 

From figures obtained in malting establishnientN operating on a 
large scale the increase was found to be for : 

1890. 1 000. 

Dakota barley No. 2 18 — 19 per cent per cent 

Canada No. i 19 — 20 per cent per cent 

Wisconsin No. i, Minnesota 

No. I. Iowa Nt). I.... 17 — 18 per cent 15 — 16 per cent 
Wisconsin No. 2. Minnesota 

No. 2, Iowa No. J.... 15 — 16 per cent 14 — 15 per cent 
Wisconsin No. ;\, Minnesota 

No. 3. low a No. 3 14 — 15 per cent 12 — i.^ per cent 

Tlic increase becomes still preaier it the wei£rht of the 

finished malt i^ compared with tlie malt that actually undergoes 

t/ic rn.i]tinff process, that i>. deducting the weight of the skim- 

niing> from the cleaned barley. utu\ '\l x\w W\\vin '\s <:«^>w\'^2LTed 



MALTING OPERATIONS. 635 

jiHth stored malt after it has taken up some moisture. Generally 
speaking the increase is greater for two-row than for six-row 
barley; larger for a better grade of barley; larger for a poorly- 
grown than for a well-grown malt; larger after storing, and 
larger ior a poorly stored than for a well stored malt, and the 
amount of increase is really without much significance on the 
whole. 

LOSS IN VALUE THROUGH ABSORPTION OF MOISTUKE. 

When malt is poorly stored the brewer, since he buys the malt 
by weight, and pays for the moisture the malt absorbs during 
storage, is the loser. One hundred pounds of malt will yield the 
smaller an amount of extract or wort of a certain gravity, the 
larger is the amount of moisture it contains. It is apparent that 
when 100 pounds of malt have absorbed 3 pounds of moisture 
it will take just 103 pounds of malt to get the same amount of 
extract or wort as before. For a brew of 100 barrels, for which, 
say 5,000 pounds of malt is employed, this would mean a loss 
for the brewer of (5,000 -r- 100) X 3 = 150 pounds, or over 
four bushels of malt. 

. The malt will always take up moisture in transit, and conse- 
quently the brewer should receive a larger amount of nialt in 
weight than was consigned to him. 

LOSSE.S AND GAINS IN MALTING IN GERMANY. 

It will be quite instructive to compare the data about American 
barley and malt >Vith results obtained by German observers con- 
cerning German malt and barley. Thausing, for instance, states 
that the loss by germination is quite uniform, amounting to 
about 8.5 per cent on an average (C. Birkhofcr's results give an 
average of about 8.9 per cent), from which about 3 per cent have 
to be deducted for the formation of sprouts (C. Birkhofcr's 
average being 2.99 per cent), and about 5.5 per cent are con- 
sumed in germination (C. Birkhofer does not specify this loss 
in each case separately). Other elements determining the total 
loss, for instance, the quantity of moisture and foreign admix- 
tures, vary considerably, according to the origin of the barley and 
other conditions. Well cleaned barley with 86 per cent of dry 
substance furnishes for each 100 pounds of barley. 

Well steeped barley \\v .\ ^ci>^vA'^ 

Green mult \:j,^.'2.\>^vv^^^ 



636 



MALTING OPERATIONS. 



Malt and sprouts (dry substance) 79.7 pounds 

Fresh malt (germs included) 81.3 pounds 

Sprouts 4.0 pounds 

Dry substance of malt 75.0 pounds 

Fresh degerminated malt with 2 per cent moisture. 77.3 pounds 

Stored malt with 5 per cent moisture 79.5 pounds 

Twelve per cent of the original weight of the dry barley sub- 
stance was lost, namely, in steeping 1.5 per cent, substances gasified 
during germination 6 per cent, sprouts 4.5 per cent. Following 
are results of actual, very numerous observations in German 
malt houses on air-dry barley. One hundred parts of cleaned 
barley will give: 

From 
Loss from skimmings. ... 0.8 per ct. 

Well steeped barley i35-0 per ct. 

Green malt (fresh) 1350 per ct. 

Kiln-dry malt freshly 

cleaned 73.0 per ct. 

Stored malt 75.0 per ct. 

Sprouts 3.5 per ct. 

Allowance, of course, must be made for the difference in the 
quality of the barley. As a rule, however, the diflference be- 
tween the weight of the barley and the malt is the greater, the 
larger the growth of malt on the floor proved to be. For fresh 
kiln-dried cleaned malt it amounts to 23 to 25 per cent, and 
stored malt 21 to 23 per cent of the weight of the barley. 

E. L. Hartniann detemiining the changes in weight and vol- 
ume that German barley undergoes in the malting process, arrived 
at the following results, based upon years of practical experience 
(Zeitschrift f. d. ges. Brauwesen, 1895, p. 148) : 



To 
2.0 per ct. 
160.0 per ct. 
148.0 per ct. 

78.0 per ct. 

80,0 per ct. 

4.8 per ct. 



Average. 

1.2 per ct. 
148.0 per ct. 
140.0 per ct. 

76.0 per ct. 

78.0 per ct. 

4.0 per ct. 



Cn.\NCE.S IN GERM.^N n.\Rl.F,V BY MALTING. 



Maximum 



Welphl. ! Volume. 



I 



Barlov charged 

into sleep 100. 1 100. 

Sieei»e(l barlev . . . . 162.21 ItOAi 

Green malt...* LSI 73 • 268. .S7 

Polished k iln-. 

dried malt ft\l4 108.51 [ 

MmJt sprouts 4.76 2\.hO \ 



Minimum 


A vorago 


Weight. 


Volume. 


Weluiit Volume. 


100. 
133.08 


ICO. 
122 .^3 
•JOO.OO 


uxv mo. 

MX 7S Hr>. 49 
133 43 227.44 


72.05 


V«.40 


76 57 101 .32 
3 63 i;<.06 



MALTING OPERATIONS. 637 

Prior fotind by similar tests that the loss in weight from bar- 
ley to kiln-dried malt (Bavarian) amounts to 26.2 to 30.5 per 
cent (Bayerisches Brauer journal, III, p. 157). 

Schtitt found that during a 9 days' germinating period for Ger- 
man malt, 100 parts of malt, figured on a dry basis, generated 
lap parts of carbonic acid by weight, which was obtained from 
6.7 parts of starch (Wochenschrift f. Brauerei, 1887. p. 673). 
At the same time 3.7 parts by weight of water was formed from 
which results Thausing computes that 0.4 parts of fat and 6.0 
parts of starch were consumed. The heat produced during this 
period amounted to 285.40 calories or heat units. 

changes in composition of wort from malt after seven 

months' storage (aubry). 

Fresh. Stored. 

! Extract 77.91 77.72 

Maltose 64.83 60.07 

Nitrogen 0.«3 q.489 

or Albumen , 3.90 3.06 

( Maltoge eo.88 64.44 

Tn ovtrsi/*» ) NUiogen 0.800 0.630 

in exinici < Or Albumen ."S.OO 

( Maltose to Non- Maltose = 1 to 0.42 0.55 

INSECT PESTS IN GRANARIES. 

Tlic increased facilities of exchange of products between the 
different parts of the globe, made possible by rapid transporta- 
tion, have not been without drawbacks. The English sparrow 
in the United Stales, and the rabbit in Australia are not the only 
examples of unfortunate exchanges between different countries. 
Less obtrusive but capable of doing an iinmcnse harm to vegeta- 
tion is the insect-pest which commerce has carried, with grain 
and other food-products, to all parts of the globe. Most of these 
insects, which are found indoors in the northern part of the 
United States, arc natives of tropical countries and do not, there- 
fore, thrive so well in the colder climate. . It is in the southern 
states, where they have found a new and congenial home, that 
they do the greatest harm outdoors while in the northern states 
they become especially dangerous to the grain in the granaries or 
elevators. 

The damage done by insects to stored grain in Texas alone 
has been estimated at over a million dollars a year, and in Ala- 
bama in 1873 the loss to the corn crop was esiimated at $1,071,- 
382, or about 10 per cent, according lo A.ss\?>X;slV\\. '^wN.ovcvOv^^^'^v 



638 MALTING OPERATIONS. 

Cliittenden in "Some Insects Injurious to Grain," U. S. Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, Farmers* Bulletin No. 45, which has been 
our main source of information. 

The different grains offer more or less resistance to the attack 
of the insects, the softer ones naturally falling an easier prey to 
the ravages than the hard flinty ones; unhusked oats are almost 
exempt, whereas the hull of barley offers but little resistance. 

Heat and dampness are highly favorable to insect life, but the 
idea that such conditions will produce insects is wrong, and each 
individual insect owes its existence to an egg deposited in the 
grain. 

A large number of insects in a heap of grain sometimes cause 
a rise of temperature, probably on account of chemical changes 
in the excreted matter. 

The grain-damaging insects may, for our purpose, be divided 
into two classes, namely: 

Class I. — Such insects as attack whole grain. 

The most important of these are : 

The Granary Weevil; 

The Rice IVcevil, and 

The Grain Moths. 

Class II. — Such insects as attack grain products and are there- 
fore commonly found in flour mills, but may also be dangerous to 
whole grain. 

The most dangerous of these arc: 

The Mediterranean Flour Moth. 

The Indian Meal Moth. 

The Confused Flour Beetle. 

The Saw-toothed Grain Beetle. 

Tlie Cadelle. 

ILASS I. — INSECTS THAT ATTACK THE WHOLE CHAIN. 

Weevils are a very large group of beetles. Thoy are ea^ily 
distinguislied by their peculiarly shaped head, which i> exteiuJed 
into a long snout, toward the end of which the short, usually 
elbowed, antennie project on each side. Most insects which feed 
on stored grain are called weevils, but the only true weevils of 
the granary arc the two mentioned ab^ive : the granary weevil 
3n<} the lice weevil. In appearance they rcsenibk- each other very 

/IJUCjj. 



HALTING OPERATIONS. 



'>i'j 



The illustrations show rhc insects enlarged, llic aclnal size !»'■ 
ing indicated by lines accompanying ttic figures. 

Granary Weevil (Calandra sranaria). — This old enemy of 
stored grain has from time immemorial led an easy liEe and in 
consequence lost the use of its wings. When fully deve1u[ivd il 
measures from one-eighth to one-sixth of an inch, and is of a 
bright chestnut hrown color. The larva: are short, iiesliy, legless 
grubs, shorter than the adults, with a series of tnhercles along 
each side of the body; the head is round with strong jaws {see 




PiK- ' 

Fig. l). The pupa is white, clear and trans pa rent, sliowini; the 
fonns of the future beetle. 

The female bores a hole in the grain wiili her snout and de- 
posits an egg, Tiie larva, when hatched, livi's iiu tlie coutcnls of 
the kernel and undergoes its changes within the hull. 

The lime re'iuircd fur the change from egg I'l fully developed 
beetle delleml-; mi the temperature. In the northern slLites there 
may be Umr t.. five Kencralions. and in tlie ^.luili six in sevt-ii. or 
even more. ;iiid one pair luaj in oui; ',^;-,\'i v't^'i^'"^'^ vsSf« 



6t40 



MALTING OPERATIONS. 



Barley as well as wheat maize and other grains are attacked 
by this beetle. 

Rice Weevil {Calandra orysae). — As its name indicates it was 
first found in rice, and is supposed to have come from India. It 
is found in every state, but is of small importance in the north. 
In size and appearance it is similar to the granary weevil, but its 
color is more of a dull brown, with four faint red spots on the 
wing cases, has well developed wings and can fly. The rice wee- 
vil is therefore often found in the field. It feeds on rice, wheat, 
maize, barley, rye, hulled oats, and when abundant attacks also 
barrels of flour and bags of meal. 

Grain Moths (Sitoiroga ccrcalcUa). — ^Thi Angoumois Grain 




Fir. 2 — Sit0tr0ga ceretxltlla : **. eg s; A. larva ax woik; «. laiva. siJt- vitw. if, 

pupa; (, inoth;yi same, side view d ngiiial). 

Moth (so-called from the province of Angoumois in France), or 
the Fly Weevil, as it is incorrectly called in this country, has 
spread from North Carolina and Virginia into the soutb.ern 
states, where its ravages are enormous. It is also found in the 
southern part of the northern states. Though not so widely dis- 
tributed as the weevils, it threatens to become an even more 
serious danger. It infests all cereals, and it has been estimated 
that grain infected by this moth may lose 40 per cent in weight 
and 75 per cent of its mealy matter. 
The aduh insect resembles to a great extent a clothes moth. 
/s of grayi<li brown color, slightly spoUcd \\\v\\ XA^^cV, -^Lwd wvi^s- 



MALTING OI'ERATIONS 

itres about half an inch across the expanded fore w ng' 
hind wings are bordered with a long delicate fringe 

The eggs when firsi la d art wl le but soon turn re 
moth depos ts ils eggs in stand ng gra n or in the b n s 
n clusters of 20 to 30 A small grain suffices for one nd 
but in large kernels as of maize may be found tno c 



''4' 




caterpillars in each. An ear of infected pop-corn is shown in 
Fig. 3. In the warm climate of the southern stales as many as 
eight generations may be produced every year. 

CLASS II.— INSECTS THAT ATTACK CHIEFLY CHAIN PRODUCTS. 

Insects that may damage stored grain, but are more frequently 
found in mill products. 

Mediterranean Flour Moth {Ephtstia kvcbnktta) .—1\\\s insect 




is the scourge of the flour mill, and was first noticed in n Hour . 
mill in Germany in the year 1877. England was invaded in 1SS6. 
and three years later the insect had found its way to Canada, 
In I&J2 it was heard from in California and h\ \?«iT, \Vi; «\\\\^ "A 
New York- aiiiJ Pennsylvania were iniecXeA ^i-j W. V\ \.^W.. ^'^ ' 



642 HALTING OPERATIONS. 

rapidly iprtadiiig throoi^Knit Hie avi^ttd worU, and its bold flh> 
Canada indicates that the insect it capable of indoor existence 
in a colder climate than most otiier grain insects. 

The adult moth has a wing-cxpansc of a little leas than an 
inch, the fore-wings are leaden gray with black marking^ the 
hiad-wings are of a dirty white, with a darker border. The 
caterpillars are white and hairy, and spin around them a web 
in the form of a cylinder. When raadjr to andergo its trans- 
fonnalion the gmb leaves its riften boose, and wanders around 
in search of a proper place, spimuDg its wetf all the time, c 
r to felt t 




Although the larva prefers flour or meal it u-ill attack grain, 
bran, prepared cereal foods, etc., in lack of the former. 

Indian Meal Molh (Ptodia interpunclilla^.—lhii insoci is often 
found in mills and stores. It feeds on meal, flour, bran, grain, 
dried fruit, etc. The adult measures across the expanded wings 
from one-half lo ibree-tourths of an inch. The fore-wings are. 
nearest the body, of a dirty gray, the outer t»o-tbirds of a red- 
dish brown. 

Confused Flour B.-clU (Tribolium confusum) .—This beetle is 
nearly of the same size as the grain-weevil with which it is often 
found together. The grown bcetk ;s a\»iit. QttV^vi.t.b of an inch 



MALTING OPERATIONS. 643 

long, brown in color, a'nd flattened. It had long been known 
in Europe, when in the fall oE 1893 it was recognized- in this 
country. In less than two years from its first appearance it had, 
however, been reported from every slate, and caused more com- 
plaints than any other grain-devouring pest. 

Sam-Toathrd Grain Beetle (Silvanus surinamemii),— This bee- 
tle is only one-tenth of an inch long, slender and flat, and of a 
chocolate -brown color. The thorax (the part of body next the 
head) has six saw-like teeth on each side, and two shallow grooves 
on the upper side. 




The larva is almost white, has six legs and is very active, run- 
ning about and nibbling here and there. When ready lo undergo 
its transformation, it builds a covering of small grains or par- 
ticles of food, gluing (hem together with an adhesive substance, 
secreted from its body. There may be four to six generations. 
This grain-beetle is found in nearly all granaries and places 
where edibles are stored. 

Though it usually follows the attack of other insects (especially 
the Indian Meal Moth), it does considerable damage, being 

Caddli: (Teiiebroides mai.ri/omViii),— This beetle is as widely 
distributed as any of (he preceding species, but, happily, it is wA 
so prolitic. producing only one gencta,t\(ii\ aTivvMaSv^j. TVtt's. Vvi. 



MALTI.VC; OPERATIONS. 




been a dispute about the 8f'iin-<^nt'i'p propensities of tliis insect. 
but experitnents by Mr. F, II, Chittcndvn have conclusively proved 
that it feeds upon grain both in the larval and adnli conditions, 
going from kernel to kernel, devouring tlie germ only, and dc- 
ftroying the gTnin for germinating purpose?. Both larva .-ind 
lieetle partly repay ihe damage by de-itroying all other grain in- 
sects that Ihcy < 



Prolific as Hccvils are and in a Hill higher d.-pree lb. 
few individuals of a species would in a year devdop i 
/ess numbers, iiere it not that nature itself checked lln 
"tig grain insects are theniScKes ptejed Mtww t-j <i',\v*;t 



in-ilhs. 



MALTING OPERATIONS. 645 

spiders in the mills, birds and bats in the field are steadily pursu- 
ing them. 

Nor are the grain-feeding insects free from parasitic enemies, 
and a case is known where the Mediterranean Flour Moth was 
destroyed by the introduction of a parasite. Nevertheless, man's 
own ingenuity must take up the fight against the evil, if he de- 
sires to keep it under control. 

Much can be done to prevent the introduction into the granary 
of the insect-pest by harvesting as early as possible, and by letting 
the threshing follow as soon as can be arranged. Many insects 
are killed during the threshing by the agitation of the grain, and 
are blown away with the chaff, but the eggs and larvae concealed 
in the seeds pass through the threshing operation safely. 

Further means of treating the fresh grains are, therefore, nec- 
essary. The appearance of the Mediterranean Flour Moth on the 
Pacific Coast has caused the introduction of a so-called quaran- 
tine bin in which suspected grain can be fumigated. This bin 
should be as air-tight as possible. 

Fresh grain should not be placed in bins holding weeviled grain. 
Before storing the new grain, the bins 'should be thoroughly 
cleaned ; floors, walls, ceilings, brushed and scrubbed ; no refuse 
materials, such as sweepings of grain should be allowed to accu- 
mulate; the floors should be swept frequently, and all rubbish 
burned. The floors, walls and ceilings should be smooth, so as 
not to afford any lurking places for the insects, and a coat of oil 
painting or white-washing gives further security. 

As the "heating" of grain is highly favorable to the develop- 
ment of weevils, no artificial heat should be employed in a grain 
storage building. A cool and dry place, that can be thoroughly 
aired, is the ideal repository of grain. 
• Storage in bulk, and frequent agitation of the grain is destruct- 
ive to moths, as they are unable to extricate themselves from un- 
der a large mass of grain. Against weevils bulking is also of 
value, but stirring would only distribute them more completely. 

A temperature of 125° to 140° F. for a few hours will kill the 
insects in the grain, and kiln-drying at a still lower temperature 
has also been found effective. 

A low temperature is also fatal, and by stirring the grain, or by 
filling the building with steam and then opening the windows aud 
exposing the insects to frost they may \it swcc^s^lv^^ ^^^i-^N. ^\'^. 



646 MALTING OPERATIONS. 

CRBMICAL lOEANS OP OBSnbDyUfG THS INSECTS. 

Many remedies have been proposed, and few have been found 
practical. A most powerful preservative is naphthaline, and 
for seed-stock in air-tight receptacles it is almost perfect. Its 
strong and permanent odOr excludes its use for food products. 

Steam has been successfully used against the flour moth, and 
also for disinfecting bags and machinery in the quarantine box. 
Sulphur alone and sulphur and steam, as well as benzine and 
naphtha have been used, but they have either certain disadvan- 
tages or are not quite effective. 

Bisulphide of carbon has been found the cheapest, simplest and 
most effective insect kiUer.' It is a colorless fluid, highly in- 
flammable, evaporates rapidly at ordinary temperatures, and is 
very poisonous. It may be sprinkled over the grain or, which is 
a more effective way, may be allowed to evaporate from shallow 
dishes or on cotton \vaste in bins that are somewhat air-tight or 
partly made so by being covered with canvas or blankets. The 
fumes being heavier than air, sink through the mass of the grain, 
destroying everything in the form of insects or vermin. 

The quantity of bisulphide heeded depends on the tightness of 
the bins, usually i to 1% pounds is calculated per ton of grain. 
Twenty- four hours fuming is usually sufficient, but even an 
exposure of 36 hours will not impair the germinating power of 
the grain. 

A good time for such a fuming is during daylight on a Satur- 
day afternoon, dosing the doors and windows as tight as possi- 
ble and preventing any one from entering. The fuming should 
begin in the lowest story to escape the effect of the settling gas. 
Next Monday morning the building should be thoroughly aired 
and the grain stirred. 

Though the vapor of the bisulphide is deadly to all forms of 
animal life, a small amount will not produce any evil effect, but 
being highly inflammable no fire or lighted cigar must be brought 
into the building until the fumes have been carried away. 

The bisulphide treatment cannot be used for malt infested by 

insects on account of the offensive odor it would impart. Here 

redrying in kiln would seem to be the most practical mode of 

destruction or. if this is impracticable, fumigating with sulphur 

or chlorine (chloride of lime). 



BREWERY OUTFIT. 



In this chapter is given a general description of the most ap- 
proved arrangement and outfit of a modern American brewery. 
It goes almost without saying that any detailed description of the 
great variety of implements, machines, apparatus and appliances 
that go to make up a modern brewery out/it would not only be 
beyond the design of a pocketbook like the present, but would 
occupy an amount of space that is prohibitory in a work of this 
size. Being confined to general terms, therefore, this chapter 
may not afford a great deal that is new to brewers. In order to 
round out the plan, however, of treating the entire field of the 
brewing industry, it is necessary to give a comprehensive, though 
succinct, review of this branch of the subject, and persons who 
may consult this book in libraries, newspaper offices, scientific in- 
stitutions and similar places, other than breweries or malt-houses, 
u'ill probably find answers to most questions that are likely to 
occur to them in this connection. 

Tables giving accurate relative dimensions and capacities of the 
different vessels will be found in the appendix. 

THE GRAVITY OR TOWER BREWERY. 

When entirely new breweries are built they are arranged on the 
gravity plan. By this is meant that in each department the ma- 
terials or beer are elevated but once to the highest floor of the 
building, from where they fall or flow downward by their own 
weight or gravity from floor to floor as they progress from one 
stage of manufacture to the next. 

• This implies a saving of power and labor by avoiding the 
relifting or repumping usually necessary in older plants that 
have been enlarged from time to time, and where departments 
that should be situated above one another are placed side by side, 
and frequently quite far apart, because the old buildings were 
too weak or the plant too busy to allow proper remodeling. In- 
stances are known where such faulty arrangement has caused as 
much as double the yearly expenditure in some departments for 
power or labor of what would be TC(\u\TtA \s^ "a^ tcv^^^xxv 's^^'^^ ^^ 
equal yearly output, ^^ 

647 



BREWERY OUTFIT. 




HREWERY OUTFIT. 



fi49 



J-^ 




650 BREWERY OUTFIT. 

OBPAKTMBNTS OF A CatAVIty BKEWERY. 

Modern breweries are nsaallT divided into three departments, 
viz.: 

1. The elevator or mill house. 

2. The brew-house and 

3. The cellars. 

Each department operates on a separate gravity plan of trans- 
fer of materials. 

ELBVATOK OR MILL HOUSE. 

In the first department, the malt is elevated to its storage bin or 
hopper, situated on the top floor of the building. This is gener- 
ally done by dumping the malt, if delivered by wagon, down a 
chute or,' if the plant has a malt-house, by conveying the malt 
across from such malt-house by means of a spiral conveyor, and 
in both cases subsequently elevating it to storage bins or hoppers 
by the use of a belt-bucket conveyor. 

By opening a slide in this storage bin the malt is dropped into 
the scale hopper, where the desired quantity is weighed out, and 
then descends through the screening or cleaning reel into the 
malt mill, where it is crushed. In some breweries the malt is 
screened and crushed and then passes into the scale hopper 
where it is weighed and stored until used in brewing. Next it 
drops into the conveyor, thus completing the first stage of 
gravity operation. 

The conveyor elevates the crushed malt to its storage hoppers, 
situated on the top floor of the brew-house. Of these hoppers, one 
is used for malt to go into the cooker, and the other for the malt 
which is to go into the mash tun. These hoppers are sometimes, 
for economy in building construction, placed under the malt mill, 
thus dispensing with the extra story in the brew-house, and the 
crushed malt is, in that case, elevated from these hoppers to the 
ninsliing outfit directly. In this arrangement, however, there is a 
possible drawback, as it necessitates the operation of the elevating 
machinery when mashing begins, for which all other prepara- 
tions are made in advance, and any breakdown of elevating ma- 
chinery, especially in case part of the crushed malt is already in 
the mash tub. might cause considerable inconvenience, delay and 
Joss. With the arrangement first described the crushed tnalt 
IS elevated beforehand, during the day, and once in its hopper, 
-descends by gravity in all the succeeding o^ex^uow^. 



BREWERY OUTFIT. 651 

Raw cereals are sometimes elevated in bulk and stored in a 
hopper next to the malt storage hopper, then weighed in the 
same scale hopper, or in a separate one, and likewise elevrated to 
a separate cereal hopper in the brew-house. Another method, 
however, which is quite frequently used is to hoist the raw cereal 
in the original sacks, either to the mill-house or the brew-house, 
and when wanted, to dump it down a chute leading into the 
cooker. As the sacks arc generally of equal and known weight, 
they are merely counted and the desired amount calculated with- 
out weighing. 

The water used in brewing is pumped into tanks or reservoirs 
situated on the top floor of the brew-house. If there are two 
of these floors above the mash tub, both cold and hot water 
tanks are usually placed upon the top floor, that is, on the floor 
above the cooker, but sometimes the hot water tank is placed on 
the floor below. Where there is only one of these top floors, that 
is, no floor above the cooker, as in the construction above men- 
tioned, both tanks are sometimes placed on this one floor, al- 
though often the cold water tank is placed upon the roof in order 
to give a gravity supply of water to the cooker. 

THE BREW- HOUSE. 

The second gravity stage now commences ; the raw cereal and 
part of the crushed malt from the hoppers, together with water 
from the cold water tank, descend into the cooker, to form the 
cereal mash. From the cooker, the cereal mash again descends 
into the mash tun, where it is added to the malt mash previously 
prepared from the remaining bulk of crushed malt in the hoppers 
and another quantity of water from the tanks. 

The wort from this combined mash then flows by gravity 
into the kettle, the grains falling by gravity into the grain tank 
or wagon. Next the wort flows into the hop-jack, and finally 
into the wort pump, or lowest point in the brew-house. 

THE CELLARS. 

The wort is then pumped to the highest point in the cellars, 
namely, the surface cooler or beer tank, from which it begins 
the third gravity stage, flowing by successive stages of descent 
over the Boudclot cooler into the settling tubs, thence into the 
fermenting tubs and storage tanks, and ^tvaVVj vcv\5i "Cwt Odx'^ 
cnsks from which it is racked oK mto Xx^^^ V'^O^^^t^'i*. 



652 BREWERY OUTFIT. 

BREW-HOUSE OUTFIT. 

WAGON SCALES. 

These are for weighing malt, cereals, etc., in bulk. They are 
generally situated outside of the office of the brewery, the indica- 
tor beam being placed inside. Wagon scales for breweries should 
have a capacity of 8.000 to 10,000 pounds. They should be ex- 
tremely well taken care of, as inaccurate scales sometimes cause 
lengthy disputes and often considerable loss. The platform 
should be kept clean, and no dirt allowed to fall into the 
mechanism below. The balance should be adjusted as often as 
possible, in fact, before each weighing, and its accuracy tested 
from time to time. 

ELEVATORS AND CONVEYORS. 

These are constructed and operated in the same manner as 
those used in the malt-house. (See Malt-House Machinery.) 

MALT STORAGE BINS. 

Malt storage bins are made of either wood or steel. The sizes 
vary with the requirements of different plants up to 10.000 bushels' 
capacity. 

Wooden bins are generally built of square shape, the large ones 
being mostly made of 2 x 6 inch pine boards, laid flat, that is. 
edges out, one on top of the other. 

Steel bins are usually round, and, if very large, are stay-bolted 
to insure rigidity. 

MALT AND CEREAL HOPPERS. 

These are built either of sheet steel or iron (lound or square), 
or of wood (square), and are used mostly where the malt for a 
few brewings only is brought in the brewery. These hoppers 
are provided with a conical bottom so as to insure complete empty- 
ing by gravity. They are closed at the cone bottom by a slide or 
gate, by opening and closing which any desired amount of iiialt 
can be discharged. 

Cereal hoppers are also in general use. alihoup;h the cereal is 
often handled in the original sacks as indicated in the general 
description of brewery arrangement above. 

Scale Hoppers arc built in the same manner as the ordinary 
hoppers, except that the hopper is placed on a >toel truss which 
/s suspended to, and connected with, a weighing attachment so 
//rj/ <iny amount of malt or cereal can be we"\g,\\eA v>\\. 



BREWERY OUTFIT. 



653 



Should someone desire to build hoppers himself, employing 
local mechanics, the following data will afford a basis for calcu- 
lation : • 



Whole malt weighs, average. . 
Crushed malt weighs, average 

Barley 

Grits 

Meal 



Per Bu. 



34-38 IbH 
25-28 lbs. 
48— 5 lbs. 
53—54 lb.. 
48—47 lbs. 



Per Cu. Ft. 

27— ?9 Ibt!. 
20—21 IbF. 
38—10 lb!-. 
42-43 lbs. 
38-37 Ibh. 




Meal Scale Hopper. 

Malt when crushed increases in volume, three bushels of whole 
malt on an average giving four bushels of crushed malt, which 
should be considered in building hoppers. 

For calculating contents of square or round bins with hoppers^ 
see "Mensuration." 



654 BREWERY OUTFIT. 

DUST o)t£acn»& 

In order to collect the malt dust liberated during the handling 
or treatment of malt, dust collectors are used. 

As there b always more or less dust where malt is handled, 
special devices for collecting it are installed. The kind generayy 
in use consists of a central revolving cylinder into which the dust 
is drawn by suction. Around this cylinder and opening into it 
are attached a series of radical tapering cloth tuDes, or sacks, ar- 
ranged in straight parallel rows. As the whole device revolves, 
the dust falls from the cylinder into the sacks, which can be 
removed for the purpose of emptjring or cleaning. 

Caution. — Malt and grain dust is highly explosive when brought 
in contact with a flame. 

MALT fousHnta. 

It is not advisable to polish malt, as polishing removes -too 
much of the hull, thereby reducing the amount of the filtering 
material much needed in the mash tun. 

MALT MILLS. 

The object of the malt mill is to crush the malt for extraction 
in the mash tun. The malt should not be crushed too fine, as 
such treatment will impair the running of the wort. Only smooth 
rollers should be used for crushing, and the hull should be split 
open lengthwise and not torn, as would happen if corrugated 
rollers were used. There should be no whole corns in the 
crushed malt; even the smallest should be split open. 

Most modem malt mills are constructed on the same general 
principle, and consist of two smooth rollers, one driven by a 
belt or chain and the other following by friction of the grains 
between the two. This second roller is adjustable so that the 
space between the rollers can be regulated to suit the degree of 
fineness desired in the crushed malt. Before the malt drops 
between the rollers it runs over or between a series of steel mag- 
nets where tacks, nails, or other particles of iron which might 
damage the surface of the rollers or the mill generally, are re- 
moved. 

Non-Explosive Malt Mills. As. very fine dust. from malt or 
grain explodes readily on ignition, which, in malt mills may occur 
and supplied with a device for safety from explosions. This con* 

3y friction of bearings or by a piece oi flitit or metal passing 
If^wecn the rollers, etc., these miUs ate W\\\. ol ^v^^ ^x^^ '>s.^^ 



BREWERY OUTFIT. 655 

RtructioR, however, does not prevent the possibility of an ex- 
plosion. The term "non- ex plosive" applies to their arrange- 
ment being such as to render any explosion harmless by confining 
it to a certain space in the mill, this space being provided 
with a blow-off spring flap or door which, after the explosion oc- 
curs, doses immediately, smothering the flame that may bum in- 
side, and, with a seal below, practically prevents any flame from 
communicating to the ground malt and bins below. This lower 
seal consists in some styles of a revolving drum or wheel always 

I 




partly filled with crushed mall and acting similarly to a "trap" 
used for liquids. 

Malt mills with wood casing often have a steam extinguishing 
device, the explosion either causing a steam valve to open or 
breaking a connection. In no case are these mills secure. 

In selecting a reel and mill the brewer should see that it has 
such a capacity, guaranteed by the manufacturer, that the amount 
of malt necessary for one brewing will run through in one hour 
without crowding. 



656 



ItRKWLKV OUTFIT. 



WATER TAWKS. 

Water tanks in brew-houses are now made mostly of sheet iroo 
or steel, either round or square in shape. They should be sup- 
plied with liquid volume gauges or "tell-tales" so that the quan- 
tity of water withdrawn can be readily read off, also with a 
thermometer to register the temperature of the water. 

All tanks containing warm or hot water should be well insu- 
lated. (See Insulation.) 

Hot Water Tanks, They are used to supply hot water for . 
doughing-in, mashing up, final mashing, sparging grains and hops, 
and cleaning. 



t 



^ 




Otfrg,er 




I 



tuiQ_D-iro o Q fl Q mro"n o cro ocrfl 



T L 



^ 



WMTcn Ovrt€T 

Hot Water Tank, sectional view. 

The water is heated either by live steam, exhaust steam, or by 
a steam jacket Where the steam is pure, that is, where it im- 
parts no odor or taste to the water due to impurities in the boiler 
water or the use of improper boiler compounds, direct or live 
steam may be used as it is the most rapid and efficient method 
o/ heating water. Heating by exbausl slt^im Ixorcv \V ^x^^mn 



BREWERY OUTFIT. 657 

or pumps in a more economical method, but it is uncertain as to 
regularity of temperature on account of the difference in the 
amount of steam supplied by the machines at different times. 
Exhaust steam should preferably never discharge into the water, 
but enter and leave through a copper coil placed at the bottom 
of the tank. This is on account of its liability to contain lubri- 
cating oil from the cylinders of the machines and giving it off 
to the water. 

For using water of medium temperature a mixing tank is some- 
times used where the cold and hot water can be mixed to any 
desired temperature. This arrangement is, however, almost en- 
tirely supplanted by a mixing valve, in which the hot and cold 
supply pipes are run together, the joint fluid being then run into 
a larger or delivery pipe into which a thermometer is inserted. 
By regulating the proportionate flow of the hot and cold water a 
mixture of any desired intermediate temperature can be delivered. 

Cold Water Tanks, These arc constructed similarly- to hot wa- 
ter tanks except that they are not insulated and have no heating 
device. 

LIQUID GAUGE. 

The liquid gauge "swimmer," or "tell-tale," now gener- 
ally used, consists of a float to the top of which is attached a 
cord or chain, which passes up and over two pulleys and 
then down in front of an indicator board, and is held taut by a 
weight. The tank being filled with water, the float rises and the 
weight descends, and as water is drawn off for use the float de- 
scends and the weight rises. By having the board graduated with 
lines or marks the rising of the weight past these marks will in- 
dicate the quantity of water drawn off. 

In graduating this board proceed as follows: Run in a small 

amount of water, say 5 barrels, accurately measured (enough to 

raise the tioat from the bottom), and make a mark on the board 

where the bottom of the weight touches it. Mark this line 

"five barrels" — next fill the tank with an accurately measured 

amount of water, and again make a mark on the board where the 

weight now touches it, say it was 100 barrels. If the tank is 

cylindrical or square, the sides arc parallel and all that is left to 

do is to take a rule and divide the board as desired, into i, 2, 5 

or 10 barrel marks. Where the tanks have irregular or tapering 

sides each division on the scale must be measured and marked 

separately by adding a corresponding AmowwX. ol -w^v^^ ^'^'^v ^^- 

caratelv measured. 
42 



658 BREWERY OUTFIT. 

Principal SpeciAcations for Water Tanks. In small plants 
having 25 to 50 barrel kettles, the water tanks should have a ca- 
pacity of twice that of the kettle. The ratio of tank to kettle 
gradually decreases as the kettle becomes larger. For a 400- 
barrel kettle the tanks should hold about 1.5 times that amount 

Cold water tanks, and hot water tanks heated with live steam, 
can be made in almost any ratio of diameter to height, 
as may best suit the building. But in hot water tanks heated with 
an exhaust steam coil, the diameter or bottom should be made 
large enough to accommodate a coil of sufficient length to heat 
the water to the best advantage. This coil is usually made of 
2% inch, 16 gauge, copper tubing for smaller tanks, and 3 inch for 
larger ones. The total heating surface of the coil should be not 
less than 0.5 square foot per barrel of water for small tanks, or 
0.J3 square foot per barrel for large tanks. 

CEREAL COOKERS. 

Cookers are used for the purpose of gelatinizing the starch 
contained in raw or unmalted cereals. The starch is thus pre- 
pared for more complete and rapid inversion in the mash tub. 
Cookers should be well insulated. See "Insulation." 

Rice Tub. The most widely used form of cooker is the rice 
tub. It consists of a cylindrical vessel, generally made of sheet 
iron or steel, though sometimes of wood, and contains a stirring 
device. This device consists of a central revolving vertical shaft 
driven by a cog-wheel from above and having attached to, and 
radiating from it a series of stirrer arms placed in a spiral posi- 
tion above one another at different heights. These arms revolve 
at a speed of from 10 to 30 revolutions per minute, according to 
the size of the tub, and stir the mash so as to keep it at a uni- 
form temperature and consistency. 

The rice tub is heated either by live steam, a steam coil, or a 
steam jacket. 

Where the steam is pure, that is. imparting no taste or odor, it 
should be used direct, as liz c steam gives the greatest and most 
rapid work. Here the steam is conducted by a two-inch circular 
main pipo. placed around the tub and branching ctT into the tub 
through six openings provided with check valves. These check 
vnlvcs prevent the mash from entering the pipe wlien :!ie steam 
IS turned off. 
If a s/i'iim coil is used it is gcncraWv ^ wso o-^ \.Va^^i \\\c\\ circular 



BKBWERV OUTFIT. 659 

copper pipe placed close to the inner wall and at a position about 
four inches above the bottom. Sometimes a one or one and a half 
inch coil of several turns placed above one another is provided. 

TIic sU'aiii jacket is placed under the bottom and extending 
about two feet up the sides of the tubs. 

In the last two arrangements there is danger of scorching, if 
the mash is too thick. 




)ui.«..lK>wrliie Slim 
She and Appliances. Rice tubs are madt smaller in their i-n- 
pacity than the kettle, being usually 50 to 60 per cent as large 
according to the sije of the plant. The ratio of diameter to 
height is v.iriable. according (o the dimensions of the room where 
it is to be placed. An accurate thermometer should be attached 
to every rice tub so that the temperature of vUt -Ka-Av w-'i'At *^». 
tub can be read from the outside. This vs »> v«».^ ilqwnw*.*-^^*- 



66o BREWERY OUTFIT. 

slnee it obmtcs the trtmblesonie and sometimes confusing method 
of taking the temperature with a thermometer at the top of the 
tub. 

Pressure Cookers, It has been found that by boiling cereals 
at a higher temperature than can be obtained in an open cocilcer 
(▼iz., 80^ R. or 212^ F.), the starch contained in them can be 
better and more perfectly gelatinized. On that account pressure 
cookers are frequently used. They consist of either an upright 
or of a horizontal closed iron or steel shell differing in internal 
construction of stirrers, and steam inlet jets. The principle of 
all of these constructions is practically as follows: The dosure 
cover is opened and the mash boiled at atmospheric pressure un- 
til all the air is expelled from the cooker, which is then closed 
and heated under pressure Iqr ateam to as high as 302" F. (120" 
R.), or to any desired temperature for some time. Valves are 
then opened, reducing the pressure and consequently the tempera- 
ture, and should it be desired further quickly to reduce the tem- 
perature below tlut of the boiling point of the mash at atmos- 
pheric pressure the cooker is again closed and the suction or 
vacuum pump started and operated until the desired tempera- 
ture is obtained. 

MASH TUN (or TUB). 

The mash tun is used for the purpose of extracting the valuable 
ingredients from the malt and cereals, and of further converting 
them into products desirable for brewing. 

It consists of a cylindrical vessel made of sheet iron, steel 
or in some instances of wood, and supplied with a removable 
perforated strainer or false bottom placed rfbove the real bottom 
of the tun. It is further provided with a stirring device for mix- 
ing the malt or other material with the water: a steam heating 
appliance to raise the temperature of the contents, and a sparger 
or over-sprinkler to supply a spray of water for washing out the 
grains. Below the bottom and attached to it is a series of tubes. 
each having a smp cock at the outer end. and all tk-livcring mho 
a cylindrical copper vessel called the Grant, from which it can 
either be pumped back into the mash tun or run into the kettle. 

Double Deck Mash Tuns. These mash tuns have a hood at- 
tachment with doors in the sides instead of at the top. They 
are generally provided with high arm stirring devices. 
frooiicn Mash Tuns. These arc mostly ordinar>' wo«^dcn tubs 
of variable height and diameter. \vu\\omi sv\tt\x\^ ^<iN\^<is. ;^\\d 



BREWERV OUTFIT. 



66l 



generally have an ordinary piece of perforaled sheel copper serv- 
ing a» a false bottom or strainer. 

Separalt Moth Tim. Here Ihe mash tun is constructed similarly 
to the form first above described, excepting that it contains no 
false bottom, the latter being placed in a separate tun, called the 
clarifying tun (Liiuterbottich), into which the wort is run after 
the mash is finished, and there filtered or darifieil. 





[^^_lJ|I_li:^^' 



PARTS OF THE MASH TUN. 

False BoHom or Strainer. This consists of a sheet copper disc, 
of the same .size as the tun bottom, and should be placed no 
further than one inch above Ihe latter (see Brewing Opera- 
tions) and perforated with conical or tapering holes ar- 
ranged thrcc-eighlha inch apart. These holes or perfora- 
tions have iheir smaller diameter at ihe up^t «.\4.t oK -fft*. V^-sfc 
bottorn, being usually one-eighth ot iVwte i.VLH\'j-t,ccn^««. ■»■«;!& 



662 BREWERY OUTFIT. 

-m diameter, and their larger one below. This form prevents 
clogging or stopping up, as any particles lodging in the upper 
and smaller opening are easily pushed or sucked through. The 
'false bottom, in order to allow its being removed and replaced by 
one man, is cut into sections with tight fittings edges. 

False bottoms are sometimes made of galvanized iron, but this 
is not to be recommended, as they rust easily, especially aroimd 
the holes which are thereby gradually enlarged and accordingly 
affect the running of the wort and economic extraction of the 
grains. 

Stirring Devices. The purpose of having a stirring device in a 
mash tun is to. keep the mash well mixed and the temperature uni- 
form throughout. , 

There are at present two forms of stirrers in general use, one 
having two sets of revolving daw paddles, and another having 
only one snch set, the other side of the horizontally revolving 
supporting beam being supplied with a non-revolving shovel or 
scraper, placed close above the false bottom for the purpose of 
lifting the mash and throwing it toward the outside of the tun 
where the action of the revolving paddles is more effective. This 
non-revolving or stationary shovel is also used to throw out the 
wet grains from the tun when the mash is finished and the wort 
run off. 

Stirring devices arc now almost universally supplied with a 
hydraulic raising and lowering pump, by means of which one man 
can raise the stirrer out of the grains. This procedure has the 
advantage of allowing the grains to settle into a more homogene- 
ous mass and avoiding the formation of so-called channels or 
gutters through which the sparging water, finding less resistance 
than through the more solidly packed grains, will naturally take its 
course. If this is allowed to occur the result is poor extraction 
of the grains and it becomes necessary frequently to remix or re- 
mash the grains (L'nihacken or aufhackc-n ) by ilie stirrers. 

Spargers (I hrrschxi'acuccr). Two kinds of spargiiip: devices 
are now in use. the rotary and the ring sparvjers. of whicli the 
latter is most generally employed. 

The rotary sparger consists of two or more arms of perforated 
copper tubes attached at one end to a revolving head, the perfora- 
tions being in such places in the tubes that when water is allowed 
to ^un through them it issues in jets and causes the sparger to 
revolve and distribute the water over tW %i^m\?>. 



BREWERY OUTFIT. 663 

The ring sparger consists of a stationary circularly bent copper 
tube placed near the top of the mash tun, having holes drilled 
through its lower side slanting in such directions that the water 
issuing through them is evenly distributed over the surface of 
the grains. 

Of more antiquated forms of spargers, but such as are still 
occasionally found in use in older plants, may be mentioned : The 
"sprifzkopr* or spraying head, which consists of a perforated 
nozzle attached to a hose through which the water is sprayed 
over the mash goods; the "sprinkler" used with open mash tuns, 
and consisting of a tin or iron can of three to five gallons' capac- 
ity, having a spraying nozzle attached, to which is given a rotary 
motion ; and the "board" which consists of a wooden plank, about 
two feet square, near the outside of which numerous holes are ar- 
ranged. The nozzle of a hose is placed against the center of the 
board which is suspended over the mash and the water running 
off through the holes produces the desired spray. 

Pony Mashers or Foremashers. These devices are used for the 
purpose of moistening the crushed malt before it enters the mash 
tun so as to prevent its caking or sticking together, or of any 
fine malt dust being lost by rising out of the mash tun. The dif- 
ferent forms of construction all have the similar purpose of 
dividing the malt, while passing through them into a thin stream 
or layer, and while in this condition, bringing it in contact with a 
fine spray of water. This is done either by running the malt over 
a cone-shaped obstruction, or dropping it upon a revolving pad- 
dle wheel. In both processes the water enters from the side of 
the foremashcr in finely divided jets. 

Grant and Wort Pipes. The grant consists of an horizontally 
placed cylindrical copper vessel with closed ends and supplied with 
doors or lids in its upper part. The purpose of the grant is to 
furnish a temporary reccptable for the wort while it is being 
examined, and from it the wort is cither pumped back into the 
mash tub, or run into the kettle. The grant sometimes consists 
of an open vessel or wooden tub. But this form is no longer sup- 
plied with new outfits. 

Should it be desired to withdraw a "lauterniash" from the 
main mash, the grant, if large enough, can also be used as a 
receptacle fur storing this lautcnnash until it is returned to 
the mash tub, thereby doing away \v\lV\ tiw ^-st^U-a. N^s't>v\ \ok\ '^.\>x 
purpose. 



664 BREWERY OUTFlt. 

The wort pipes consist of a series or batteries of copper tubes, 
four to ten in number, connecting the mash tub with the grant 
These tubes start from different points in the bottom of the tub 
and run together into the grant, at which end each is supplied 
with a stop cock. 

Underlet or "Pfaff" At some place between their ends these 
tubes are cross-connected to a header (underlet or "Pfaff') so 
as to enable water to be run under the false bottom and upward 
through the mash. 

The upright tubes of the underlet, connecting the header with 
the wort pipes, should each be supplied with a separate stop cock. 
This makes it possible, by closing the cocks of the other pipes, to 
force water from the tanks above through any one pipe at full 
pressure, enabling quick and thorough flushing of such pipe and 
affording a means of dislodging with greater ease any obstruc- 
tions that may have become fastened therein. 

The arrangement found to give the best results is to employ 
eight to ten of these lubes and have each connect with one open- 
ing in the mash tub bottom only. It has been found that if one 
tube is connected with more than one opening the wort will run 
unevenly and hence the grains will be inipcriecily extracted. In 
some cases the wort pipes are connected with a copper pipe placed 
around the outside of the mash tub and delivering directly into 
the kettle, thus dispensing with the grant. 

Whatever the arrangement may be tlie >Ian: cr pitch oi the 
wort pipes should be no more than necessary to allow the wort 
to run through and out of thcin. as otherwise the wort in the 
pipe may create a si-ction and cause either the str/iincr h<>le5 to 
become st<tpped up or the wort to run cfT turbid. 

Mask Tub Thermometers. These usually C(>n?i^t ei;hor of a 
ihermonictor placed ilai against tlic ouisitle o\ tlie tub. having its 
mercury bulb bent at rigli; angles and extLnding through tlio wall 
of the tub in:o tiK mash, or of the lone >t«. ni siylo oi •htTm«>meter, 
Ctinsi^iiiiL: -f a ti:cr:::":vA*.LT <m' ^ucli '.v-.-ui':- !■■ '"• ■'■<' ->".t\ •. x'-: -S 
above tb.o ;>p of tlic mash tub. wliile tlic :!ivr.:ury \\\\.\\ rc.icb.es 
down iJiti' :::c :i:ash. In either siv'a- \Vv. g'a^> parts art' r''»- 
tectvd by s'.. tt.;<i -t pvrf'-ratvl bra-s r.- I'.s'.r.cs. 

/v.-.- •^\1:k^ T'let;-:.. meurs c- n^i-: ■ : a mbo *-::'r;:pc M:r-":i:!: the 

n-.a>h ar:.; t'l';.-! with ••■ht.r. ibo .■•::..- » :•<! ■'•: tN- 'w'-. ' -.n 

C'U.'fnrtc-] \\'::a :■ i^aiiyt; A- t!:^' v..--!! !- b: .v.' t'.- >■'.'::■..■ ::i 



BREWERY OUTFIT. 665 

Ihe tube expands and presses upon the gauge, the latter being 
supplied with an indicator dial. 

Safety Mash-Tun Gauge. — Every separate filtering tub or com- 
bined mash and filtering tub should be supplied with a liquid 
gauge. This consists of a glass tube, from one to one and one- 
half inches in diameter, attached to the tub with its lower end 
inserted into an angle valve with a tube having an opening of equal 
size as the glass tube, and running into the tub under the false 
bottom. The upper end of the tube is open. A steam connection 
is made between the angle valve and mash tub so that steam can 
be blown through for cleaning. 

The principal advantage derived from the use of this gauge lies 
in the fact that the flow of the wort can be perfectly regulated, 
and any suction under the false bottom created by too sudden 
opening of the cocks while tapping the wort is indicated by the 
dropping of the wort in the gauge to a lower level than in the 
mash-tun, or its entire disappearance. In this case the suction 
would be apt to clog the holes in the false bottom, and result in 
subsequent slower running of the wort. It therefore gives a per- 
fect indication as to the proper or maximum opening of the taps 
allowable for proper running of the wort. 

Another benefit derived from the use of this gauge is that it 
indicates the quantity of mash or water in the tub. 

This gauge was introduced for above purposes by M. Renins 
about ten years ago. 

HEATING THE MASH. 

The mash is heated by means of direct or live steam, a steam 
coil, a steam jacket, or hot water. 

Of all these methods, that of employing live steam, provided it 
is pure and does not impart any taste or odor to the mash, has 
been found to give the best results, and is now in general use. 
By this method a circular one to two and one-half inch pipe is 
placed around the bottom of the mash tub on its outside, the pipe 
having six or more branches, with check valves, leading into 
the mash directly above the false bottom. These branches dis- 
tribute the intlowing steam in such proportions that the stirring 
device can readily keep the mash at a uniform temperature; to 
divide the steam either too much or not enough leads to detri- 
mental results. In the case of too fine distribution, that is, if a 
circular steam pipe with too small pcTioxTvXxotv \^ X-^x^ Vcv^\\^ "^^ 
edge of the bottom of the tub the maisVv >NO>a\^ \i<i. <3»N^'^Vt'^^^ 



666 BREWERY OUTFIT. 

at that part and the stirrers and shovels would have to work the 
hot mash to the center in order to mix the whole mash. In 
the case of insufficient distribution, on the other hand, that is. if 
one large steam inlet only were used, the steam would overheat 
a part of the mash in a straight streak, across the mash, and the 
stirrers would take considerable time in equalizing the tempera- 
ture of the whole mash. 

In either case the indication of the thermometer at the time the 
steam was shut off would be misleading, as that part of the mash 
near the steam inlets would be much hotter than the bulk of the 
mash, the disadvantage of which needs no explanation. 

The steam coil and steam jacket cause a similar uneven heating 
of the mash, and have the additional disadvantage of consuming 
more steam than would be necessary if live steam were employed. 

To heat the mash with hot water, such water is first heated in 
a separate tank, and run into the mash through the underlet and 
false bottom. The objection to this method is that a wide range 
of temperatures is not allowable, and high initial temperatures 
must be used or the mash becomes too thin. Furthermore, the 
amount of water that can be used for sparging the grain becomes 
limited too much, which results in less perfect extraction of the 
grains and loss of extract. 

GRAINS T.\NK. 

A grains tank generally consists of a mnnd or square covered 
iron or steel tank, having a conical bottom. These tanks are 
usually placed outside of the brew-house in ."^uch a position that 
the grains readily slide or fall into them by gravity, when thrown 
out of the mash tub. They are sometimes placed inside the 
building: and liavo discharge tiihts extending to tlu- <'iii>ii.U*. 

The grains tank is supplied with a deliver>' valve ai the bottom ; 
also a drain pipe to carry off any water that may settle if the 
grains are kept in the tank for some time. 

FiR.-^r WORT rf Mr. 

A pump for returning the first turbid wort to t':e Tuash tub or 

for pumping sparging water, where such work i- necessary, 

siioi'.ld he. ci»nvenit.ntly placed. This pui:ip may al5'.> be made to 

riii>\\^'r I. -r :;:o purp'-sc ■ f pumping wi-ri ir;-:!. ti c k- ::Ie t<.. the 

surface cooler. 

Tliis pump should be specially constructed f-. r the purpose, 

<'in(I hnve the valve 5cat5 made larger than in cr-iiiMry pumps, so 

ns to prevent clogginf: of the valves. 1\ quut iTv^\\ev^\\\ \v3.v\j^tv?.. 



BREWERY OUTFIT. 667 

while pumping back first wort, that the moment the g^rant is 
empty, or before all the liquid has been discharged from the 
pump Cylinders, the pump is stopped and some of this heavy 
wort is allowed to remain in the pump, giving the solid particles 
an opportunity to settle and stick in the valves. It is therefore 
necessary to pump sufficient water through the pump after each 
brew to displace any remaining wort. 

Duplex or double cylinder pumps are preferable, as they fur- 
nish a more even discharge, and can be better depended on tlian 
the single cylinder pumps. 

THE KETTLE. 

The kettle is a vessel in which the wort is boiled for the pur- 
pose of precipitating its albuminoids, of extracting the bitter 
principle and oil from the hops, and of concentrating and aerating ^ 
the wort. 

Kettles are built in different shapes, but the pear-shaped closed 
kettle is now in almost universal use. Other forms are square or 
cauldron- shaped, the latter generally being open kettles, supplied 
with a hood for carrying off the vapors. 

The pear-shaped modern kettle is heated by means of a steam 
jacket. This consists of a jacket or double bottom placed around 
the bottom of the kettle, the space between being crescent-shaped 
and forming the steam chamber where steam is injected under 
pressure and heats the wort in the kettle above. 

In order to allow the use of steam directly from the boiler 
where the pressure ranges from 60 to 90 pounds, which is much 
too high to be used for heating the kettle, a pressure-reducing 
valve is placed in the steam run which allows the steam pressure 
upon the kettle to be regulated at will. 

Some kettles have copper steam coils placed inside near the bot- 
tom and directly in contact with the wort, while others again are 
heated by direct fire from underneath. These Urc kettles are gen- 
erally open kettles, built over a brick furnace, and fired by means 
.of coal, coke or wood, the heat being regulated by a series of 
drafts and dampers placed in the walls of the firebox. Fire ket- 
tles are gradually going out of use, since the steam kettle has 
been found much more economical and reliable. 

Fire pans are constructed similarly to fire kettles, the difference 
J[>eing in that they are more pan-shapt-d. so that a greater heating 
surface may be exposed to the fire. 

Steam Traps. In order to obtain a \>acV v^fis^vvct -^^xv^ •^<^^ 



668 BSEWEKY OUTFIT. 

tbe water of condensatioii to ctcape, a Ucam tnq> is placed at tbt 
(team ontia of Ifae kettle. 

v mainty of two kinds, diaphragm and float Irepa 




Diafhragm suam trafs consisl of a fl.itlrtied sphrrc divided 
into tuo cliaivbcn by a copper disk. This disk is t.-istened on 
»tV. ihe lower part being loose so rtiav ttvc aeavn v^^ijwT-: and 



BREWERY OUTFIT. (S69 

condensation causes the disk to vibrate slightly, allowing the con- 
densed' water to pass to the other side of the disc where it is 
discharged through a pipe. 

The Hoat trap consists of a pot-shaped vessel containing a thin 
copper cup, acting as a float on the condensed water, and closing 
a discharge valve at the top. When the condensed water in the 
trap reaches a certain height it flows into the cup, thereby sink- 
ing it, by which the discharge is opened and the water forced out 
of the trap by the steam pressure. When the cup is empty it 
again rises and closes the discharge valve, this operation being 
automatic. 

HOP EXTRACTION APPARATUS. 

This is used for the extraction of the hops and preventing 
volatization of the oil of hops. It consists of a closed cylindrical 
steel tank, having a conical bottom and fitted with a stirring de- 
vice. First wort is pumped into the tank, the hops added, and 
this decoction brought to a boil by means of live steam. The 
doors are then closed and the hops further boiled under three to 
four pounds' steam pressure. The hopped wort thus obtained is 
then collected and subsequently added to the wort, cither in the 
kettle at the time it is run out or in the settling tank. The hops 
left in the extractor in the meantime are transferred into the ket- 
tle and boiled with the main wort before it is run out. 

HOP AROMA OR HOP OIL CONDENSER. 

This consists of a copper vessel affixed to the ventilator of the 
kettle. It contains a series of small tubes through which cold 
water circulates. A damper, to prevent vapors from escaping 
through the ventilator, is placed just above the branch pipe for 
the condenser. When the hops are added, this damper is closed 
and the cold water supply turned on, the volatilized hop oil is 
condensed around the tubes, and Hows into a collecting receptacle 
placed at the bottom of the condenser. After the oil is distilled 
over, the damper is again opened and the vapors allowed to es- 
cape through the ventilator in the usual manner. This recovered 
hop oil is then added to the wort in the fermenting tub. 

HOP SEPARATING MACHINE. 

This machine has the object of separating the lupulin of the 
hops from the leaves and stems. 

The hop cones are torn apart and by means of sc^^i^tv?. ^'^ <vtNVi> 
having nn oscillating motion, the coarse \e^Nt^ ^xo: ^^^•jwt-xV^^ V^^'^ 



670 B&E^'ERY OUTFIT. 

the. Ittpaltn and more finely diWded leaves. The coarse lea' 
are added in the kettle as the first lot of ho|»s, and the lupulin, 
etc, is either used in place of the second additiQia of bops in the 
kettle, or else added in the hop-jack. 

WOKT CONCENTRATOR. 

This appliance consists of a closed vessel having steam coils 
for heating purposes and heing connected to a vacnum pump so 
as to allow its contents to evaporate at a lower temperature. 

The last spaigings are mn through the concentrator, where they 
are thus boiled under reduced pressure and run into the kettle. 
This device has. at present, been installed only in large plants 
where several brews are being made continuously. By its use 
from 15 to 20 per cent more sparging water can be employed, re- 
sulting in an increase in the yield of the materials. 

ROF-JACK. 

The hop-jack has the purpose of straining out or intercepting 
the hops contained in the wort after leaving the kettle. 

The hop-jack is made of steel, either round or square in 
shape, and supplied with a false bottom or strainer similar to that 
contained in the mash tub. The diiTcrcncc. however, is that 
here the false bottom is placed from 4 to iS inches above the real 
bottom, instead of onlv three- fourths to one inch as in the 
mash tub. The object of this higher space below the strainer is 
to furnish a larger bulk of filtered wort for the pump to draw 
from, thereby giving an uninterrupted rtow to t)u* cooler anil at 
the same time p^e^'enting too much suction under the false bot- 
tom, which might cause the holes in the latter to clog by particles 
being drawn into them. 

In order to avoid the wort standing in contact with the hops 
too long, which will happen if the pump or cooler is of insufficient 
capacity, and cause the hops to impart a rank bitter taste to the 
wort, it is advisable to raise the false bottom to such a height in 
the hop- jack that the space between the bottoms will hold at least 
one-half of the filtered brew. This raising of the false bottom is 
practically a necessity in the new arranpcn-.ciit n^w luinp fre- 
quently installed in new breweries, where the li<"'p-.'ack is placed 
above the cooler alid the wort, with the hops, pumped up into it 
with a rotary pump, the hop-jack thus also taking the place of 
the beer tank or surface cooler. 
T/ie difference between the regular aud V\\\s wt^ Tjix^^w^cment 



BREWERY OUTFIT. 



671 



as to the length of time the wort remains in contact with the hops 
is. that in the former, with the hop-jack placed below the kettle, 
the wort can be pumped out of the hop-jack and away from the 
hops as fast as it will strain through the false bottom, whereas 
in the latter arrangement where the hop-jack is above the cooler, 
the hops will remain in contact with at least part of the wort 




Hop Jack, sectional vit-w. 

during most of the time required for cooling, and the lower tlic 
false bottom is placed in the hop-jack the greater is the amount 
of wort that thus remains in contact with the hops. 

The sparger for washing out the hops is constructed in the 
same manner as the sparger contained in the mash tub, except 
that when placed in square hop-jacks, it is one straight perlora.icd 
pipe. 



672 BREWERY OUTFIT. 

Hop sparging Apparatus. — Since the surface of the strainer in 
the hop- jack is proportionately large and causes the hops to be 
spread out into a very thin layer and not admit of their being 
sparged properly, it is advisable to sparge the hops in a separate 
vessel. This vessel then takes the place of the hop press 
and can be constructed in a similar manner. The basket of 
the old hop press should be displaced by a cylinder of sheet-iron, 
and a sparger, like that in the mash tun, be affixed for spray- 
ing boiling water over these hops. 

Should this hop sparging apparafus be newly constructed it 
should be so proportioned that the hops from th« brew, when 
throD^n into it, would lie about three feet deep. In this con- 
struction it may, however, be inconvenient to throw out the 
liops, but this defect could be readily remedied by having the 
cylinder containing the hops, detachable or merely resting upon the 
strainer or strainer-housing so that in removing the hops it 
would be necessary only to lift the cylinder, when the hops 
would fall out similarly to lifting a barrel whose bottom had 
become loosened or broken. 

HOP PRESS. 

This consists of an upright cylinder made of perforated gal- 
vanized iron in which is inserted a tight-fitting plate, or plunger, 
movable up and down by means of a screw. 

The hops are thrown out of the hop-jack into the press, where 
any remaining wort is squeezed out and subsequently added to 
the bulk of the wort. 

This pressing of the hops is not advisable. The ani«^nni of \\<>rt 
recovered is small and contains so large an amount of the 
coarse and undesirable principles of the hops as to more than 
outweigh the advantage of recovering this small amount of wort. 
The hops should be sparged with hot water. (Sec "Hop 
Sparging Apparatus.") 

WORT PUMPS. 

The pump used for elevating the wort from the hop- jack to the 
cooler must differ from the mash tub pump in having a much 
greater delivery capacity, and also in being of the high pressure 
type on account of the height, often considerable, to which the 
wort must he pumped. 
For this purpose, where the deV\vcT\ \s ol vcxovi^^-s.^^ height. 



BREWERY OUTFIT. (>73 

centrifugal pumps have found extensive service, since large vol- 
umes of wort can be quickly raised by them. 

Rotary pumps are also used, but this style of pump gives its 
greatest efficiency in the arrangement where the hop-jack is placed 
above the cooler, and where it is necessary to pump the wort con- 
taining the hops from the kettle up to the hop-jack, situated at 
a higher level. 

SURFACE COOLER. 

This consists of a shallow iron or steel pan, of a length and 
width very large in proportion to its depth. This form of cooler 
allows the wort to stand so as to present a large surface exposed 
to the air, causing rapid cooling and thorough aeration of the 
wort. 

The surface cooler, however, also has the disadvantage that it 
presents a large surface for impurities to settle upon and infect the 
wort, for which reason this form of cooler is gradually being 
abandoned. 

WORT OR BEER TANKS. 

Tliis tank frequently takes the place of the surface cooler as a 
receptacle for the wort after leaving the hop-jack and before be- 
ing run over the pipe cooler. 

It is generally made of iron or steel, either round or square in 
shape. 

WORT AERATORS. 

These devices are used for the purpose of bringing a large vol- 
ume of wort in contact with the air in as short a time as possible. 

This is accomplished either by forcing the air in finely divided 
jets or sprays through the wort, or by spraying the wort, in the 
reverse manner, through the air. 

The latter form of aerators consists of a nozzle placed on the 
end of the wort delivery pipe. This nozzle is either provided with 
a propeller-shaped >vheel, so that when the wort issues it strikes 
against this propeller, forcing it to revolve and thereby throwing 
the wort in the form of spray, or else has a metal cone or 
other shaped plug inserted in the opening, whereby the outflow- 
ing solid stream of wort is broken into a spray or rain. 

Sometimes these devices are provided with a fan to blow air 
against the spray and thus intensify the aeration. 

• PIPE COOLERS. 

The most important of this type is the lUiudclot co oUr . \.\ '\> 
used for the purpose of cooling \\\e >not\, -^Iv^^ \\^\v.^ "s^^\<v5^^ 
4r. 



G74 BREWERY OOtPIt. 

cooiri in the mrfacc cooler or beer tank, to the tc i n perat Bre de- 
•rrcd in the cellir. 

The cooler consists of a series of pipes arranged in venkml 
tiers, over the oottide of which pipes Ibe wort is allowed to flov, 
while through their intides a cooling medinm is cirrolated. 

The wort first discharges into a V-ihapcd trough placed at the 
top of the cooler, where it is dislribnted over the cooler pipes by 
running out through narrow slits or perforations. The wort thai 
first paaaet over a series of copper tnbei containing cold water, 
where il ii further cooled and then descends cither over a aecOad 




1^ 



■series of copper tubes containing cooled brine, or over a series of 
iion tubes containing liquid expanding ammonia. In cither case 
the wort is cooled to the desired cellar temperature. 

Other forms of cooler are still in use. but they arc very slow 
of action. Such is tlic icf-watcr orftniii" coolt-r, consisting of a 
scries of pipes having the inlet at the bottom, Ice-waler or brine 
is circulated from a tank abo\'e (or water from a ivoil). anil the 
warm discliargc at lop is returned to the tank and again cooled 
.-ind circulated. 
/!// forms of pipe coolers have a collecting pan placed under- 

nfath to collect the wort, which tttn?. ^t'^n\ Wwtc \«Vo \l\c 

f'.ming tubs. 



BREWERY OUTFIT. 675 

As the wort in passing over open coolers is exposed to in- 
fection by germs floating in the air, the cooling process should 
be as short as possible. 

To avoid the danger of infection two kinds of coolers have 
been placed in use. The first consists of a cooler constructed as 
described, and surrounded or shut off from the air by means of 
air-tight glass partitions, the space around the pipe cooler and 
inside the glass partition being filled with filtered or sterilized air. 
which is constantly renewed. 

The second form embraces a different construction of the 
cooler itself, which consists of a* series of tubes through which the 
wort flows, and another similar series of larger tubes enveloping 
the smaller ones, thus forming an annular sleeve through which 
the cooling media are passed. In this construction the wort does 
not come in contact with any air, except such filtered or steril- 
ized air as may be forced into it intentionally for the purpose of 
aeration. 

Copper tubes for the cold water and iron tubes for the am- 
monia circulation are used in the construction of this cooler also. 

SIZKS AND CAPACITIES OF PIPE COOLERS. 

Following arc the standard sizes and capacities of coolers made 
by a leading manufacturer: 

No - 7H ft. lon^ 21 Tubed 5 ft. hlith cools 9 bbln. \ier boiir. 

6V4 '• 
ftX •• 
" 
6 •• 
6 *• 





I— H 






2J 






i- m 






25 






»-9!-S 






27 






4— 10^ 






27 






B-12^ 






27 






6-18H 






84 






6-15 






27 






«-16 






31 






7—17 






27 






7-17 






34 






8-21 






34 






8-21 






ftO 





7H •• 







12 












15 












20 












25 












35 












46 












60 












00 












«0 












75 












96 












180 









9 

7H *• 

•• 

9 •» 
13 •' 
No. to 5 incl. have tubes 1^ In dlam. No. 6 to 8 Incl. have tubes 2% in. 
diam. 

These coolers are made to any length up to 30 feet and any 
number of tubes in height. 

All coolers with 34 tubes or more are made for two kinds of 
water, the upper part for hydrant water and lower part for ice 
water. Where brine circulation is in use connections are made 
so as to circulate brine through this lower part. Where ice ma- 
chines are installed the lower part is made oi ^V\^^^ ^\rA \>a^^'^ 
with the necessary fittings for cot\nccl\oT\ Vo \Vvt rcvaLOcvvw^, 



^/C BREWERY OUTFIT. 

SIMPLIFIED BREW-HOUSE PLANT. 

' In order to simplify the general equipment, and, at the same 
time, the cost of installation, the following arrangement has been 
proposed by M. Henius in 1892. 

The principal implements in this equipment consist of a cooker 

'and -an ordinary mash tub, besides the usual malt mill, hot and 

cold water tanks, and a pump. The cooker is used for boiling 

the wort, and the mash tub for straining the hops, thus doing 

away with a kettle and hop-jack. 

The cooker may, at *a later stage, be used for cooling and 
aerating the wort and a surface cooler thus made superfluous. 
The cooker is located above the mash tub and contains a hollow 
-stirrer and a steam jacket, both of which can be filled with stdon 
or cold or hot water. By means of pipes at the bottom, running 
through the jacket and opening into the apparatus, air, hot or cold 
witer, or steam can be admitted. 

The lower implement is a common mash tub. with this differ- 
ence, that it is equipped with a closing device permitting its con- 
tents to be boiled by steam under pressure. 

The pump can be rscd for moving the wort during the differ- 
ent pumping operations neccssar>\ or for drawing a decoction or 
"I winter" mash. 

The operation is as follows: The corn mash is put into the' 
upper cooker, the stirrer started, and the mash made as or- 
dinarily, with or without pressure. In the meantime the malt 
is doughed-in in the mash tub below, and the corn mash is then 
run down into it. The clear wort is then pumped up into 
the upper cooker and boiled, and when finished is run down into 
the mash tuh, which then is used as a hop-jack. The wort is 
then again pumped into the upper vessel, where it is cooled by 
passing cold water through the stirrers, and aerated with filtered 
air. The wort then passes through a closed c«M)ler into the 
cellars. 

The advantages offered by this apparatus are the it^liovving- 

1. Very simple management ; 

2. A great saving in first cost ; 

3. It is easy to watch the whole pr«>ccss: 

4. A saving of labor; 

5. A brew-house of two stories could contain all ilie apparatus 
iwJ ntncljincry /iccded for preparing the wort. 



BKEWERY OUTFIT. '177 

CELLAR OUTFIT, 

These tubs arc used as receptacles in which to start fenncnla- 
tion. In them the ytasi is added to the wort (pitching), aitd the 
albumen and j-csinous substances, precipitated while the wort is 
cooled, are allowed to rise to the surface of the fermenting wort. 

Starting tubs are btiill of wood, generally cedar, or of steel, 
and in shape are round, oval, or square with rounded corners. 

They are nearly always built of a sire capable of receiving a 
whole brew, and are constructed with tapering sides in order lo 
allow the hoops to lie driven on or tightened. This tapering 
constnielion is in use in nearly all the cooperage throughout the 
brewery, tlie curved sides of the chip cask, etc., answering the 
same purpose. If the side of the tubs arc parallel, the hoops must 
be snp|)lied with a screw tightening device, but this construction 
of tubs is not generally in use. 

(.Anfziehen.) 

One style of device for aerating and pitching the green wort 
consi-.is iif an .lir filter containing cotton, below which a bulb 
rairies an injeetor. The filtered air is forced through the in- 
jiiiiir and c:irriis along with it a large quantity of wort, 
both then passing through a perforated cap. thus mi.xing as well 
a-: iii-raling the wort. 

1 llhiT methods of mixing and pitching the wort are clllier by 
means of a pole, to which a perforated pail is attached, or by 
means of an oar-shaped paddle. In both cases the wort is i^hnr 
uiighly agitated with these tmpleniems liy hand, 

Buckci Acralort. This consists of a tub or vat into which the 
yeast and an equal quantity of wort arc brought. A vertically 
placed wheel, to which a number of buckets are allaclicd, is then 
revolved inside of this tub. This causes the wort and yeast to be 
carried upward in the buckets and emptied or thrown back into 
the tub at each revolution, thus mixing and aerating the mass 
tliiiriiiighly. iiri'vi<linB a supply of pure air is carrii-<l to Iho nii\er 
liuring its operation. 

Thf spiral mixing machinr consists of a tub in which the wort 
and vc;isL are iiKila'x-d bv the action <'f an .Vrchinunk-an seirw. 

V'enst and worl ar.' ;.!-. niive.l in cower »t \:m\\.;v\\>\«V^^^,\« 
lieing poun-d from one into the Other nwW X.Xw^owsJr*.-^ tA*-«.*i 



O^B BBEWESY OUTFIT. 

mad leratcd. This simple method » reir popular and nmch naed 
at the present tinier 

TBA9TTUBS. 

Tbese generally consist of oval oaken tnbs, vanusbed <ni die 
inside, and from i3 to i8 iiKhes in depth. The best material for 
the conUmction of yeast inbs, however, is copier, as it reqaires 
no varnishing and is more easily kept clean. 

AlrxUtTKA'TOtS FOB COOUMG YtAST. 

Brine attemferatort generally consist of a □ne-ioch iron pipe 

coil sospended in the yeast tab over the yeait through irhicb 




cooled brine is circulated This arrangciiKni has ihe jmrpo-c of 
preventing Ihe yeast from freezing to the coil. If care i; taken. 
however in regutaimg the amount of brine circulaicil iliri'-.r^li 
the coil the coil can bo placed in Ihe yeas' ilircttly, \>!ihIi U a 
preferable mclbod smc< It"' brine is nscd to kovp tin yi;i-i tiv.;, 
Swccinal.T ilUmptrators. These implemcnl'^ arc coiistriKlvl 
£>niilarlv to the hrme allcniperators, with the exception llial ihe 
coil IS made o/ coppir pipe Ice watev is circulated throngb them 
L ■aad con-equentiy they can be submerged \nlo vVie vciw "\\ it%«<t<\. 



BEEWERY OUTFIT. 679 

Bucket Attemperators, These are copper or tin buckets into 
which ice is placed, the buckets being then placed into the yeast. 

KRAEUSEN METER. 

TIms is a device for measuring the amount of Krausen added 
to the beer, or for determining the capacity of utensils or vats 
used in the brewery. 

The essential feature of the most commonly used style consists 
of an internal revolving wheel, similar to a water-wheel. The 
Krausen, as it passes through the meter, pushes against the arms 
or paddles of this wheel and revolves it until reaching the air 
outlet. The compartment surrounding the wheel being of known 
volume, by counting the number of revolutions of this wheel the 
amount of Krausen that has passed through can thus be esti- 
mated. This is done automatically by connecting the shaft of 
the wheel to a dial indicator. 

FERMENTING ROOM. 

FERMENTING TUBS. 

Fermenting tubs are used as receptacles for the wort during 
its principal fermentation. They arc usually made of wood, gen- 
erally cedar, and of a capacity to hold 50 to 100 barrels of wort. 
If too large, that is, too high, fermentation is retarded and the 
yeast weakened. From 5 to 6 feet of liquid is the average depth 
employed. 

ATTEMPERATORS. 

Attemperators for fermenting tubs are devices placed in the 
tubs for the purpose of cooling the wort during fermentation, or 
in other words, to carry off the heat generated by fermentation. 
The usual form is an iron or copper pipe coil through which the 
cooling medium, cooled brine or sweet water, is circulated. 

The brine circulation coils are usually made of one to one and 
one-half inch pipe, bent in a circular shape and supplied with 
swivel joints so that they can be pushed upward and out of the 
tub. They are. usually suspended so as to be immersed about two 
feet below the surface of the wort. 

Stvect water attemperators usually are made of copper, two- 
inch tube coils, cither round in shape or straight with return 
bends. In either case they present a larger surface to the wort 
than the brine coils. 

The double cylinder at^cmperator \s sovcv^na^kv^'^ >a&^\. ^^. '^'^'^' 



68o BREWERY OUTFIT. 

sists of two copper cylinders, of which one, somewhat smaller, is 
placed inside the other so that there is formed a cylinder having 
double walls, about one-half inch apart. A wire or rod is 
soldered inside this annular space in a spiral direction from the 
bottom to the top so that the cooling medium, in passing through, 
is evenly distributed throughout the attemperator. This attem- 
l)erator is suspended in the wort, and is provided with a raising 
and lowering pulley. 

Another similar, but simpler, form of attemperator consists of 
a double cylinder having walls about three-quarter inch apart 
and connected together at top and bottom so as to form a jacket. 
Brine is circulated between these walls from bottom to top. 
This form of attemperator can be used only for small tubs. 

Swimmers consist of a half-globe-shaped vessel, about three 
feet in diameter, used for cooling the wort. They are filled with 
ice and lloated upon the surface of the wort. 

COVER REMOVER. 

• 

Thi> iir.plenKiit c«)n.si<ts of a shallow pcTt'nratnl cupiK-r ladle 
or spoon, about one fwjt in diameter, attached to a wooden 
handle, and is used for the purpose of removing undcsired 
parts of the foam cover of the fermenting w<)rt. 

YEAST REMOVER. 

This is a long pole, to one end of which is attached a thin 
edged board, about two feet long. With this the yeast is scraped 
along the Ixntom of the tub toward an opening through which 
the yeast falls into receptacle underneath. 

YEAST SIEVE. 

Yeast sieves consist of a wooden or metal frame, supporting a 
brass wire or horsehair sieve cloth, having about 40 meshes to 
the inch. 

YEAST WATERING APPARATUS. 

A wooden tub about three feet in height, having bured in the 
side a scries of vertical holes, each placed at a different height. 
Each hole is supplied with a removable plug so that the waier 
can be gradually drawn off as soon as the yeast has sen led. thus 
preventing agitation which might cause the yeast to rise. This 
happens to i^uixw cwtent when ihe vat is lilted and the water 
ired off owi ilw top edge. 



BREWERY OUTFIT. (18 1 

STOCK CELLAR. 

Slock or storage vaEs are used as receptacles for holding tlie 
beer while it is undergoing the secondary or a fter-fer mental ion 
or ripening process, and for general storage of the beer. 

They arc generally of upright form, closed at the lop and 
constructed of cedar wood, of a size to hold from 50 barrels up- 
ward to an almost unlimited capacity. 

Another style of stock vat consists of steel cylindrical vessels 
coated on ihc inside with glass enamel. 

Tub and Vat Supports. In later constructions of breweries the 
jiupports for vats and tubs consist of two steel rails or Lbeains 
laid along the entire length of the cellar and supported by cast 
iron legs, the vats resting upon the rails or beams. In many 
plants wooden beams are used instead of iron ones. 

Manhole Doors. The ordinary form consists of a door placed 
outside of the vat, at a position near its bottom, and closed by 
means of two lugs which fit inlo cxlensions at the top and boltoni 
of the manhole ring. The door is then fastened by means of a 
screw bolt. 

Another style of manhole door consists of an iron door open- 
ing inward, the door being secured with lugs to the upper and 
lower outside supporting ring of the door, and fastened by means 
of a screw boll. This manhole is usually placed one to two'feel 
above Ihc bottom of the vat. 

CHIP CliLLAR. 

CHIP CASKS. 

Chips casks arc used as receptacles for the beer whiit it h htinfi 
ikirifn-d and given snfficicnl carltonic acid or life. 

They are generally built of quarier-sawed oak. and are usually 
harrel-shaped in form, although some have straight tapering 
sides and others a cylindrical form, the latter being supplied 
with lioop' having a clamp tightening device. Large chip casks 
are strengilu'ncd so as to prevent out ward, bulging or blowing out 
of ihcir heads by having the two heads connected or stay-bolted 
with iron rods or bolts. 

Chip casks are sometimes built in shape like stock tubs, Uu.". 
iire (hen made of thicker wood and '«'tt\\ wwvtt \w)w^s ■*ri ■^•- ^'^ 
resist greater internal pressures. 



682 BKEWERY OUTFIt. 

Cask Manhole Doors. In barrel-tluqicd casks the mmnbolc 
doors are usually about I3 inches wide by i8 inches high. The 
door has edges tapering outward, so as to (it into a correspond- 
. ingly beveled opening in the head of the cask when placed against 
it from the inside. The door is further fastenctl by means of a 
block of wood placed outside and long enough to fasten against 
the staves on both sides of the manhole, the door being tightened 
to the block by means of a screw bolt. The joint between the 
door and the cask is made tight by applying tallow on the rim of 
the door before fastening it. 

Cask Supports. The common form of support consists of 
wooden or I-beams, or steel rails holding a wooden block, which 
is hollowed out so as to conform to the carve of the cask and 

■ 

prevent it from rolling. 

Another simple and efficient form is the ball and socket sup- 
ports. It consists of a cast-iron foot or base, having a flange at 
the bottom, where it rests on the floor, and another" at the top, 
upon which the cask rests. This support consists of two pieces, 
connected by means of a ball and socket joint which allows the 
upper flange to move in any direction and con form to the shape 
of the cask. 

GLASS KNAMELED CHIP CASKS. 

This form of chip cask has been recently introduced. 

Th/e tanks consist of a series of shallow rings, each 30 inches 
high, having flanged edges. b\' means of which they are bolted 
together so as to make the cylinder of the tank. Those rings are 
surmounted, top and bottom, with dished enameled heads and 
are further strengthened by means of reinforcing bars running 
from top to bottom. (See illustration.) The rings are made 
of finest quality sheet steel, having a very high tensile strength. 

Both the outside and inside of the rings arc covered wiili a 
coating of glass-like enamel or glaze applied by means of high 
heat so as to insure superior tenacity and adhesion to the s:ccl. 

The tanks are supplied with the necessary fittings, which arc 
made either of copper or bronze, and designed so as to be easily 
cleaned. These fittings include manhole doors, outlet, inlet. 
racking and try cocks. The legs or supports prc>cnt a special 
feature, in that they arc made similar to jack-screws, sn as to 
conform to any tmcvcnncss of ftoov. TUc v>a*^king between the 



ItREWEKY OUTFIT. 



(>Sj 



consist of prepared cotton webbing, saturated witb water- 
compound. 

: advantages of using these cn&iiicled metal tanks arc: 
of cleaning, since the inside of the tanks presents an even 




<.l;i-> I-liKiiiu Ini <liii) Cask. <Rcinforc»cl Tank ) 

■f ni' ftla^is-likc sniontl^iicss and hardness: saving of space; 
aw.iy with tlu lab'trinu-^ and dani^vmns n])crati<)ns cf 
.hing; capacity of vv!.h>tanding higher internal pressures; 
mm neccs-ity fur repairs, and IxwaWn. v\\\\v\>\\\\^vi"-.V'^'^'s.\-'^"^"^^^'^'^ 
paly lininllvil. 



684 BREWERY OUTFIT. 

BUNGING APPAKATUS. 

This device is used to enable a certain desired pressure to be 
maintained on the surface of the beer in the chip cask by auto- 
matically blowing off any excess pressure created. 

The simplest form of bunging apparatus consists of an air 
tank supplied with a blow-off valve which can be regulated to 
different pressure. To this tank each chip cask is connected by 
a hose. 

A more modem device consists of an intricately constructed 
blow-off apparatus having an adjustable dial indicator. Another 
part consists of an automatic valve screwed into the chip cask 
whose construction is as follows : This cock or valve has two 
openings, one for connection with the pressure hose, and the 
other for connection with the blow-off device. The opening to 
the blow-off valve b supplied with a check valve arrangement, 
consisting of a ball tightly fitting over an opening. As loi^ as 
the pressure in the cask is less than the back pressure from the 
other casks, or, in other words, the bunging pressure, this back 
pressure holds the ball in position. But as soon as the pressure 
in the cask becomes a trifle greater than this back pressure, it 
forces the ball upward and the gas causing the over-pressure is 
blown off with that of the other casks. In this device it is 
unnecessary to connect the hose to the bunging apparatus when 
the cask pressure becomes sufficient, or to disconnect ilic hose 
each time before racking, consequently the bunging hose can al- 
ways be kept in position. The shutting off of the racking pressure. 
so as to prevent it from communicating to the bunging tulK>. is 
done by means of an extra cock supplied for that purpose. 

Other styles employ mercury seals to regulate the blow-off pres- 
sure. 

FILTERS. 

Beer filters are used for the purpose of clarifying beer, that is. 
mechanically removing or straining out solid particles, such as 
hop-resin, albumen, yeast cells, etc.. contained in the beer. 
whereby the time of storage in chip cask, the time fnr finishing 
the beer, and the amount of finings are considerably reduced. 
The use of a filter also reduces "rest" beer and .-thcr incidcnia! 
losses. 

The suhatnncc used as a filtering material **t filter ^la^s is ni- 

most universally cellulose or pulp prepared iTO\x\ wovkI cr cotton 
ifAers. 



BREWERY OUTFIT. 685 

Modern filters, in order to present as large a filtering surface 
as possible, consist of several filters combined into a battery, all 
being contained in one vessel or receptacle. This is accom- 
plished by placing a succession of layers of filter mass at a cer- 
tain distance from each other, each clamped between two sheets 
of perforated metal or wire gauze, and then clamping the whole 
series into one drum or cylinder-shaped receptacle. The supply 
of fluid is so fed through branches that a portion of the liquid 
passes through each layer or cell, and all portions are united just 
previous to leaving the filter. 

Another style of filter has round metal dish-shaped plates, con- 
taining the filter mass, and these plates or cells are placed in a 
cylindrical vessel, somewhat larger in diameter than the plates. 
The whole is then filled with beer which passes through the mass 
and leaves it through an opening at the center of each disc, the 
whole number discharging into a central tube or column, wherein 
the beer is collected before passing out of the filter. 

All styles of fihers have a "lantern" and gauge at both en- 
trance and discharge inlets to allow insi)ection of the flow of 
beer, the degree of brilliancy and pressure on the fluid. 

Before the filtering operation can proceed it is necessary to re- 
move the air from the filter, as otherwise the inflowing beer would 
foam by coming in contact therewith. This is accomplished by 
first running water through the filter and in turn displacing 
this water by the l>eer to be filtered. At the end of the operation 
the beer in tlie filter can again be displaced with water and the 
last ])eer in the filter thereby obtained for use. 

Should it be desired to interrupt the filtering operation until a 
later time, the filter can be washed by passing water through in 
the direction of the How and then backward, repeating this again 
arid apain. until the water runs clear both ways, then letting the 
filter stand full of water, and proceeding with filtration as at the 
start. This is preferable to the custom of some brewers of let- 
linpj the filter stan<l full (A beer until used again. Another precau- 
tion to be observed during the filtering operation is to tap the cask 
prnjjorly so as not to cause any agitation of the beer with .sub- 
sequent rising of the particles that may have already settled. The 
pressure on the cask should not be too great, as it may injure the 
cask and cause it to leak. 

To have gf>od results with filtering it is quite essential to have 
an air tank to receive pre^^surc from U\c a\\ V'^vtcv^, 'w^sv^-jA ^\ 
having direct pressure. 



666 BKEWERV OUTFIT. 

It 11 necesunr to tuve a doable ntddng cock when racldns off 
beer through a filter, so as to hare an oninternipted flow. 

The capadtr of beer filter* ranges from 15 to #1 barrda per 
hour, depcndiog largelj upon the size of the oatlet of the diip 
mk and the ainonnt of air pressure that can be put thereon, which 
nnges from 8 to 30 pounds. Tbe location of the fStcr is gcoerally 
bdow tbe racking room in order to get a more steady pressvre 
and flow at the racking bench. 

Pretture RfgMlalbig Pnmp*. In order to obtain a high pres- 
sure on the filter and a lower pressure on the cask special tegulat- 
ii^ pressore pumps are used. These putnps allow any desired 
pressure to be put upon the filter whik tbe pressure on the cask 
can be reduced as low as is ncceisary to deliver the beer to the 




Prossure RenoLiL 

Wilh a high pressure on ihc filter, i. e.. higher than il would be 
safe to put upon llie cask, the advantage ii gained that the filter 
mass can be packed tighler. whereby bellcr filtration is oblained. 
and moreover, beer can be luti throtigb mors rapidly, thus s.ning 
time in washing the Rltcr mass and more frcqnt-nt rt'itatking of 
the filter. 

These pressure regulating pumps are supplied with a regulating 
device, so that any excess pressure, above that .it which the 
pump is set, will be automatically blown off. Such excess pres- 
sure is apt to be caused by the filter mass bccciniing cioggi-d. 

In order to filler out albnmen, etc.. which might pri'iipit.iie if 

the beet' was subsequently subjected to a tcmperaturt lower than 

that at which ll ucnl through llie filter, a cooler is inserted in 

the ran before the beer enters the filter. T\w Xow \em\«.\»\'i^t to 



BREWERY OUTFIT. 687 

this cooler precipitates these substances beforehand, so that they 
can be taken out by the filter. 

Filter Mass Washers. In order to enable the filter mass to be 
used again it is necessary to remove the beer and substances 
filtered out that remain in the fiber after the beer has passed 
through. 

This is done by means of washing devices that consist of a 
vessel containing revolving agitators, arms and a clean water in- 
let at the bottom. The washer is filled with cold water, the pulp 
put in, and the water supply turned on. The stirrers serve the 
purpose of keeping the mass well separated, so that the inflowing 
water will readily mix with the mass and wash it out. 

At the top where the water overflows there is usually a strain- 
ing attachment to intercept the mass that the water has a tend- 
ency to carry away. 

Other forms of washers consist of a tank containing a per- 
forated revolving drum in which the filter mass is placed. 

RACKING MACHINES. 

The racking of beer by the old appliances, that is, through an 
ordinary cock or Y with attached gut, is rapidly being succeeded 
by the employment of back-pressure filling machines. 

By the old method considerable of the carbonic acid contained 
in the beer is allowed to escape, since the beer runs from the cask, 
where it is under considerable pressure, into the package in a 
comparatively small stream at ordinary or atmospheric pressure, 
allowing considerable of its contained gas to escape, owing to 
this sudden reduction of pressure. In ocder to prevent this loss 
of gas by any sudden reduction of pressure racking devices are 
constructed which enable the original pressure, or a greater one, 
to be maintained upon the surface of the beer during the entire 
time required for filling, and practically also while the package is 
being closed. 

The method of operation of most styles is on the following 
principle, the differences being mainly in the construction of the 
several parts: The beer enters through a tube, inserted through 
the bung-hole of the package, and so applied that it can be 
raised or lowered by a lever. This tube is supplied with a rubber 
collar or plug, which is compressible over, or into, the bush in 
an air-tight manner. 

As Oic beer flows into the pack;vgc \>v \u\v\q. o\ "^^ \s\\vv^ 



688 BR£W£RY OUTFIT. 

pressure, the air in it is displaced and passes into a special re- 
ceptacle supplied with a blow-off cock or similar device. The 
amount of back pressure on the package is thus regulated by 
.means of this blow-off device. Between the filling tube and this 
reservoir is placed a "lantern" or glass cylinder, for the purpose 
of indicating when the package is filled. This is readily recog- 
nized, since, as long as the air is passing through this lantern 
it causes white foam to show, which disappears when the beer 
passes through. At this point the supply cock and cock to 
reservoir* are simultaneously closed the filling tube raised 
or removed, and the package dosed. 

These machines are usually constructed with two or more 
filling tubes, so that as sgoon as one package is filled the supply 
and the return from the reservoir immediately flow into another 
package and the filling is thus carried on continuously. 

CARBONATORS. 

These devices are used for the purpose of charging stock or 
"ruh" beer with the carbonic acid gas neccssan- to give it 
proper life. 

The principle of operation of most carbonators allows either a 
stream of beer to come in contact with liquid carbonic acid at a 
high pressure, or forces the beer into a tank, where the gas 
reaches it and is taken up by the beer. The pressures of both 
beer and gas and their relative pressures to each other vary in 
different systems. 

One style of carlwnator on the market consists of a cylinder 
for impregnating the beer and another smaller one. or "lantern," 
for regulating the gas inflow. Both cylinders are connected at 
their tops as well as at their bottoms, with tubes. The lantern 
is placed upon a movable arm or lever, and connected with the 
gas cock in such a manner that as the lantern rises or descends, 
according to the amount of beer contained, it regulates the in- 
flow of the gas. By suitably counter-balancing the lever arm dif- 
ferent regulations are obtained. 

Another style consists of a cylinder containing revolving pad- 
dles and agitating the beer during impregnation. The rogulalii>n 
of the Iwer and gas i.-^ automatically accomplished by moans of a 
float. 

In stJU another style the beer and gas are run together under 



r 



BREWERY OUTFIT. 689 

equal pressure in a continuous manner, through a scries of coils 
uniting again into one discharge pipe. 

Some systems for carbonating comprise, besides the impregnat- 
ing devices, a complete system for collecting, purifying and com- 
pressing the gas. 

WOODEN BUNGS. 

Bungs for brewers' use, although very simple in appearance, 
nevertheless require great accuracy and uniformity in their con- 
struction. They are made from choice poplar wood apd com- 
pressed across the grain. The thickness is usually somewhat 
less than an inch, and the size commonly used in the United 
States is i 15-16 inch diameter. They are first cut cylindrical in 
shape and then compressed at one end so as to enter the bushing 
easily. 

The bung becoming moist by contact with the beer, expands, 
and fits more tightly than at first, for which reason slight leaks 
that appear directly after bunging often disappear soon after- 
wards. 

Wooden bungs, although almost in universal use, present the 
drawback, that, in the closing of the package a blow of consider- 
able force is necessary properly to seat the bung. This may loosen 
the bushing, and cause subsequent leakage, or may crack off part 
of the interior lining of pitch, if such happens to be somewhat 
brittle. 

MECHANICAL BUNGS. 

They consist of two or more metal parts covered with, or con- 
nected by, a rubber housing or disc. By means of an eccentric 
motion these metal parts are either spread or compressed, 
whereby the rubber portion is widened or expanded so as to fill 
the bushing while in the compressed state. This is done by 
means of a key of special construction, so that the bung cannot 
be removed except by a person possessing such a key. They 
should not, however, possess the defect that the opening in the 
bung gets clogged with ice or dirt and prevents the insertion 
of the key and quick removal of the bung. 

Another style of mechanical bung is built upon the check valve 
principle, the internal pressure affecting its closing. In tapping, 
these bungs require a special faucet to fit so that only the pos- 
sessor of one of these can tap the package. The connection be- 
tween faucet and bush is so constructed as lo 2lncai^ Xo'**^ <A ccycv 
tents while tapping, 
44 



690 BREWERY OUTFIT. 

BUlfG KXTRACTOKS. 

The extraction of wooden bongs from returned packages is 
generally a time-consuming operation, especially so when chips 
or pieces of the bang happen to fall inwards. 

In order to meet these drawbacks a special machine for this 
purpose has been put on the market It consists of a revolving 
shaft, supplied at one end with a spedadly constructed au|fer, 
and the whole mounted upon an iron stand. In front of this i« 
l^aced another stand or rest, upon which the packages rest A 
raising and lowering device allows packages of different sizes 
and diameters to be placed so that their bungs will be at the 
same height as the auger. 

Another advantage of this machine is that neither the pitch 
in the package nor the bushing is loosened during the opera* 
tion. In fact, any bushing that may be loose will be tightei ed 
while on the machine, since the revolution of the auger is in 
same direction as the bushing thread. 

BRANDING DEVICES. 

Every package that leaves the brewery should be indelibly 
marked with the name and address of the brewer. The method 
adopted for marking consists in burning these marks into the 
wood. 

This is done by means of a die having raised letters or type. 
The die, or brand, as it is called, is heated in a fire and pressed 
against the package, whereby the raised parts of the brand will 
bum their way into the wood. 

As this method of heating and branding is slow in operation 
and also gives uneven results, devices are in use where the brands 
are continuously heated, saving the time otherwise lost between 
the heating and the application of the implement. 

These styles of devices are made with either one or two 
branding dies. In the single style, the. brand is attached to a 
descending lever, whereby it is pressed upon the head of the 
package underneath. 

The double style has two branding dies placed on upright 

levers, one for each end of the package, and connected to each 

other with a right and left screw. The package is placed upon 

a support between the branding dies, and by turning the screw 

both brands are forced towards each other and against the heads 

0/ the package. An opposite turn oi tV\e ?>ct^^ iw^^n^-s* W^tcv. 



BREWERY OUTFIT. 69I 

The heating is generally done with gasoline vapor or illumi- 
nating gas, burned by mixing with air in a specially constructed 
Bunsen burner. 

BUNG BRANDS. 

Of late many brewers are branding their wooden bungs with 
the date on which the beer was racked or filled into the package. 
This gives them an excellent control over shipping beer, since the 
bung is not disturbed or removed from the package and returns 
with it to the brewery with the branded date still intact. 

The brewer can, therefore, immediately see on what day the 
beer was racked, and may know from what lot or cask it was 
taken, and how long the package was away from the brewery. 
This gives him positive information, often enabling him to settle 
controversies and disputes with his customers quickly and in his 
favor. 

The operation of branding bungs is very rapid and it takes but 
a short time to brand enough for a day's supply. 

Bungs are branded on either side, usually on the outside, al- 
liiough some brewers prefer the inside, as there is then no 
possibility of the mark being effaced. 

The machines for branding bungs employ small brands heated 
by gas, similar to the larger package brands. 

WASH-HOUSE, ETC. 

After the packages are returned to the brewery they must 
be washed thoroughly and examined for leakage and condition 
of the pitch coating, etc. 

The condition of the pitch can be readily determined by an 
experienced man by inserting a light into the package and ex- 
amining its inside surface. 

The washing of the packages was until recently a laborio.us 
operation, each package being handled separately, soaked, 
brushed, rinsed, etc. But automatic devices are now in use 
which soak, convey, scrub and rinse packages with very little 
labor. 

These apparatus consist of a long narrow soaking tank, into 
which the packages are placed. Here they are either pushed 
along by hand or conveyed mechanically. The conveyors either 
run through or above the tank. 

The submerged style carries the packai^^^, ^nVC*^^ >^cvt ^^\k^\n:^ 
style pushes or rolls them, by means oi aw attw t.^\fcTv^vcv^ ^ck^^ 



692 BREWEKV OUTFIT. 

w«rd from the conveyor. After the packages have arrived at the 
other end o( the lank they are placed upon the scrabtnng rnachioc, 
some machines delivering them automatically. 

The waler used for soaking should he as warm as the' ]>iteh 
in the package can stand without sofleniiig. 

The scrubbing machine consiRts of an iron frame holding at its 
lower part two revolving shafts on which are fixed four iron or 
nibber wheels. Upon these wheels the package rests, and these 
shafts and wheels being revolved, the package also revolves, and 
scrapes between and under a set of brushes attached Id the sides 
and upper parts of the frame of the machine, whereby all ex- 
ternal dirt, etc., is removed. 

As the package from the soaking tank is discharged towards 
the scrubbing machine it rolls over and depresses a lever or 
tripper, which spreads the brushes and elevates the ivaslicd pack- 
age already on the scrubber, so that the new package can easily 




isiliun. Ill d'ling this llie new packiigi' dir;li ilgis, by 
or bumping, the wa:;hcd package, the former position 
of which it then occupies. 

.After the lever is released ilic bruslK-s arc ag.iin ttirccd to- 
gether and press tightly upon .ill the surfaces of the revolving 
new package. 

This lever in some styles of m.icliiiies aulnniatically turns 
on the water supply necessary for the i-crubliins optraiioii. the 
latter i.-isuiiig In a spray over the surface of ihe p.ickagc. 

After being scrubbed the packages are plaicl over ami upon 
--' ' ■ ■ r which injects. unAct v^c5.f\w;. ^ ■iv^'s of 



a sprinkler or I 



BREWERY OUTFIT. 693 

clear water into them in order to remove the last traces of soak- 
ing solution, etc., from their insides. 

The final rinsing water should be pure, as part rctnains in the 
package by adhesion and eventually comes in contact with the 

The packages should also be placed over this sprinkler before 
entering the soaking tank, as thereby niuch of the beer r 
etc., can be flushed out. 




KEC nSTATDBS 

In order to raise filled packages from one floor to others 
abo\e or to the loading platform keg elevators are used 

They consist of in endless chain running over two sprocket 
wheels and phced either in an upright or slanting position At- 
Ijched to this chain at intervals are iron arms for the gutv^A^ 
of lifting the packages Close to t\\c &scen4vE\% Ava.\vi ■&. Xw-'Cv^'i 
work or slotted platform is placed a\\o'w\n% Vtit ^^to* qV "Ct-* *' 



694 



BREWERY OUTFIT. 



vator to pass through it freely. All that is necessary to devmte 
a package is to roll it upon this idatform, where it remains mtfl 
the ascending arms grip, raise and again discharge the padage 
when it has passed over the top wheel, in which posttkm the 
arms are above the package. In fact, the whole system of oper- 
ation is the same as that of the endless belt bucket conv^ror. 

SRAVIlfGS WASHER. 

This consists of a differently shaped perforated drum, revolving 
in either direction, and supplied with a central hollow shaft or 
tube with perforations for sprinkling water into the drum. 




Shavings Washer. 

As the drum revolves the chips are agitated by falling, and 
a spray of cold or warm water, as may be desired, is run upon 
the chips to remove or wash off the yeast and other matter. 

PITCHING, AND PITCHING APPLIANCES. 

In order to prevent wooden receptacles from absorbing part 

of the contained liquid within the pores of the wood, which would 

afterward, when they are empty, result in souring and possible 

infection when the package was filled again, such wooden vessels 

receive an internal coating of an inert substance. In open ves- 

s€)s, or such as can be entered by a workman, this coating usually 

consists of varnish, mostly sheWac. aipv^vt^ v^iih a brush, but in 

smaller ones, where this procedure Vs \mvt2Le\Ac2Xi\t, >Jafc v^^^^^Q^^ 



BREWERY OUTFIT. 695 

is to flood or coat the inside of the vessel with a substance 
which readily melts at a temperature not affecting the wood, while 
it does not impart any taste to the beer or other fluid, and is 
easily applied, since it must be often replaced. 

The substance found to be best adapted to this purpose is pitch. 
(See Brewing Materials). 

New packages are treated by first heating the inside of the 
package in order that the injected melted pitch may be able to 
flow evenly over its entire inner surface before cooling, while in 
packages already coated the old coating must be first removed 
by similar internal heating before the fresh coating can be 
properly applied. 

THE OLD METHOD.- 

To accomplish these purposes in the older methods, either 
hot air, that is, air that has been passed through a bed of live coal 
or coke, or superheated steam, or both, are injected into the 
package. In so doing, however, care should be taken not to burn 
the wood around the bung-hole. After the old pitch is removed a 
measured quantity of molten new pitch is injected into the pack- 
age, which is then closed with wooden plugs and rolled or turned 
in order to spread the pitch evenly over the inner surface. Finally, 
any excess of pitch not adhering to the wood is allowed to run 
out. 

The pitch is usually melted in an open iron kettle, heated with 
coal. 

PITCHING MACHINES. 

One form of automatic pitching machine consists of a re- 
ceptacle for heating the pitch, connected with which is a sep- 
arate chamber holding the measured quantity of pitch necessary 
to pitch the package. 

Another style consists of a kettle, at the top of which a hand 
pump having a spray nozzle is attached for the purpose of inject- 
ing pitch into the package. 

A style of pitching machine that has given good results and is 
in quite extensive use has the following construction: A two- 
inch steam pipe leads from a boiler to the pitching machine, which 
may be a distance of 300 feet, if necessary. The steam enters 
the jacket on top of the furnace, is superheated there, and so 
enters the blower, drawing with it hot air from th^ \^0*w^V ^^h^\.- 
ing the furnace top. The combined VvtaX.'td ^vc ^tA ^Nx.'assw v^ 
forced through the grates and fire into 0\^ Xi^xx^s Vox ^icvfc V^s^" 



696 BREWERY OUTFIT. 

poae of meltiiig oat the old pitch. No way of stopping the cgms 
of steam is given in order to do away with the danger of ex- 
plosion. In another form the pitch is injected into the psrirtgr 
l^ means of air pressure iqxm the snrftice of the pitdi, iHule in 
another kind the pitch is remored in one part of the appantas, 
and the package then taken off and placed upon another ptft» 
where the new pitch is injected. 

All the above described madiines rcx|tiire two operationa, via., 
removing the old pitdi and applying die new, and nsually a third 
operation, viz., rolling the packages to get an even distribntkMi 
of the pitch. This reqnires time and labor, and it b not an 
uncommon scene to see quite a number of workmen engaged in 
the pitching and rolling operatioo. 

COMmNATlDN FnCHING MACHINES. 

In 'order to reduce the labor to a minimum, machines are on 
the market which require one man only for their operation and 
in which the packages are stripped of the old pitch and a new 
coating applied in a single operation. 

SPRAYING MACHINES. 

The main features of these machines are as follows: The 
package is placed on the machine with the bung-hole over a 
spray nozzle, and the flow of pitch turned on, whereupon the 
pitch is sprayed into the package, striking the entire inner sur- 
face. This causes the old coat to melt off, flowing back into 
the tank, while a new coating is left in its stead. The flow is 
then stopped, and the package, after the superfluous pitch has 
run out, is taken off the machine in a finished state. One man 
can readily run this process, and rolling of packages is imnecessary 
.with the use of these combined or double-acting machines. 

The machines of this type, however, differ from each other in 
general construction and the means employed to deliver the 
pitch to the package. 

In one style, the pitch is thrown into the package by means 
of a centrifugal pump sucking the pitch inward and forcing it out 
through the nozzles. Here an ingenious movement is used; by 
raising a handle the nozzle is at the same time raised into the 
package and the flow communicated through it. Simultane- 
ously with this Operation a worm gear is connected, and the 
spindle or spray tube and nozrle axe leNoVs^ ^-^ V2Pft% ^"^ the 



BREWERY OUTFIT. 697 

handle is raised. Both flow of pitch and motion cease when the 
handle is depressed. 

Another style of machine likewise employs a centrifugal pump, 
but has a novel device which obviates any serious consequences 
possibly resulting from the man in charge forgetting to 
slop the flow of pitch before he removes the package 
from the machine. The hot pitch cannot be sprayed around, pos- 
sibly scalding the operator seriously. This safety device consists 
of a balanced arm, to one side of which is attached a plunger 
operating a pump in the pitch below. At the outer end of this 
arm is placed a counterweight somewhat lighter than the pack- 
age to be pitched. By placing the package in position it drops 
over the spray nozzle and depresses the side of the arm, and by 
the same motion the descending plunger opens the flow of the 
pitch to the package. When the package is raised, which is 
necessary in order to remove it, since the spray nozzle extends 
into it for some distance and the package cannot be pushed off 
sideways, the counterweight raises the package support and 
by this opposite motion in turn automatically shuts off the flow 
of pitch. 

The other styles of these combination machines differ mainly 
in the general coifstruction of parts or in the method of applying 
the power for injecting the pitch. In some styles this is done 
by means of compressed air acting upon the surface of the pitch 
in the kettle. The spray nozzle in all styles consists either of 
a stationary perforated bulb for sprinkling the hot pitch in all 
directions, or of a revolving slotted bulb ejecting the pitch in a 
thin revolving sheet. In either style the pitch strikes all of the 
inner surface of the package with some force, whereby the old 
coating is melted and rinsed out, running back into the kettle, 
and is replaced by a new coating. 

With these double-acting machines one man can run a four- 
spindle machine by so regulating the placing of the packages 
that as soon as one is placed another is ready for removal. The 
packages must, however, be delivered to him and taken away, 
which usually requires the services of another workman or 
helper. 

After the packages are pitched they are filled with water for 
some time, in order to displace any pitching %:aj&&% "mA. v^ ^^- 
solve any soluble substances which vjou\d Q^«tN«\s»^ V>^ ^v'sasJc*^^ 
by the beer and might affect its quality. 



BREWING OPERATIONS. 



INTRODUCTORY. 



In the follo^ving are given the principles and methods of brew- 
ing, as they are understood and recommended by the American 
Brewing Academy, as well as the Scientific Station for Brewing 
of Chicago. The matter is presented in a very concise manner, 
in accordance with the plsn of this book, refraining from all 
discussions and omitting all subjects that do not appear to have 
practical significance. Readers will find in other parts of the 
book matters pertaining to Brewing Science, theoretical, histori- 
cal and explanatory. 

As far as Brewing Operations are concerned it seemed to the 
publishers essential to have the subject treated from one stand- 
point, so as to avoid confusing the reader, who is not supposed 
to study this part" with a view of drawing his own conclusions, 
but rather of obtaining advice. If. therefore, statements are 
made which, in the light of the present status of brewing sci- 
ence, must be considered to be still in doubt, the reader will re- 
member the reasons that prompted an avoidance of discussion 
at the respective place. For the same reasons it was found un- 
desirable to make extensive mention of literature in this part of 
the book. 

GENERAL OUTLINE. 

Brewing Operations, properly so-called, embrace the produc- 
tion of the wort from the raw materials. They include all the 
operations from the scouring or cleaning of the malt up to the 
point when yeast is added to the finished wort in the settling 
tank or the fermenting vat. 
Before selecting and weighing the materials, in order to start 
IfreHr/ng- operations, the brewer should clearly understand the re- 
Qutrements the finished product is to meel, ^tv^ ^n^vj o^^x'^Xvtvn 

698 



BREWING OPERATIONS. 699 

he carries out should be undertaken with a knowledge of the 
influence it may have in shaping the character of the beer as de- 
sired. 

Beers as we find them in the market vary greatly as to their 
properties. We may distinguish, for instance: 

1. The Bavarian type of lager beer, with a dark color, malt 
flavor, and a sweetish taste as the main features, with the aroma 
and bitter taste of hops but Httle pronounced; usually lively and 
sparkling. 

2. The Bohemian type of lager beer, with a light color, pro- 
nounced hop aroma, and bitter taste; while the malt flavor is not 
pronounced ; usually lively and sparkling. 

3. The American type of lager beer, with a light color and pro- 
nounced hop aroma; less bitter than the Bohemian, with a high 
degree of brilliancy; quite lively and sparkling. 

4. Ale, with a light color, very pronounced hop aroma and bit- 
ter taste, and with a rather high percentage of alcohol and tart 
taste in the aged product, cither lively or still, and usually clear. 

5. Stout, with a very dark color, malt flavor and sweet taste, 
brewed stronger than ale, and possessing a tart taste in the aged 
product, but less alcohol than ale; usually lively. 

6. PVeiss beer, very light in color, no pronounced malt or hop 
flavor, quite tart, very lively, but not sparkling; usually turbid. 

7. Common or Steam Beer, light in color, hop aroma and bit- 
ter taste not very pronounced; very lively and not necessarily 
brilliant. 

The American, Bohemian and Bavarian types of lager beer 
should possess a certain degree of palatefulness, and should 
draw with a creamy, lasting head, which requirements are not 
to the same extent to be met by the other brands. 

Besides the above there are brewed in America beers to meet 
special requirements, for instance: 

Temperance beers, so-called; bottled goods, with a percentage 
of alcohol less than 2 per cent. Such beers are considered non- 
intoxicating, and are not excluded from the market in so-called 
temperance districts. 

Tonics, so-called: Bottled goods brewed with a high percent- 
age of extract, usually pure malt beers, possessing a dark color, 
either thoroughly fermented with a high percentage of alcohol 
and comparatively low percentage oi T^uv^\mYv% ^^\x^^v, ^^ ^'«^- 



TOO BREWING OPERATIONS. 

pcrfectiy fermented, with a low percentage of alcohol and high 
percentage of remaining extract 

The selection of the methods to be employed to produce beer 
should be made from the point of view of quality, that is, char- 
acter, of the finished product, and from the view point of 
eoonomy. 

PROPERTIES OF A BEER. 

The character or properties of a beer are necessarily dependent 
upon its composition, that is, upon the amount and nature of cer- 
tain substances contained in the beer, and although we may not 
as yet be able to account chemically for every peculiarity of char- 
acter a beer may possess, it seems justifiable to express the well- 
known properties of beer in terms of concrete chemical sub- 
stances. 

Such properties of beer are: 

"Palate-fulness (body)," dependent upon the relative amounts 
of extractive matter, especially albuminoids (albunioses, peptones, 
amides). 

"Foam-holding capacity/* dependent on a definite amount of 
carbonic acid gas, and on the same substances that give palate- 
fulness. 

'Life," dependent on amount of carbonic ac«d. 
'Color," dependent on amount of caramel. 
'Malt Flavor," also dependent on amount of caramel. 
'Hop Flavor." dependent on amount of hop-oil. 

"Taste:" "Bitter," dependent on amount of hop resin ; "sweet," 
on amount of sugar (kracusened l*eers) and nialio-dcxtrin; 
"tart," on amount of lactic acid; refreshing taste, on amount 
of carbonic acid. 

"Stimulating effect" on consumer, dependent on amount of 
alcohol. 

"Brilliancy," by which we mean the property of a beer of 
being transparent. Brilliancy may be impaired by particles in 
suspension, which may consist of either complete organisms or 
organic matter. The former may be either yeast cells, and in 
that case culture yeast, wild yeast, or mycodtrma; or. bacteria. 
under which head come sarcina. lactic acid ferments, butyric acid 
ferment, acetic acid ferment, saccharobacillus pastorianus. The 
organic matter may consist of starch, albuminoids, or hop resin. 
Inorganic matter is found in rare instances as a c^ws^ q\ wtcVa^Wn . 



"] 
"( 
"j 

4*1 



BREWING OPERATIONS. 7OI 

"Durability (stability)," by which we mean the property of a 
beer of retaining its character after it is finished. This property 
may suffer from yeast cells, bacteria, or albuminoids, or any con- 
dition favorable to the growth of yeast or bacteria, like presence 
of sugar, or storing at high temperatures. It is enhanced by the 
amounts of alcohol, carbonic acid, lactic acid, and hop-resin, 
which have the force of natural preservatives. 

COMPOSITION OF BEER. 

The substances that make up beer, varying in ratio according 
to the character of the beer, are : 

Non-volatile: i. Albuminoids, divided into albumoses, pep- 
tones, amides, all of which are desirable, and proteids, which are 
undesirable. 2. Carbohydrates, as dextrin, malto-dextrin, mal- 
tose. 3. Miscellaneous bodies, as lactic acid, mineral substances, 
hop-resin, and caramel. 

Volatile : Alcohol, carbonic acid, water and hop-oil. 

BEERS CLASSIFIED. 

The composition of a beer is dependent upon the composition 
of the wort from which it has been produced, on the method em- 
ployed in fermentation, and on the treatment of the beer after 
fermentation. According to the .system of fermentation employed. 
l>eers may be classified as follows: 

I. BOTTOM FERMENTATION. 

a. Pilsener i 

b. Wiener I- German Lager Beers. 

c. Mucnchcncr ' 

d. American Lager Beers. 

e. American Steam Beers. 

2. TOP FERMENTATION. 

f. Ale / 

g. Porter : English Beers. 

h. Stout ) 

i. IVeiss Beer. 

3. SPONTANEOUS FERMENTATION. 

k Fa "J'*'. :::::::::::::::;:::::::!■ seigi"" Beers. 

The influence of the system of fermentation on the composition 
of the beer becomes noticeable, espec\;!iU^ m \>cv^ ^x^'t-t^ivx v>^'?:«v- 
tities of lactic acid produced during i^YTtvexvV^NAOXv "^^cv^ '5N52>x-^^y 



702 BREWING OPERATIONS. 

Bottom fermentation beers have less lactic acid and fewer bac- 
teria than top fermentation beers, these, in turn, have less than 
spontaneous fermentation beers. 

WORT. 

The term "wort" is applied to the fluid produced by the process 
of brewing proper from the raw materials and before its trans- 
formation into beer by fermentation. As to where the fluid 
ceases to be wort and begins to be beer, no hard and fast line 
has been established. The materials from which the wort is 
made are malt and malt adjuncts, hops and hop preparations, and 
water. 

INGREDIENTS DERIVED. 

The ingredients of the wort arc derived as follows: 

BSu"?extrin :: ! ^T,.f,'l!!''' ^ '*^'**" "^ 1 

^ I C4' a Si list ........•..•.• I 

^^ ! Enzymes gcner- 

. ., , alcd in barley hv 

Amides ! : ,,,qi#;,,jr 

Peptones from albumen of malt by * *' 

Albumoses action of peptase 

Proteids 

Caramel — funiicd tn)ni sugar in kiln-drying ■ 

of malt. , 

Lactic acid — formed during germination by ; 

action of lactic acid ferment and at low ' p^frnctcd bv 

temperature in mash. w-iter 

Mineral substances — from malt or adjunct^ ' 

to malt. 

S^P^*^ (from hops. 

Hop resm ^ * 

PRINXIPLKS OF M.XSHING. 

Mashing is the process of extracting the poods by mixing them 
with water at suitahle tiiiiperatures and in proper relative quan- 
tities, preparatory to boiling in the kettle. 

flKiiMcally. it proceeds in the main by the inversion of the 
starch into maltose, malto-iK xtrin. and dextrin, and the modifica- 
tion of the insoluble albuminoids into a soluble form. These 
changes are brought about by the agency of two substances which 
are cuntained in the mall. an<l begin operations whkii the malt is 
ni'fxcf] with water at dofini!«- temi>eratures. 
These suhstnnccs arc called diastase and peptase. They were 
formerly called c/ieniical ferments as d\stm€^\^Vv^^ ^^^^^ ^^^ ^^- 



BREWING OPERATIONS. 703 

ganic ferments which are responsible for fermentation. At the 
present day the term enzymes, or soluble ferments^ is more com- 
monly applied to them. It is the function of the diastase to in- 
vert the starch, of the peptase to modify the albuminoids of malt, 
as above indicated. 

The amounts, both absolute and relative, of dextrin, malto- 
dextrins and maltose, as well as of the modified albuminoids like 
albumoscs, peptones and amides, finally present in the wort, are 
materially affected by the conditions ' under which the enzymes 
do their work. Hence, it is in the power of the brewer to control 
the composition of the wort, within certain limits, by modifying 
such conditions. 

DIASTASE AND STARCH. 
(See also Chemistry.) 

Diastase is a body having many properties in common 
with vegetable albumen of the type of proteids. It is readily 
soluble in water. A solution heated to 178** F. (65° R.) precipi- 
tates, like proteids, flakes of albumen, the diastase coagulates and 
loses its power of inverting starch. A solution of diastase, upon 
being introduced into starch gelatinized by heating in water, 
liquefies the starch, and then inverts it into dextrin, malto-dex- 
trins, and sugar. Inversion is most rapid between 122° and 140** 
F. (40° to 48** R.). As the temperature rises up to 167'' F. (60° 
R.), the inversion of starch proceeds more slowly, its action prac- 
tically ceasing at 178° F. (65** R.), the ratio of sugar declining, 
and that of dextrin increasing above 140** F. (48** R.). 

Below 122® F. (40° R.) the energy of diastase declines more 
and more, but remains to some extent even at 32° F. (0° R.). 
This fact is utilized for the purpose of clarifying beers in case 
of starch turbidity by adding malt extract. 

Diastase acts but slowly on starch that has not been gelatinized. 
Gelatinization must therefore precede inversion. 

GELATINIZATION OF STARCH. 

Starch being mixed with water, and the mixture heated, at a 
certain temperature the starch granules begin to swell and finally 
burst, and a gelatinous mass or starch-paste results. For crushed 
malt, this process goes on rather slowly in the mash at tempera- 
tures between 122 and 144° F. (40-48° R.), and more rapidly as lb.<L 
heat approaches 167" F. (60" R.), \\V\\\e '\\. \% o^oAVt \tss;\^\^<^'^>>>^ 
under JOO° F. (30"" R.). 



704 BREWING OI'ERATIONS. 

■Hies wotL GaAtiH luiro staich. 

The following general rales can be given for the geTatinization 
of starch when brought together with water. 

I. — The higher the temperature, the more quickly will the 
starch gelatinize. In boiling water (aia* F.) the starch will gcla- 
tuiize, for instance, more qniddy than in water of 167** P. (60* 
IL)» and in water of 250* P. (97^ R.)— when heated under pres- 
sure — more quickly than at the boiling point. 

7. — The more finely divided the starch, the more quickly will 
it gelatinize. Corn meal will gelatinize more quickly than coarse 
grits at the same temperature; com flour more quickly than 
corn meal. 

3. — The more flinty the starch, the slower will it gelatinize. 
The starch in crashed malt will gelatinize more quickly than the 
starch in corn meal of the same degree of fineness, the starch in 
com meal being more flinty. 

In malt we have the starch, generally speaking, in different 
degrees of mellowness and fineness. Some of this starch will 
be readily soluble at comparatively low temperature, i. c. between 
12a and 144* F. (40-48" R.), while the coarser and more flinty 
particles need higher temperatures for gelatinization ; the dias- 
tase acting practically only upon gelatinized starch. The time 
required for complete inversion of the starch depends upon the ra- 
pidity of gelatinization and upon the energy of the diastase at cer- 
tain temperatures. Thus, although at 133* F. (45° R.), the energy 
of the diastase is very great, the diastase inverting the gelatinized 
starch almost instantaneously, complete inversion is not so 
quickly attained, in a malt mash, for instance, at this temperature, 
as it is at 167'' F. (60" R.), where the energy of the diastase is 
greatly diminished, but the rapidity of gelatinization much in- 
creased. 

The time required for the complete inversion of the starch 
in a malt mash, when kept at certain temperatures, has been 
found to be : 

At degrees F 100 129 140 149 158 167 176 

At degrees R 30 40 48 52 56 60 64 

Time for complete gela- **'<> 

tinization and inver- iSvenSoJi 

sion in hours irfiuinvu. 24 6 i % i 2 

The time will, of course, vary with the character of malt, no 
/nro mashes giving exactly the same figate&. 



BREWING OPERATIONS 705 

When holding corn meal at various temperatures, gelatuiiia- 
tion has been found to proceed as follows : 
At degrees F. . 30 122 150 190 212 300 

very more very 

none. slow. slow. rapid, rapid, rapid. 

INFLUENCE OF DIASTASE ON GELATINIZED STARCH IN SESPECr TO 

PRODUCTS FORMED. 

Diastase acting upon gelatinized starch transforms or inverts 

this substance into other products, of which the important ones 

are the different forms or tjrpes of 

Dextrins, 

Malto-dextrins, 

Sugars. 

DEXTRINS. 

(Sec also "Chemistry.") 

The "amylo-dextrin" and "erythro-dextrin" are undesirable. 
They are not soluble at low temperatures and give rise to so- 
called starch turbidities when present in the beer. 

The desirable type among dextrins is the achroodextrin, 
which is the one commonly designated as dextrin. 

The dextrins are practically un fermentable by culture yeast, 
and are found in the extract of the beer in the same amount as 
contained in the wort. 

SUGARS. 

Of the different types of sugars contained in wort, the one 
known as "maltose" is the most important. Besides this, small 
amounts of saccharose (ordinarily termed cane sugar) and dex- 
trose (ordinarily termed grape sugar) and levulose (ordinarily 
termed fruit sugar) are also present. 

All these sugars are readily fermented. Their amount de- 
termines the percentage of alcohol in the fermented beer, and the 
degree of fermentation. 

MALTO-DEXTRINS. 

The malto-dextrins represent substances that may be considered 
as in a state of transition from the dextrins to maltose. They do 
not ferment with the same facility as the sugars, and are not found 
in tlic fermented beer in their entire quantity like, tlwrtlextrfSis. 
They are called the "not readily fermentable" sugars. Some 
species of yeast, the so-called high-fermenting types, ferment 
these malto-dextrins more readily than othei^, \\\^ ^^-^''^^^ ^"^^^ 
fermenting types.— (See also "Yeasts 2lw^ '^txTcv^xvX.^'CvycvV^ 

46 



706 BREWING OPERATIONS. 

FROFORTIONS OF DEXTKIN, MALTOSE AND MACTO-DEXTRINS. 

According to the conditions under which inversion- takes place, 
which are mainly those of temperatures and periods of action, the 
proportions of these different carbohydrates to each other may 
vary considerably. 

At temperatures where the diastatic energy is not weakened 
there is a tendency to form more maltose and less dextrin than 
at temperatures where the diastatic energy has become affected 
by high heats. Thus below 140* F. (48* R.) the proportion of 
maltose to dextrin is greater than above 140° F. (48^ R.), and the 
higher the temperature is selected for inversion above 140® F. 
(48* R.), the greater will bo the relative amount of dextrin. 

The diastase continues to act on the dcxtrins and malto-dextrins 
already formed, changing them to maltose. The longer the mash 
is held at certain temperatures, the greater will be the amount of 
maltose in proportion to the amount of dextrin. 

The absolute amount of dextrin formed may approximate that 
of the maltose, but is never found to be higher under the condi- 
tions obtaining in the brewery. 

The relative amounts of sugar and non-sug^r found in the 
mash, when the mixture of malt and water is held at certain tem- 
peratures until inversion is complete, is about as follows : 

At degrees F 100 123 140 149 154 158 163 176-178 

At degrees R 30 40 48 5-2 54 56 58 64-65 

Ratio of sugar to 

non-sugar 100:.. 20 20 20 40 50 60 70 100 

Or percentage of 

sugar in extract. . S3 83 S3 y\ 67 62.5 59.8 50 

In carrying out the mashing process, therefore, we must con- 
sider : 

1. That under 100° F. (30'^ R \ but little starch of the 

malt is gelatinized. 

2. That ab'-ve 150° F. {^2'' R.). the starch of the r.\ilt 

is gelatinized rapidly. 

3. That bc'.'u n>) V. (30'' R.). little siipar or dextrin is 

fo'niod. 

4. That bttwecn 122' F. (40"^ R. ) and 140° F. (48'' R.). 

ir.iicl' sugar nnd little dextrin is formed. 
5 Tliat n'>':'\o 150" F. {^2' R. ». ir«?s sugar and more 
dextrin is formed ilian between 122 and 140** F. 
(40 and 48° R.). 



BREWING OPERATIONS. 707 

6. That unmalted cereals, containing starch in a flinly 
state, must be boiled to gelatinize the starch. 

PEPTASE AND ALBUMEN. 
(See also "Chemistry.") 

The action of this enzyme lies in the direction of making soluble 
those albuminoids which are insoluble in the ordinary state. It 
acts only upon the albumen of malted cereals, develops the great- 
est efficiency at about 100* F. (30* R.), and declines in strength 
when the temperature rises above 133** F. (45* R.): 

At degrees F. . .32 55-77 100-133 145-158 158-212 

At degrees R. . . o 10-20 30-45 50-56 56-80 

very more very no 

slow. rapid. rapid. slower. action. 

SOLUBLE ALBUMINOIDS. 

The soluble albuminoids produced by peptase may be classified 
as proteids, albumoses, peptones and amides, although there must 
be conceded to be a number of intermediate products. 

PROTEIDS. 

The proteids are not desirable in wort, and should be eliminated 
therefrom as far as practicable. The hazy appearance of the wort 
when running from the mash tub is mostly due to proteids. They 
are only partially eliminated by boiling the wort, a haze generally, 
and a strong turbidity sometimes, becoming noticeable when the 
wort is reduced to the temperature for starting fermentation. 

The nature of the proteids found in wort and beer shows con- 
siderable differences. From 100° F. (30° R.) to 133° F. (45** R.), 
proteids are formed that are precipitated easily in the kettle ond 
storage vat, and produce good hot and cold **breaks." The higher 
the temperature above 133** F. (45° R.) at which proteids are 
formed, the less desirable their nature. A wort that breaks well 
after cooling to 35** to 40** F. (3° to 4° R.), or filters clear at that 
temperature, retains but small amounts of undesirable proteids. 

In the finished beer a haze sometimes appears at low cellar tem- 
peratures, which vanishes when the temperature is raised; or the 
beer runs clear at the racking bench and develops a sediment in 
the bottle after pasteurization. In both cases the cause is in the 
proteids if the beer is otherwise sound and properly Vc^-^v^V 



7o8 BREWING OPERATIONS. 

PEPTONES^ AMIDBS AND ALBUMOSC 

Albumose, peptones and amides are called desirable albuminoids. 
They lend foam-holding capacity and palate-fulness, or body, to 
the beer, especially the amides to a marked degree, the latter sup- 
plying also nourishment for the yeast, while the peptones are not 
readily taken up by the yeast, and the albumoses do not famish it 
with any nourishment 

Of the total amount of albtmiinoids contained in the wort, about 
25 per cent or one-quarter is taken up by the yeast tmder ordi- 
nary conditions of fermentation. 

Holding the mash at a low temperature — below 133* F. 
(45*^ R.) — promotes the formation of desirable albuminoids, 
whereas a higher initial mashing temperature — not to exceed 
167° F. (60° R.) — diminishes the amount of desirable albu- 
nihioids and correspondingly increases the amounts of the unde- 
sirable proteids. 

MASHING METHODS AND CHARACTER OF BEER. 

The method of mashing to be followed is determined by the 
requirements as regards the character of beer, etc., and an intel- 
ligent selection of the method to be adopted in order to obtain the 
desired result can be made only with a full understanding of the 
principles above laid down. 

H it is desired to obtain a beer with a high degree of palate- 
fulness and foam-holding capacity, the brewer must understand 
how to incorporate in the wort the desirable albuminoids and 
unfermentable extractive substances on which these properties de- 
pend, at the same time avoiding the undesirable albuminoids where 
durability is an additional requirement. 

This can be done bv peptonizing at low temperatures, for in- 
stance, 100° F. (30*^ R.). I<^r one hour, and inverting the starch at 
higher teniperatur<.s. for instance, between 154 and 167° F. (54 
and 60' R.). in 30 minutes, and raising the temperature rapidly 
between ux)' F. (30" R.) and 154" F. (54° R.) in 20 minutes to 
a\oid the formation of too much maltose. 

If we v.isli to obtain beers with a very low percentage of 
alcolit-l. and a vcr^' high percentage of extract, we can do so by 
starting the r.ia.-h with a ur.ipcralure above 154^ F. (54** R.) if we 
do not at tiic same time require the albuminoids for palate-fulness, 
etc. If wc wi^li to obtain beers with a high percentage of alcohol, 
lie should hold the mash long enough between 122 and 140° F. 
(40 and 48'' R.),at which tempcralute m^Xvose \^ m7i\v\>j -^x^v^uced. 



BREWING OPERATIONS. 709 

ECONOMY. 

The selection of the proper brewing methods should not be gov> 
erned altogether by the composition of wort and quality of beer to 
be produced, but due regard should be had to economy of opera- 
tion. Especially should it be the endeavor of the brewer to 
minimize any and every waste, be it of materials, coal or labor. 

By waste of material is meant the loss occasioned by insuffi- 
ciently extracting the materials, especially malt and cereals, 
thereby allowing too much of the valuable constituents to remain 
in the grains. 

By waste of coal in this connection is meant the loss occasioned 
by* adopting unscientific methods of brewing that call for 
an excessive expenditure of heat, for instance, boiling the brewing 
water or the wort longer than necessary, or cooling the wort be- 
fore the addition of yeast to an excessively low temperature. 

TO OBTAIN A HIGH YIELD. 

In order to keep down the waste of malt and cereals, the most 

perfect yield possible ought to be obtained from the materials. 

Three different operations are essential to accomplish this result : 

I. To prepare the starch and the albumen for inversion 

as completely as possible. 
3. To invert the starch and albumen, so prepared, as 

completely as possible. 
3. To extract the grains as completely as possible. 
In fulfilling the first requirement, .viz., the preparation for in- 
version, it should be borne in mind that the albumen can be made 
invertible only by the process of germination of the gniin. The 
starch can be made invertible by the following means and pro- 
cesses : 

1. Malting (cereals, especially barley). 

2. Crushing (malt). 

3. Rolling (cereals with mealy endosperms or starchy 

part, especially wheat). 

4. Grinding (corn, rice). 

5. Boiling (corn, rice, flinty malt). 

6. Boiling under pressure (corn). 

7. Steaming and rolling (corn, by which method corn 

flakes are produced). 

With regard to the second requirement lot %. v^tV^^\.Nf\^^,'*^T--> 
the complete inversion of the prepared slaxcVv ^xA ^JCcavkv^xv, \v >>* 



7IO BREWING OPERATIONS. 

to be said that inversion should take place in the mash tub at loc- 
133** F. (30-45* R-) ^or albumen and 153-167* F. (54-60° R.) for 
starch. 

With regard to the third requirement for a perfect yield, viz^ 
the complete extraction of the grains, this is done by washing out 
the extract with water (sparging). In order to extract the 
grains most completely it is necessary to reserve as much water 
for sparging as possible. Generally the brewer should be able 
to reserve at least one-half of the water employed for the brew 
for this purpose. 

MASHING OPERATIONS. 

The mash should be so conducted as to secure the desired coni- 
po&ition of the wort and obtain the largest possible yield of ex- 
tn^ci from the goods employed. 

With respect to securing the desired composition, the condi- 
tions which control the ratio of sugar to dextrin and the produc- 
tion of desirable albuminoids should be observed. 

With a view of obtaining the full yield which the goods can 
afford, it is necessary to prepare fur inversion, and invert, the 
starch in the brc>ving materials, and to wash out the grains, most 
completely. 

It is with an eye to these requirements that the malt should 
be prepared so as to possess a proper degree of mellowness and 
f liability and no vitreous or flinty quality. Such a malt will af- 
ford the mash liquor ready access to all its parts, subjecting them 
to the action of the enzymes. 

The same purpose is served by crushing or grinding the malt, 
which is always done before running it into the mash tun. The* 
more mellow the malt, as to consistency, the less fine need the 
grist be. and. on the other hand, the less mellow the malt, ihe 
finer should the griit l-c. 

Where the degree of mellowness is quite low. the crushed 
malt may wiih profit Ijc prepared in the rice cooker, with or with- 
out raw graiu. :.s it is apt 10 give rise to dithculiies of drainage 
if p'.it into the .'iiafh without preparation. Any malt should 
be <o gr< und ::.at every single grain is crushed, but not so as to 
hccniv.c pulvcrizvd. 
Core >i}'.:uid pA>o bo taken to remove ^\\ \.W ^>^xviw\% s\\\^^ >3wej ' 
contain //j.wn undesirable proVeids.— v^Svx: ''C\v:vvv:\\\^ ^VAS:^ vev 
"Malt i/c*u-e cjuifit/') 



BREWING OPERATIONS. 7II 

MASHING SYSTEMS. 

Different methods of applying temperatures to a mash supply 
the following systems: 

1. Infusion or water mash: 

American Malt Beers. — From lower initial temper- 
ature to higher final temperature. 
English Beers. — ^High initial temperature. 

2. Decoction or Thick Mash. — German beers. 

3. Double Mash. — American raw cereal beers. 

By the infusion method, the mash is brought to its final tempera- 
ture by the admixture of water of suitably high temperature. By 
the decoction method, part of the mash itself is raised to a boil 
and then returned to the mash-tun. By the American raw cereal 
mash the raw grain is boiled separately and run into the malt 
mash to produce the final temperature. 

Malt contains diastase in quantities sufficient to convert into 
maltose more starch than that which is stored up in the malt 
itself. This fact, which was known for many years, naturally 
led to efforts to put this valuable substance to practical use. 
Brewing experts, among them Balling, years ago utilized the ex- 
cess diastase in malt for the purpose of converting the starch of 
unmalted grain, or raw cereals, into such materials as were useful 
to brewers, but owing to legal restrictions the utilization of un- 
malted cereals never acquired any importance in Germany. 

American malts on an average possess a much greater diastatic 
strength than German malts, in fact, their power in this respect 
is so great that there is danger of carrying saccharification too 
far, if the mashing temperatures that are customary in Germany 
were retained. Hence, the principles of raw cereal brewing be-- 
came the subject of closer study in this country. 

INTRODUCTION OF RICE ANI) CORN. 

It was Anton Schwarz who first advised the employment of 
rice and subsequently of Indian corn, which is so abundant in 
this country. The stubborn perseverance with which he sought 
to convert the conservative brewers to his ideas and finally suc- 
ceeded in so doing and, last, not least, \\\e ^\?»con^t^ cA ^>\\\."^<^^ 
methods for scientidcdWy applying tV\cvT\, tT\t\\\^ Vatcv V^ ''^^^ ^^^^^ 
the founder of mw cereal brewing in lV\e \3t\\\.<i^ 'tiX^V^^- 
The method suggested by him was \>ased >^VQVv v\v^ ^^""^ 



712 BREWING OPERATIONS. 

doughing-in the raw grain with a little malt in a separate vessel, 
making the starch of this ravr* cereal as nearly as possible en- 
tirely soluble by boiling, and running this mash into the malt 
mash, thereby raising the temperature of the latter to the desired 
degree, and utilizing the excess diastatic strength of the malt for 
the qpmplete inversion of the starch in the raw cereals. 

It was soon discovered by the brewers that the use of raw 
cereal adjuncts not only gave a paler color, greater stability and 
other valuable properties to the beer, but also enabled beers to be 
produced more cheaply, and its adoption speedily became general. 
Schwarz never advised using too much nfw cereal, but rather 
opposed it. One-third of the materials figured for malt seemed 
to him quite sufficient, for with this wise restriction no injurious 
change in taste need be feared. He also successfully opposed 
the erroneous opinion that raw cereal worts required more hops 
than all-malt worts, whereby the saving would be about neutral 
i?ed. 

In 1881 Siebel wrote a treatise (Verbrauen von Rohfrucht. 
Western Brewer, 1881, page 1463) on the employment of malt 
adjuncts, like corn, rice and sugar, from which it appears that 
the methods then employed in the treatment of corn remained 
subsequently practically unchanged until the introduction of the 
pressure cooker. 

PREP.^RED CORN. 

The increase in plant from the necessity of having two mash 
tubs \\as met by preparing the corn by steaming, rolling, etc., so 
that it was readily convertible in the mash-tun. This led to the 
introduction of corn tlakcs, first among which was "Cerealine." 
It cannot be denied that there are advantages in using these 
goods, which can bo added directly in the niash-tun, especially 
in small breweries having only one mash-tun (see also ''Mash- 
ing Operations"). 

In 1887 ilic United States Brewers* Association offered a 
prize for a pamphlet describing the known methods of raw cereal 
browing, pointing out the best ones and giving reasons for recom- 
mending tho:n. tlie rapid development of the matter having given 
rise to a need of tiirowing light on some of the less suitable meth- 
ods. The task was performed satisfactorily by A. Weingaertner. 
nho kept within the limits of t\\e ptesciWicd SM\i\^ic\. \\\\\Ocv ic^ 



BREWING OPERATIONS. 7I3 

quired a critidsm of existing methods, and only adding that 
where the taste and odor of the goods employed were not quite 
perfect an addition of some bone-black (1:1000) to the raw 
grain would do good service. 

It having been discovered that the composition of wort did not 
always come up to what might be expected in practical work, A. 
Schwarz, about a year afterward, proposed to >*ithhold part of the 
malt and add it to the total mash after the raw cereal wort had 
been run in, proper temperatures being observed. The proposition 
met with approval and proved successful. 

Mention may here be made of an improvement in this process, 
which was made by R. Wahl. A greater degree of stability had 
come to be required, of late, in beer, and a slight haze was often 
found in beers made according to this method, or bottle beer 
became turbid readily. Wahl attributed this precipitate to 
the albuminoids of the malt last added, which could not 
be properly converted at the high temperatures at which 
they entered the mash. It is, therefore, advisable for bottle 
beers to dough-in all the malt at low temperatures, or to run off 
the liquid part of the mash at a low temperature and add it once 
more at a higher degree of heat. 

Distilleries had long been employing steam pressure for the 
purpose of dissolving the starch of their raw material, potatoes 
and corn, and it was natural to introduce the same process into 
raw cereal bre\iing. Thausing referred to experiments in this 
line in 1882, mentioning the Maccrator and the Hollcfrcund 
apparatus. Some experiments were also made in the United 
States, but no results obtained until, in 1887, L. Frisch carried 
these experiments out practically and by pursuing the idea made 
an unquestioned success of it. He was followed by Rach, whose 
process differed from that of Frisch, in that he combined with 
the dissolution of the raw cereal starch under steam pressure, a 
mashing method for obtaining worts with a relatively low per- 
centage of sugar and high percentage of dextrin. 

The extract obtained by Frisch from corn \\as much higher 
than this material had been kno\iii to yield before. It was sub- 
sequently found that by boiling the corn a longer time than had 
been recommended prior to this period C^^^ S>\^^, x'^x^ -s^:^^ 
Wein^aer/ner, j88y, both of whom metv\\oTv ^ TcvYcv>a\.t'i ^-^ '^ 



714 BREWING OPERATIONS. 

■■■^■■■Mim tune of boUtng) ^ipcoxiiiiatcly the suiie jrtdd ooukl 
be 'ObtatiMsd in the ordtufy oooloer. 

PUBE STAKCH AS A MALT ADJUNCT. 

Pnre starch naturally was considered the nu>st perfect raw 
adjunct for malt, and considerable quantities oi wet or green 
starch were used in breweries, but with little success. Such at- 
tends '^ere frequently attended with deposits under the false 
bottom and consequent starch turbidity of wort and beer. 

Recently, M. Henius succeeded in elaborating a method whercl^ 
the diflkulties that prevented the use of pure starch in brewing 
are removed. Henius' method of treatment will be found in de- 
tail under "Treatment of Uamalted Cereals." 

AMERICAN LACOt BBIRS. 

Materials, — In America pale malt is generally used for pale, as 
well as dark beers, for the latter an addition being made of 
caramel malt, black malt, roasted malt, roasted com or sugar 
color. (See Brewing Materials.) 

For pale beers, malt, together with nnmalted cereals usually to 
the amount of one-third of the grist, but varying from 10 to 50 
per cent, are used. The most popular material in an unmalted 
condition is prepared com in the form of corn grits, or com 
meal, while flakes are also largely employed, and have the ad- 
vantage of direct addition to malt-mash, not necessitating any 
previous treatment whatsoever by the brewer. Corn flakes, rice 
and, lately, cornstarch share the favor of the brewer in the pro- 
duction of a high class bottle beer, and sugars, like anhydrous 
and glucose, may be used for krausening purposes. Unmalted 
wheat is also employed locally. 

As to the advantages of unmalted cereals, as compared with 
malt, it may be said that, aside from the point of view of 
economy, the character of the beer as produced by their aid meets 
with greater favor with the American public on account of lighter 
color, greater brilliancy and stability, and lighter body than all- 
malt beers. 

As to the respective merits of the various unmalted cereals, 
cornstarch and other corn goods, like corn flakes, corn grits or 
meal can be used equally as well as rice, if the amount of com 
oiJ docs not exceed that of rice. Wheat has the advantage of a 

er amount of desirable albuminoids, V>u\. \.\v^ ^\^aL^N^wVa.\yt qI ^ 



BREWING OPERATIONS. 71 5 

larger amount of undesirable albuminoids also. Consequently, 
beers produced with the aid of wheat, instead of com or rice, will 
show increased palate-fulness, but a decreased stability of the 
bottled goods. 

The amount of materials to be used per barrel of beer depends 
upon the gravity or strength of the wort, and the yield of the 
material. The brewery yield will never be so high as the labora- 
tory yield, but should approach it within 2 to 3 per cent. A good 
quality of malt should yield 64 to 65 per cent of extract, a good 
quality of corn grits, corn meal, 75 per cent, com flakes and rice 
78 per cent 

Malt Beers are brewed from 12 to 15 per cent Bllg., and re- 
quire from 50 to 65 pounds of malt. 

Pale lager beer should be brewed from 12 to 13 per cent Bllg., 
and require from 48 to 53 pounds, of which one-third xnay be un- 
malted cereals. 

Pale bottled lager beers should be brewed 13 to 15 per cent 
Bllg., and require from 52 to 60 pounds of material, two-thirds 
of which may be malt and one-third unmalted cereals. 

Temperance beers are brewed about 7 to 8 per cent Bllg. 

Malt tonics are brewed about 15 to 18 per cent Bllg. 

For details of the manufacture of bottle beers, temperance 
beers and tonics, see "Special Beers." 

Water, — ^The amount of water to be employed in the production 
of one hundred barrels of wort is approximately 135 barrels. 
Some of the water employed is left in the grains (about 20 bar- 
rels), some is evaporated in boiling (about 10 barrels), some is 
evaporated on the surface cooler (about 5 barrels). 

In the production of all-malt beers, one-half of the water em- 
ployed in making a brew should be reserved for sparging. Where 
unmalted cereals, like corn and rice, are employed, three-fifths of 
the water may be reserved for this purpose. 

MALT LAGER BEERS. 

Strength of wort, 12 to 15 per cent, Balling. 

Materials, 50 to 65 pounds of pale malt per barrel for pale malt 
beers. If beer is to have dark color use, along with the pale malt, 
a mixture of caramel and black malt to the amount of 6 to 12 
pounds per barrel. 

Take one barrel of water to 100 to 125 Qound^ Okl vcv^sSx \wv 
doughing-in; initial temperature 100^ ¥. i^2>^'* '^.^. V^^^ ^^'^'^ 



/Ml BREWING OPERATIONS. 

tMBfKntmc 30 to 66 mluulu^ mn op to 154* ^« (54* R-) it 15 
mhiitfri witii live tteam ind bot water, hold this tempenture 15 
mfartite*, mn up to 1613^ F. (58* R.) in 15 minutes. 

lire steam can be emplojed directly lor heating the mash, if 
the water nscd for boiler feeding is of good or medium parity, i. e., 
if ft does not impart to the steam any obnoxio us substances. Care 
shoald also be taken in the sdection of a proper boiler com p o o nd 
for the same icasoo. 

Instead of heating with live steam the masli-tnn nuQr be pro- 
vided with a steam jadnt or coil. 

Not more than one-half of the water to go into the mash shonld 
be used in donghing-in, leaving the other half for sparging. 

Where live steam is not availaUe and liot water must be used, 
the mash should ordinarily be started not lower than 153* R 
(40* R.) in order to obtain a final temp erature of 163* P. (58* 
R.) with enough water available for sparging. 

Were the mash to be started below 133* F. (45*^ R.) too 
much water would be used for the mash liquor in raising the tem- 
perature of the mash, leaving correspondingly less for sparging. 

An initial temperature in excess of 145** F. (50* R.) is not 
advisable in any case, as it interferes with the conversion of the 
albumen into peptones and amides. 

Caramel and black malts are crushed and added to the malt 
mash when the temperature has reached 154* F. (54* R.)* 

PALE LAGER BEERS. 

Strength of wort, 12 to 13 per cent, Balling. 

Material, 50 to 55 pounds per barrel, of which about two-thirds 
should be pale malt and one-third may be unmalted cereals, like 
com grits, corn meal, com flakes, comstarch or rice. Sugars like 
glucose may also be employed to the amount of about 25 per cent 
in place of unmalted cereals. 

TREATMENT OF UNMALTED CEREALS. 

The Starch of raw cereals being more refractory than that of 
malt, requires longer boiling, together with malt or under high 
pressure. The common practice is to treat the raw fi^ds in a 
separate vessel and run them in on the malt mash in the mash 
tub which has been previously started. 

With grits and meal use: For 100 pounds of material in rice 
tab, one barrel of water; for 100 pounds of corn, 30 pounds of 
•t/f. Boil grits 75 minutes, meal 4S tmiwiv^?.. 



BREWING OPERATIONS. ^X^ 

With rice use: For 75 pounds of material in rice tub, one 
barrel of water; for too pounds of rice, 25 pounds of malt Boil 
30 minutes. 

Start the malt mash as for a pure malt brew. Then start raw 
cereal mash in rice tank. Initial temperature, 100° F. (30^ R.) 
in rice tank, hold this temperature 15 minutes, run up to isS"" F. 
(56** R.) rapidly, hold this temperature 30 minutes, run rapidly 
to boiling point, boil for a time as indicated for the different 
materials, run mash into mash tub, so as to get a temperature 
of 154* F. (54® R.), when all is down. Hold this temperature 
in mash tub 15 minutes, raise to 163** F. (58° R.) with steam 
and hot water in 15 minutes. 

After running down the raw cereal mash to the malt mash, a 
few barrels of water should always be forced in under the false 
bottom through the underlet, to clear the openings. 

The more finely the goods are distributed and the longer 
they are cooked, the more completely will the starch be opened 
up. Corn or rice may yield 70 to 80 per cent of extract, malt, 64 
to 68 per cent 

With corn flakes of good quality, that have been previously 
prepared in their manufacture so as to have the starch opened up, 
no cooking is necessary. Add these dry in mash tub, when tem- 
perature has reached 154* F (54* R.). Hold temperature 15 to 30 
minutes (until saccharification) after addition, and run up to 
i^s'" F. (58° R.) in 15 minutes. 

Corn starch should be treated in rice tank, as follows : For each 
100 pounds of corn starch, use 30 pounds of malt. Dough-in with 
cold water, using one barrel for each 125 pounds of material; 
raise temperature to 160** F. (57** R.) in about 30 minutes, mash 
at this temperature for 30 minutes, go to 178** F. (65® R.) in 20 
minutes, then rapidly to boiling, boil for five minutes and run 
down to malt mash. 

Wheat and wheat malts are mashed together with the barley 
malt. Not more than 25 per cent should be employed, on ac- 
count of the larger amount of undesirable proteids. 

Sugars like glucose or grape-sugar are added in the kettle. 

wahl's "lauter-mash" method. 

In order to get worts richer in extract and with less alcohol 
than ordinary v»orts, use initial temperature of loci** ^. V^ '^>>- 
Hold here 30 to 60 minutes, draw oft vVv^t V«^\^ -^o^naow— ^'\'^i»N-"^'^ 



7l8 BREWING OPERATIONS. 



lids at onUnafy tamperitnre, ran Uk mah flush 
with the mash from the rke tank or with ileain and hot water np 
to any point between i(^* to lye" F. (60* to 64* R.)» hold 15 
rainates, and mn in the "laQter-mash.** The mash b now held at 
167* F. (60^ R.), and rapidly conrerted. The more akohol and 
more extract is wanted, the higher is the temperatnre varied be- 
fore addition of the "lauter-mash." 

This "lauter-mash*' may also be used in the rice tank instead of 
malt, especially to good effect when a high percentage of grits, 
meal or rice is employed in which case there is an insnliiciency 
of malt husk in the mash* twi. The rice tank mash may be con- 
ducted as follows : 

Rmi water of ordinary tcmperatore into rice tank, one barrel 
to no pounds of material, torn on steam, run in material, raising 
temperature to 158* F. (56** R.), mn in lauter-mash, holding 
temperature at 158** F. (56^ R.) for 30 minutes, go slowly in 
30 minutes to 176** F. (64* R.), then rapidly to boiling point, 
boil and continue as usual. 

ANTON SCHWARZ'S AFTER-MASH METHOD. 

. Another method aiming to increase the percentage of unfer- 
mentablc extract of the wort, is to reserve about one-third of the 
malt and add it to the mash after it has reached about 54** R., 
without necessitating the addition of any more water. This 
method can be rccomnicnded for unsteamed beers. It not only 
increases the percentage of un ferment able extract, but permits 
of the employment of more sparging water. 

BONE-BLACK. 

This is used in the mash at times to cure a mouldy odor of 
the goods. 

If brewing materials — malt, com, grits — have a mouldy or 
other ofF-smell, five pounds of bone-black, of the quality u.«ed 
in siigar refineries, run into the mash with the malt for every 
1,000 pounds of material, will give. a good result. 

For raw cereal beers, add the bone-black while the raw cereal 
mash is running down into the malt mash. 

RAW CEREAL MASH UNDER PRESSURE. 

An increased yield will be obtained from raw cereals if they 
arc cooked under pressure. There are two apparatus for this 
operation, in common use, the HoUeitcund «vd \.\\e Henze. 



BREWING OPERATIONS. 719 

The "Holtefreund" is an horizontal cooker, and was first op- 
crated according to Frisch's method, as follows: 

Cold water is run into the cooker, then the com goods. The 
temperature is raised to boiling point, the air is allowed to es- 
cape, the cooker is closed, the pressure is raised to 60 pounds 
300** F. (120® R.). Hold here 15 minutes. Now blow off care- 
fully, until 212** F. (80° R.) is reached, then connect with vacuum 
pump and reduce temperature to 158** F. (56** R.). Run in 15 
per cent of malt, and after inversion, run up to 192° F. (71° R.) 
and run the raw cereal mash into mash tub. 

The "Henzc" apparatus is an upright cooker, and was first op- 
erated by Rach's method, as follows: 

Water, corn and malt are run in, temperature is raised to 
boiling point, air is allowed to escape, then the cooker is closed, 
pressure raised to 30 pounds and the raw cereal mash forced 
into the mash tub. The temperature of the entire mash is usually 
raised to 181** F. (66** R.), then a "diastase solution," which was 
drawn at a lower temperature, is added, together with some cold 
water, to reduce the temperature to 172** F. (62® R.), where in- 
version takes place. Either method, however, can be modified 
according to circumstances. 

Rach's method is based upon the principle of brewing beers 
with a low percentage of alcohol and high percentage of un- 
fermentablc extract. Both horizontal and vertical cookers can 
be used in connection with or without vacuum pump, and the 
same method of operation can be carried out in cither. It is not 
advisable to raise the pressure higher than 30 pounds, as this is 
quite sufficient, unless darker worts arc desirable. In conduct- 
ing the malt mash and in running the cooker mash into the 
mash-tun, the temperatures in the mash-tun may be taken as 
given under "Pale Lager Beers" if a* low percentage of alcohol 
in the beer is not desired. 

Yield with pressure cooker — 

From malt 64 per cent to 70 per cent 

From corn or rice 75 per cent to 80 per cent 

Yield without pressure cooker — 

From malt 64 per cent to 68 per cent 

From corn or rice 70 per cent to 'Z^\»<^'^ ^v^wv 



720 BREWING OPERATIONS. 

PALE EXPORT LAGER BEERS. (BOTTLED OR DRAUGHT.) 

Export beers should be of a high grade. The amount of 
alcohol should be somewhat higher than in pale beers for the 
city trade on account of the greater requirements as to stability 
that the beers must meet, especially when not steamed. 

Strength of wort, 13 to 15 per cent Balling. 

Materials, 52 to 60 pounds per barrel, of which two-thirds may 
be malt and one-third fine quality of com, rice, corn flakes, or 
cornstarch. Use low initial temperature, peptonize well by hold- 
ing one hour and mash as usual. Details of export bottled and 
draught beer production, see under ''Special American Beers," 
where vtiW also be found temperance beers, tonics, common 
beer, steam beer, and others. 

EXTRA PALE LAGER BEERS (BOTTLED OR DRAUGHT). 

Strength of wort, 13 to 15 per cent Balling. 

Materials, 50 to 56 pounds per barrel. 

Use 50 per cent low dried malt, 30 per cent grits, rice or 
cornstarch, and 20 per cent anhydrous grape sugar or glucose; 

Or use 50 per cent low dried malt, 30 per cent grits, rice, or 
cornstarch, and 20 per cent com flakes. 

The brewing water should be of medium hardness. If quite 
soft, darker color of wort and beer will result. If the water 
is too soft, it should be hardened by adding proper amounts of 
sulphate of lime. Alkali waters should be treated by adding 
chloride of calcium or plaster of Paris. 

Stan mash at 122° F. (40* R.) instead of 100* F. <;?o^ R ), 
hold for about 15 minutes, and then proceed a> ii^ual. 

THE MASH AT REST. 

When the end temperature is reached, a sample of the mash 
should not show any starch by the iodine test. If it does, we 
should continue to run the machine until all starch ha? disa;.- 
pcared, or, if we have reason to assume that this would require 
too long a time, we should cool the mash to 158° F. (56' R.) 
with water — in case of malt poor in diastase — and add some 
more crushed malt. The last few degrees should bo obt:iiiK«l 
by running hot water through the underlet or "pfafT." 

The stirrer is now stopped, or, in the mashing machims 

of modern construction, lifted out of the mash. Shortly after 

the stirring has stopped, the surlace oi Ihe mash should appear 



BREWING OPERATIONS. 721 

grained or mottled. The taps are now opened, one after the 
other, the wort is allowed to rush out for a few seconds, and 
the taps are again closed. This is done to remove under- 
dough. Let the malt mash rest 30 minutes and the raw cereal 
mash 45 minutes. If allowed to remain standing too long the 
grains will settle too firmly. 

RUNNING OFF THE WORT. 

Open the taps wide, one by one, for a few seconds, and close 
them again; the recoil of the liquor will rinse out more under- 
dough. Then open the taps gradually until a proper flow of 
wort is obtained. Pump the wort back into the mash 
tub as long as it runs turbid, which usually lasts 8-15 minutes. 
As soon as the surface of the grains has run dry, remove the 
upperdough. or stir it up with crutch or machine to prevent chan- 
nels being formed in the goods, which would prevent the sparg- 
ing liquor percolating uniformly through the grains. 

The wort should flow quite bright. If it remains hazy aftei 
all suspended matter has disappeared, there are undesirable albu 
minoids present, caused either by imperfect malt or faulty 
mashing. 

SPARGING. 

This process consists in sprinkling hot water over the grains 
to wash out as much as possible of the valuable constituents 
remaining in them. The amount of sparging water should be 
considered when starting the mash, with refcr'ence to the total 
amount of wort desired. 

When so much wort has been drawn off that the grains are 

barely covered by the liquid, sparging should begin. Sparge four 

to five times, using for each 100 barrels of sparging water: 

For first sparging 30 bbls. 

For second spar|ftng 2$' bbls. 

For third sparging ao bbls. 

For fourth sparging 15 bbls. 

For fifth sparging 10 bbls. 

Or, the sparging water can be sprinkled on continually as fast a;" 
the wort runs off, keeping the grains covered about one inch with 
water. The temperature of the sparging water should be 167-17/ 
F. (60-62* R.). Higher temperature may lead to starchy turbid 
ity, lower temperature to souring. The Si^?Lt%v(\%*Sk ^cA3\^\i^ n^^^^ 
from time to time for sUrch. Tht ^tsV >mo\\. xwsci '^ot '^'y^>^v^^ 
4t 



/tt BKEWINO OPESATIONS. 

ftvte from Mafch wUle Ae ip aigii i gs may iliow comiderable 
amomita of ttarcli* genenllj doe to Ac emp toy m ciit of M^ spwg- 
img heats. If the first wort nnis off too slowly, let it ran off en- 
tirely, tfaen start machnie^ mixiiig tiie grains thorooglily while the 
first sparging water is forced in through the nnderlet 

The first wort should have a gravity of i8 to ao per cent Ball- 
ing, varying with the amoont of water used for malt and cereal 
mashes. 

Enough sparging water having heen added and the wort having 
ran off ahnost entirely, the last run will he turhid, hut 
should have no greater density than -i per cent by the saccharo- 
meter. 

The loss due to incomplete washing out of the grains is ap- 
proximatdy equal in per cent to iSbt percentage that the water 
pressed from the grains shows. In order to compute the loss 
from this source, take a sample of grains from the grains-box, 
press it. and find the amount of extract in the water by means 
of a saccharometer. If this were found to be i per cent, then the 
amount of loss, would be i per cent of the weight of the material 
employed, since' the amount of water in the grains is approxi- 
mately equal to the weight of the grist If, f- U 8,000 pounds of 
malt and 4,000 pounds of com were used for a brewing, and the 
weight of the water pressed from the grains was 2 per cent, 
then the loss would be 12,000 X a per cent = 240 pounds, or about 
seven barrels of wort of 13 per cent. 

SLOW FLOW OF WORT. 

If the wort flows too slowly it is generally an indication that 
the goods have not been completely opened up, but it may also 
be due to one or more of the following causes: 

I. — ^EXCESS OF UNDERDOUGH. 

By underdough we mean those substances which gather between 
the false bottom and the real bottom of the mash-tun. Were 
this space to fill up completely, the wort and spargings could 
not run off at all. Where this space is filled up partly, the grains 
lying above the clogged section will not drain properly. 

The underdough is mainly composed of starch. 

The following conditions promote the formation of under- 
dough: 

3. — Crushing the malt too finely. The malt should not be 
ground fine, but each kernel shou\d be s\t«vv^^ c\\\s>\^4. TK^ 



BREWING OPERATIONS. 723 

less malt flour finds its way readily through openings of the false 
bottom, the better. 

b. — Running mash machine too long, especially at low tem- 
perature. The longer the mash machine is run, f. i., at 100- 
122** F. (30^40* R.), at which temperature the starch remains 
practically unchanged, the more of this starch will work its 
way under the false bottom. If the mash is to be held at a 
low temperature for some time, the machine should be stopped. 

c. — If little or no water is run under the underlet while the 
mash machine is in operation, more solid particles will find 
their way under the false bottom, the upward current of 
water checking, in part, the downward motion due to gravita- 
tion. 

d. — If the holes in the false bottom are large, underdough will be 
formed more readily. 

e. — If the space is high below the false bottom, underdough 
will form more readily. (See also Brewing Outfit.) 

2.— EXCESS OP UPPERDOUGH. 

By upperdough we mean the layer of finely divided light par- 
ticles uppermost in the grains. This layer is, in the main, com- 
posed of particles of cellulose and albumen, and the more of 
it forms, 

a. — The finer the malt is crushed, 

b. — If the mash machine is run too long, resulting in more 
particles being scraped off the husks, etc. 

c. — If a large proportion of unmalted cereals is used. 

This upperdough should always be removed by chopping and 
mixing it into the body of the grains before sparging. 

3. — GRAINS SETTLING TOO COMPACTLY. 

This may be due to: 

a. — Letting the mash rest too long before tapping; 30 to 45 
minutes should be sufficient. 

b.— Draining the first wort, or sparging^, too rapidly, in which 
case the liquor not being able to percolate through the grains 
3s fast as it runs from under the false bottom, has the effect of 
compressing the grains, in proportion to the height of the liquid 
column. 

c. — Running too much sparging water on the grains, this 
water acting as so much weight, 

d. — If maJt is flinty, 



724 BREWING OPERATIONS. 

e. — If the mash- tun is too high in comparison to diameter; the 
mash in the tun should be about 36 inches high, the grains 
after draining about 18 inches. 

4. — SCASOTY OF FILTEKING MATERIAL. 

a. — When using large amount of umnalted cereals, 

b. — When using malt with thin husk, 

c. — When using much malt in rice kettle. 

d. — If the diameter of the mash-tun is too large compared 
with its height, in which case the layer of filtering material 
(grains) will be too low. 

5. — GRAINS STOPPED UP. 

If the body of the grains becomes stopped up by unconverted 
starch in a semi -paste form, or by undesirable proteids. 

BOILING THE WORT. 

PRINCIPLES OF BOILINa 

The wort obtained by mashing is boiled for a certain period 
for the purpose of eliminating or rendering harmless certain 
undesirable constituents, and introducing other new bodies by 
extraction from the hops. These changes taking place during 
heating and boiling are the following: 

I. — Destruction of the diastase aboz'e 178** F. (65° R.), 

2. — Precipitation of the proteids, which is ihe more complete; 

a. — If mash is well peptonized, that is. if the mash was held 
sufficiently long at lower tempeniture. in which case there is a 
larger amount of precipitation, and this precipitation is more 
tiocculent than when employing high initial mashing temperaturcb. 

b. — If the wort is boiled the proper length of time. The pro- 
teids are not precipitated at once when boiling temperature is 
reached. They continue to be precipitated on extended boiling. 
It seems, however, that certain forms of albuminoids, probably 
the annnn«»sos, arc changed to proteids of a type that is not read- 
ily precipitated on boiling, but remains in the wort and gives 
rise to prc»teid turbidity in the wort or beer on cooling. At any 
rate, it has been observed that prolonged boiling results in 
Nntlfd I'ctrs oi decreased stahiiity when steanuii. 

c. — If boiling temperature is below 212°. less protciil nutter 

will be precipitated than at 212' boilin^: piiint. (">n ihi< account 

it i^ dithcult to breu beers of good keeping qiiaiify in brew- 

cr/cs h 'Cited nt lii^h altitudes ^in the Rocky M.ui.iiains. 1. i.). 

T/ie copper kettles in such breweries >\\*.a\\v\ V- >*n v:*MN-vvv\ct.c<l 



BREWIJ^G OPERATIONS. ^2$ 

as to admit of boiling under a pressure of about five to ten 
pounds. 

d. — If the wort is aerated during boiling the proteids seem 
to be precipitated more effectually. The door of the copper 
should, therefore, be kept open during boiling. 

e. — ^The tannic acid of the hops aids in precipitating proteids; 
the more hops employed, the more proteids are eliminated. 

f. — If the hops are added after most of the proteids are pre- 
cipitated, that is, after about an hour's boiling, an additional 
quantity of proteids will be precipitated. The hops should not, 
therefore, be added too soon. 

3. — Evaporation of water. 

4- — Deepening of the color by concentration of the wort 
and formation of caramel, by means of the heat acting on the 
sugars. 

5. — Extraction of hop oil and hop resin, 

6. — Destruction of bacteria, 

BOILING OPERATIONS. 

In the United States the wort is always heated by steam, 
open fire kettles having gone quite out of use. Steam is turned 
on when the wort flowing from the mash tub covers the heating 
surface in the copper, and the temperature kept at about 190° F. 
(70** R.) until all the wort, including spargings, has run in. 
Unless very pale beer is desired, the brewer may bring the wort 
to a boil while it is flowing in. During the boiling period the 
wort should be kept in a state of vigorous ebullition. 

An addition of hops of about 10 pounds per 100 barrels is given 
as soon as the wort comes to a boil, which has the effect of de- 
creasing the danger of wort boiling over. 

"break" of wort. 

While the wort is heated the undesirable albuminoids are 

partly precipitated and unite into lumps. The fluid between 

these floating lumps should, in time, become clear and transparent. 

This is the "breaking'* of the wort, and it should be well 

"broken" before any hops are added. 

BOTTLE BEER AND EXTRA PALE. 

For bottle beer and extra pale beer, hold the temperature 
of the wort at 190** F. (70° R.) until the kettle is full. Boil £q^ 
one hour, at the expiration of which tim^ VVkt. >«ci\V ^<^n:^^^ "^^^ 
a good first break. Then add % ol \.\i^ Viov^ ^'^^^^ ^>^';^nN-^^ ^ ^^^ 



726 BREWING OPERATIONS. 

40 minutes, when the wort ihotild show a good second break. 
Add' % of hops of a better Qoaltty, boil so minutes. Add % 
hops of the finest quality, and run out immediately. If the 
first or second break does not set in within the given time, do 
not use the beer for bottling. 

For ordinary beers, boil until the wort is broken, and add 
first % of hops; otherwise proceed the same as for bottle beer. 

HOPPING THE WORT. 

The active agents extracted from the hops by boiling are 
the 'Vesins,'* ''oil,'' tad 'tanmn." 

The hop-resins impart the bitter taste, tend to preserve the beer, 
and protect the yeast 

The hop^oil gives the aroma of hops. 

The tannin contributes to the predpitatioa of the albuminoids 
from the boiling wort. 

An extension of the boiling period means the extraction of 
more hop-resin and tannin and the volatilization of more essen- 
tial oils, causing a loss of aroma. The door of the copper is 
kept open while the wort is boiling, in order to admit air, which 
promotes the elimination of albuminoids. 

The hops are added in portions, in order to secure both the 
desired bitter and aroma. The allowance of hops should be 
increased with a greater concentration of the wort. The inferior 
quality of hops should be added in the first portion. 

The quantity of hops that ought to be used per 100 barrels 
of wort of 13 per cent B. is about 100 pounds ; for lighter beers, 
less; for stronger ones, and for bottled beers, more. 

HOP FREPAKATIONS. 

There are certain preparations made from hops which may be 
used to good ad\'antage instead of the whole cone. Such prepa- 
rations are hop extract and lupulin. 

A hop extract is produced by extraction in naphtha, which 
is the dissolving agent usually employed. This naphtha is 
afterward driven off by evaporation. 

Lupulin from good hops, and unadulterated, is quite unob- 
jectionable, but care should here be taken, as the high price 
of the product is a temptation to adulterate it, and it occurs in the 
market mixed with sand, tannin, brickdust, etc.. or it is taken 
from old hops. 

Only 25 per cent of the hops should be replaced hy these 

facts, employing one pound 0! \vop txvracx lox \i ^mtA% 



BREWING OPERATIONS. 727 

of hops of the first portion of two-fifths, or one pound of lupuHn 
for 12 pounds of the second portion of two-fifths, or the third 
portion of one-fifth. The can containing the hop* extract is punc- 
tured^ tied to a chain and hung into the boiling wort near the 
bottom. Under these circumstances the extract will be dissolved 
more readily. 

AIDS FOR ELIMINATING ALBUMINOIDS. 

"Irish moss" is often added in the kettle. It should be 
washed with cold water and 2.5 pounds taken for 100 barrels 
of wort, adding the same ten minutes before running out. Long 
boiling weakens the effect of the moss. 

The effect of the moss is due to a glue-like substaiice, which 
acts in a similar manner to isinglass. It operates after the wort 
has cooled, by coagulating, aqd enveloping the floating albu- 
minoids, causing them to ball up more readily and seek elimi- 
nation, either by rising to the surface or settling. 

Fifty pounds of "common table salt" added for 100 barrels 
of wort is recommended where the brewing water contains no 
salt. It not only aids ihc "breaking" of the wort, but also 
improves the taste of the beer. It should be added about half 
an hour before running off the wort from the copper. 

COOLING. 

F/om the copper, the wort runs into the hop jack, where it 
is allowed to stand for a period, to permit the hops and albu- 
minoids to settle. 

The wort should not be allowed to rest longer than 15 minutes, 
as a dark color or rank, Wtter taste may result if wort is left in 
contact with hops too long. Where the wort cannot be taken 
care of by the coolers within a reasonable time, it would be 
advisable to provide a suitable storage tank for the hot wort, 
or to place the false bottom of the hop-jack higher up, or else 
provide the kettle with a hop strainer. 

The hops should be sparged with about five barrels of hot 
water per 100 pounds of hops. As the hops form but a thin 
layer in the hop-jack, they could be profitably taken out, placed 
in a separate strainer with smaller diameter — ^a hop press with 
a metal shell instead of basket would answer — where sparging 
would be more effective. (See Brewery Outfit.) 

The hops should not be pressed, as is often done, ^.«^ 'resi- 
stances are thereby embodied in \Ke v^oiX >^^X X^-cv^ X^ vto^v*^"^ 
a rank, bitter after-taste to the \>eet. 



798 BREWING OPERATIONS. 

TUB WW ON TBM SUIFACK CPOfJO. 

The wort is next nm or pmnped to the sorface cooler for 
the purpose of preliminary cooling. 

The wort riionld be cooled to 145* F. (50* R.), and not 
lower, on the surface cooler, and receive proper aeration dur- 
ing cooling, avoiding all so ur ces of contamination in the mean- 
time. Aeration of the wort dtning cooling has the effect of far- 
ther lutcqutating undesirable albuminoids. Besides, the wort ab- 
sorbs air, which is utilized by the yeast later on. Most of the 
microbes that reach the wort below 145* F. (50* R.) will remain 
alive, the most common ones being butyric and lactic add fer- 
ments and wild yeasts. 

The wort cools the more r^idly: 

1. The lower the temperature of the air; 

2. The better the aeration; Theurer's apparatus dis- 

penses with the surface cooler altogether. The 
wort is pumped into a vat and thence runs straight 
over the Baudelot cooler, which is supplied with 
filtered air. Aeration is complete, and the danger 
of infection minimized; 

3. The more the wort is agitated, for which purpose 

stirrers may be employed; 

4. The larger the surface of the wort compared with 

its depth; 

5. When atomized; for this purpose the wort may be 

sprayed on to the surface cooler, the wort thus 
coming in contact with a large quantity of air, 
which increases aeration and accelerates cooling. 
The danger of infection, however, must not be 
ignored. If a spraying system of cooling and 
aerating be adopted, the air that has access to 
the surface cooler should be filtered; 

6w When the sky is dear, more rapidly than when 
cloudy; 

7. When the surface cooler is constructed of metal, 
more rapidly than when made of wood. 

Tf the wort looks foxy on the surface cooler, it contain? in sus- 
pension bodies that will not settle readily. 
After the prelim inar>' cooling the wort is sent oyer the Bau- 
de/ot cooler, where it should be coo\ed Aon>iTv \o ^* F. C7* R), 



BREWING OPERATIONS. 729 

which is sufficiently low. Formerly it was a general rule, 
however, to cool the wort to as low a temperature as 42** F. 
(4.5* R.). At this temperature in the settling tank it should 
show a good, cold "break/' and a sample should filter clear at 
the temperature of the fermenting cellar. If it does not, the 
causes may be as follows: 

CAUSES OF UNSATISFACTORY "bREAK" OF WORT. 

1. Starchy turbidity from incomplete inversion of the starch. 

2. Proteid turbidity from incomplete inversion of the albu- 
niinoids or incomplete precipitation of the proteids. 

3. Bacteria or yeast turbidity from infection. 

A good cold break is an indication of a perfect wort 

LOSS IN VOLUME IN PREUMINARY COOUNG OF WORT. 

A certain loss in volume will occur on the passage of the 
wort from kettle to settling tank, due to the following elements: 

J. Contraction in cooling 4.5 p. c. 

2. Evaporation of water 4.5 — 5.0 p. c. 

3. Adhesion of liquid to surfaces of ket- 

tle, hop-jack, cooler, etc % p. c. 

4. Wort adhering to hops in hop-jack 

when not pressed or sparged two bar- 
rels and one-half per 100 pounds of 

hops or approximately 2.5 p. c. 

Total loss when hops are not sparged 

or pressed, approximately 12% p. c. 

5. By sparging with five barrels of water 

per 100 pounds of hops, the total loss 

will be reduced to about 'jVi p. c. 

Thus, 92^/^ barrels will reach the settling tank out of every 100 
barrels leaving the kettle, if five barrels of water are employed for 
sparging 100 pounds of hops. By contraction in cooling and by 
evaporation no valuable substances are lost, excepting hop-oil. 

(For German lager beers, ale, stout, weiss beer, common beer, 
see end of this chapter.) 

INFLUENCE OF DIFFERENT MATERIALS AND MASHING METHODS ON 

THE COMPOSITION OF WORT. 

The table on the next two pages shows the influence of differ- 
ent materials and mashing methods on the composition of wort 
which in a great measure determine the c\\;jlt;5ic\vix oV >>cvvl \ivi^^ . X\- 
is very interesting to note tliat from tVvt s^m^ w\aNv, vjc^xVs* ^^^ 



■■■IIIMCE OP DIFPnKNT i 



AlALS AMD HASBINC METHODS OM 
. BY If. HUnUS. THB BRTWS 

BXmiMSKT BUWESY OP 

HEWIHG ACAKHT 











W CHKMO. 




•- 


MaMtbil. 


Water. 
¥. R. 


llaaUiiK MaiUod. 


•■ 


AllMUt. 


nr 


' 


(W- «!• R) 


1. 


All malt. 


w 


' 


■Hfe*< at inr P. (W B.I : bourm. 

[noM-wr boar w 1W° P. (M° K.) 


>. 


AUnatl. 


mr 


^ 


KMbad at l«n° P. Itr R.) n minuie). 
Wllh^m'to'^P. («FB.)lii''»«ilii 

wiibii«Bioisrp.rii'B.)iBa) mm 

HaabBi lU* r. (U° K.) 10 mtnulcs 
Wlib water torn' F' iW B.) m luniln 


Ira. 

ie> 


1- 


mi KTlls' 


IW 


»■ 


Haihgd Bl inr p. (W° H.) It minute^. 
Rut ma-Hb ai li«" y. lao- k.) i hour. 
Wllh prill mwh to IKI> r (U' R.) In Ai 
Uafhalisr V. IM- H.i imnlniiiv. 

Wlfhstvam to W K. [W K.) In iUoiLui 


minulei. 


- 


ffif DIOII. 

»S Krlls- 


,« 


ffl^ 


Va*bedai lOO' F.pO^ R-l l.Smlt.uus 
BMt mash ai 10i>' #■. (».- B.I 1 hour. 
Draw Laniec-masli. 

Wlib *1«»ID to H0= P. t«=B.)mson.mu 
Willi ,;rHsin«.hlo ITfl^ F.fW R.llnOn 
.Mid Lanter-ioash. rediiclni: icini'. lo IS. 


J-.fM B) 


tor mBli. 


lii 


Hashed at t£!' F. IM' B.) lU mlnutos. 
R«sl masb at it!' F. («!>' R.) 4 hour. 
With rice math to IM- V. <-■*' B.) In » m 


nu.es. 



ihiteam <o 1(E>' F. i.W' R.> 



Mashi-Oai IH' F. <«.' R.) IKiDinuic 
Rt'iit msi-hal IK" (■■-iW R.taimlii 

.Xddii»ke*a! l^^-■ F. i.W B. iii l.i'n 
MsKh Bl ISt- V. IM- H > III mlnu^Cd'. 
U'llh-leamiolffi' F. iSU' R.l In Iv 

Mash< .1 Bl 



INFLUKNCB OP DIFFEKENT MATEBIALS AND HASHING UETHODS OK 

THE courosmoit of wort, bv m hesius. the beews 

WERE UADC I» THE .EXrEKIMF.NT 1 
THE AWtBlcAN BkEWING ACADEl 



MaloiM. 


Orlfflotl 




Per cent 

ll>g) III 

E strict 


H^ 


Albumln- 

won. 


AlbumTn- 


K^mltkii. 
















Won run. 


H> 


ii.a 


fl 


M 


'«"■" 


0.9 


51 


Inn. 
















Wort niiu 


ei 


11.7 


Hit 


M 


IOI):«l 


o.« 


S.S 


ESf. .S 

nrier caol- 


03 


lat 




W 


in):W 


O.Sfi 




S ^' 








" 








krtvr cool- 
ing. 


(7 


„,. 






U.fifl 




Wort ruDo 
tafi. 


WS 


,.. 


,«» 


o,.ss 


iVorl mnb 
cl«r. Good 


87.8 


i3.a 


... 


. 


luO:4S 


o.sa 




lleiiLi' and 


... 


„,, 


.. 


W.T 


100:50 


007 


48 


Wort [unH 


W.l 


», 


.. 


,. 


1«:3K 


" 1 " 


liii'al! In 



73« 



BREWING OPERATIONS. 



obtained in which the imoimt of litigftr varied from 51 to 81 per 
cent of the weight of the extract, while the albaminoids varied 
from 9^1 to 7.2 per cent. High initial temperatures yielded ^x>rt8 
with a low percentage of sugar and low percentage of alhumi- 
noids. The malt mash held at 30* R. one hour was shown to give 
the best results regarding amount of albuminoids. Whenever un- 
mahed cereals were employed the amount of albuminoids was re- 
duced proportionally with their amount Wheat malt yielded an 
equal amount of albuminoids as barley malt. The worts from the 
high initial temperature mash Na i and from No. 2 where the 
machine was run abnormally long, ran turbid or fair from the 
grains and did not break well in the kettle and after cooling, and 
the beer from No. i did not clarify. The wheat malt wort acted 
in the same way, only it ran clearer from the grains. All other 
worts ran brilliant from the grains, broke well in the kettle and 
after cooling, and the beers clarified properly. 

Mashes i and 2 were made with a view to determine the ex- 
tremes of dextrin and sugar percentages in the extract of the 
wort, and have no practical significance. Mashes 4 and 5, which 
were produced with the same properties and qualities of malt 
and grits, show that the percentages of sugar can be materially 
lowered by raising the temperature more rapidly from the initial 
to the final temperature, especially when Wahl's Lauter-mash is 
employed, as is the case in Mash 5. Mash 7 shows the reduc- 
tion of sugar and a corresponding increase of dextrin by the addi- 
tion of corn-flakes at a higher temperature as compared with 
Mash. 4. 



PBRMBNTINQ CELLAR OPERATIONS. 



METHODS OF FERMENTATION. 

With reference to the character of the beer to be produced, 
as far as it is determined by the process of fermentation, three 
methods of conducting fermentation are distinguished: 

1. Top fermentation, for ale, stout, porter, weissbeer. 

2. Bottom fermentation, for lager beer and American 

steam beer. 

3. Spontaneous fermentation, for Belgian beers (Lambic, 

Faro). 

Bottom fermentation proceeds at low temperature, viz., 42- 
51** F. (4.5-8.5** R.) ; top fermentation at higher stages, as 57-73*' 
F. (11-18° R.). In bottom fermentation, the temperature during 
the process rises 7 to 11 degrees F. (3-5° R.); in top fermentation, 
11-16 degrees F. (5-7" R.). 

The designations of the two types of fermentation are derived 
from the fact that in bottom fermentation the yeast for the 
most part settles on the bottom, whereas, in top fermentation, it 
rises to the surface. 

Bottom fermentation takes 8-16 days; top fermentation but a 
few days. 

STAGES OF FERMENTATION. 

Fermentation in the brewery proceeds in two distinct stages: 

1. "Principal," "primary," or "main fermentation," con- 

sisting in the splitting of maltose at relatively 
higher temperature, for bottom fermentation, 42° to 
51* F. (4.5° to 8.5** R.) ; for top fermentation, 57** 
to 73** F. (II* to i8* R.). 

2. "Secondary," or "after-fermentation," consisting in 

the splitting of the malto-dextrin at lower tempera- 
tures, in bottom fermentation by culture yeast -At 
34-37° F. (1-2* R.) ; in top iwm^xvVaXxoxvVi <iv\\n\x^ 
or wild yeast about 55** ¥. (.lo"* ^.^. 

733 



734 



FERMENTING CELLAR OPERATIONS. 



AVERAGE PROGRESS OF PRINCIPAL FERMENTATION. 



System of 
Fermentation. 

Bottom fer- 
mentation .. 

Top fermenta- 
tion 



Yeast. I Temperature, i Period. 



Bottom 



Spontaneous 



Top. 

Wild 
vea.<tand' 



fermentation, ^^i^ria 



42— 5P F 
4.5-«.5« R. 

57— TS" F. 
11-18' R. 

57-«» F. 
11-l.V R. 



Result. 



8—16 days. 
8— ft days. 



30—40 days. 



^ few foreign fer- 
- ments, little 
{ lactic acid. 
\ more foreign fer- 
"- ments. more 
I lactic acid. 
\ many foreign 
• ferments, much 
t lactic acid. 



BOTTOM FERMENTATION. 

PITCHING WITH YEAST. 

Fermentation is induced in the wort by adding yeast, which 
operation is called "pitching." 

The wort runs from the pipe cooler into a collecting vat or 
straight into the fermenter, where fermentation is started. During 
pitching the wort should be well roused repeatedly, so as to se- 
cure a uniform distribution of the yeast and an intimate mixture 
of yeast and wort. There are different ways of pitching. 

REFRESHING AND DEVELOPING THE YE-\ST. 

Before the yeast is added to the bulk of the wort it is mixed 
with about an equal quantity of either finished wort or boiled 
first wort of 55-68* F. (10-15° R.), well aerated, and added either 
at once or after the yeast has develc ped. that is, after the mixture 
has come into Krauscn. The mixing and aerating may be done 
in special appliances, stirring the wort and yeast vigorously \^hile 
at the same time air, preferably filtered air. may be blown 
into the mixture. Where the amount of yeast to be handled is 
not very large it may be effectively roused and aerated by pouring 
the mixture of wort and yeast repeatedly fr^^Tr. one bucket into 
another, lettirig it fall through the air as high as a ir.an can lift it. 

When the refreshed yeast is allowed to c^me ir.to Krausen, and 
is then added to a large quantity of wort, the sudden drop in 
temperature may check the growth of the yeast, wiiich has by 
this time become vigorous. It is therefore a better plan to let 
the \Nort as it cools run into the refreshed ar.«i developed yeast. 
which r.:ay for this purpose be placed i!:to th.e sett'iug tank or 
pan of the R'in<iclot cooler. 
While running the wort into U^e scVvVw?. Uv:>^ \\\\\<:\\ ^oxxv^vVtv^ 



FERME^rriNG CELLAR OPERATIONS. 735 

the yeast, the wort should bfe roused either with crutches or it 
may be roused and aerated at the same time by blowing in filtered 
air. 

DOUBUN& 

The wort is pitched as usual with the refreshed and developed 
yeast. When the beer in the vat has come into Krausen it is di- 
vided into two parts, and each vat is filled up again with wort; 
when this is in Krausen, it may be again divided, and the vats filled 
up. Then the fermentation is allowed to proceed as usual, but the 
operation may be repeated a number of times more with good 
results. This method may be well employed when the yeast is 
changed and it is desired quickly to propagate a new crop of 
yeast from a small quantity introduced; 50 to 60 pounds of 
yeast will give a new crop of 150 to 200. pounds of new yeast 
from every 50-barrel vat. 

AMOUNT O? YEAST FOR PITCHING. 

The amount of yeast per barrel required to secure a normal 
fermentation is governed by the density of the wort, the pitching 
temperature, the condition and properties of the yeast, and the 
treatment of the same. The stronger the yeast, the weaker the 
beer is brewed in, the better the aeration and the higher the 
pitching temperature (within reasonable limits), the smaller will 
be the quantity of yeast necessary for pitching; ordinarily i^ 
pounds per barrel will be found sufficient where the original 
gravity of the wort is 13 per cent B., the pitching temperature 
42' F. (4.5® R.), and the yeast thick and strong. If boiling 
fermentation sets in, more should be used. 

Where the yeast is added dry without refreshing and de- 
veloping, more yeast is required. The smallest amount is needed 
where the wort is run in on the refreshed yeast. 

FERMENTATION PHENOMENA. 

Within 15-24 hours, according to the pitching temperature, 
little white bubbles appear around the sides of the vessel.. The 
wort at this time is covered with a head of a thick, lumpy con- 
sistency, composed largely of albuminoid matter, coagulated 
during the boiling period. Upon blowing aside this head, a fine 
white froth will be observed underneath, indicating tl\;\t. ^.v:.^- 
mcntation is sotting in. The head ol \n\v\\V\\\^^ \i€\w^ *^\\\\vc\^^ 
off, the whole surface is found to become ^v^xcVVj ^Lc^N^'t^Cs. ^>^^ 



736 FERMENTING CELLAR OPERATIONS. 

a fine white froth ("whitening over"), rather higher aroand the 
rim than in the middle. This shows that fermentation haa 
become active, and takes place 18-30 hours after pitching. 

KRAEUSEN. 

The head of froth begins to move from the sides of the vessd 
to the middle, and assumes a frizzled appearance, small cockle- 
shaped mounds beginning to rise all'ovcr the surface. This is 
the stage of **Krausen," answering to what the English brewer 
call the "cauliflower" stage. At the expiration of 20 to 40 hoars 
after pitching, the surface should be curly and pure white. 
("Young Krausen"). From the time the froth head begins to 
move toward the middle, fermentation becomes more active, 
the head rising higher all the time ("High Krausen'*). At the 
same time the temperature rises, slowly at first, more rapidly as 
the activity of fermentation increases, while the saccharometcr 
falls with increasing rapidity, the drop amounting to one-fourth 
to one-half of one per cent, a day in the early part, and reaching 
one to one and one-half trward the high Krausen stage. The 
curly head of froth turns a darker color while rising in height. 
The dark secretions commonly collect at one point and form a 
cap. 

The high Krausen stage is reached 70 to 80 hours after pitching 
and is maintained for a period of 48-72 hours, varying accord- 
ing to different inlluenccs. During this time the heer is kept at a 
certain low temperature. 48^ to 50** F ,'7" to 0° RV by means 
of attcinperators. and when the head ^•gins to collapse is cooled 
slowly to 39° F. (3"^ R.). The saccYiarometer falls more slowly 
as the end of the principal fermentatioiv draws near. When the 
end is reached, the fall of the sacchap.inirtiT should he ,rt to s\, 
per cent in 24 hours. 

COLOR AND "break " 

The c(AoT of the beer begins to deepen from the time of the 
. Krausen collapsing. ?au\ from a fnxy npiH;i:;:nri- it gradually 
passes" into a deep black, about 8 to 16 days after pitching. At 
that jieriod. if a sample is taken in a sample cl.'.^s. tlie yeast 
particles suspended in it sht^uld be visi^^lc :.< tl.c naked eye. The 
yca^t sh"iiM I'lmcli togotln/r. the- beer si'-kM ""Iv-^^k" v.c!:. In a 
snn}p)c ^lass the impurities should settle in 2 to 3 liours in a warm 
room, nml in .'.| hours in l\\e kTmcm\\\\; \v^'^^\^. WavIu-jl the 



FERMENTING CELLAR OPERATIONS. 737 

becT perfectly clear. These conditions existing, the principal 
fermentation is completed. 

THE YEAST CROP. 

When the beer is ripfe for tanking (racking on Ruh), the beer 
should be drawn or pumped from the fermenting vat, avoiding 
all agitation, as the yeast has a tendency to rise by the escape 
of carbonic acid gas under the yeast. 

The quantity and soundness of the yeast crop are largely in- 
fluenced by operations during the progress of fermentation. In 
the beginning the matter in suspension in the wort, composed 
mainly of protcids, will partly settle and partly gather at 
the surface in the fermenting ttib. In order to obtain the yeast 
as free as possible from this suspended matter, hop-resin and 
other substances like hop-resin that appear in the Krausen : 

1. Skim off the dark head after the appearance of Krausen, 
or run the beer into another vat as soon as in Krausen. 

2. Remove the dark particles of hop- resin from the Krausen 
while the latter are falling back. 

3. Skim off the cover before racking on storage ("Ruh"). 
The bulk of the yeast will be found settled on the bottom. 

The top, which is darker from admixtures of hop-resin, is apt 
to contain more light yeast, and sniall cell types, like wild 
yeast, if present in the beer at all. are found in greater quan- 
tities in the top layer. This dark layer should be skimmed off. 
The middle layer will be found to be lightest in color, and this 
part only should be preserved for future fermentations, leaving 
the bottom stratum, which again has a deeper color, and, hav- 
ing been first deposited, contains larger quantities of old, dead, 
and weak yeast cells, to go among the refuse. 

The middle layer which is conveyed to a yeast tub, may be at 
"once refreshed and developed for pitching or left standing with- 
out watering for a few days if properly kept cool by "swim- 
mers," or attemperator pipes, not by ice directly, since ice may 
contain impurities. The yeast may also be watered, which is 
preferably done the day before using. Next morning the surface 
water with the yeast particles floating on it is drained off, and 
the yeast refreshed and developed as for a new fermentation. 

The new yeast crop should be most carefully examined before 

being used again, and if found in any way utvsovsxv^ ^\ ^^^- 

taminated. should be treated as dlrccled \m^w ^^^^ \^"5»\»^^*Cv4' 

heads. 
47 



738 FERMENTING CELLAR OPERATIONS. 

FERMENTATION PHENOMENA EXPLAINED. 

The fermentation phenonfiena may be explained as follows: 

As soon as the yeast is stirred into the wort it begins to split 
up the sugar into alcohol and carbonic acid, thereby develop- 
ing heat, in consequence of which the temperature of the fer- 
menting liquid rises, and the indication of the saccharometer 
becomes lower as the sugar is decomposed. The carbonic acid 
escapes, with the exception of about % per cent, which remains in 
the beer, part of the escaping gas raising the head of Krausen. 
This escaping gas carries to the surface all the flocculent 
particles in suspension, like the coagulated albuminoids, giving 
rise, in the first stages of fermentation, to the thick, dark cover 
of scum. The hop-resin, which is held in solution chiefly by 
the sugar, becomes less soluble as the sugar decreases, and is 
carried, together with coagulated albumen, to the surface of the 
beer, where it discolors the Krausen, or settles on the bottom, 
discoloring the yeast. The yeast multiplies during fermenta- 
tion, is kept suspended by the escaping carbonic acid gas. and 
thus gives the beer a somewhat reddish appearance. The activity 
of the yeast increases up to the high Kriiu5cn ptriod, then grad- 
ually settles, and as fermentation draws to a close the beer appears 
darker in the vat. When the head collapses, there is conipara- 
lively little sugar left in the wort. Hence, the saccharometer falls 
with increasing rapidity up to the collapse of the head, and the 
temperature rises, whereas, after that time, the saccharometer 
falls more slowly, and the temperature decreases, owinjj to the 
atmosphere of the fermenting room being about 41° F. (4" R.) 
and cooling the liquid more rapidly than the diminishing activity 
of the yeast serves to heat it, even without the use of aiiem- 
perators. 

The higher the temperature, and the larger the quantity of yeast 
in the beer, the quicker will the sugar ferment, the quicker will 
the temperature rise, the quicker will the saccharometer fall, 
the quicker carbonic acid will develop, the higher will the Krau- 
sen rise. 

The fall of the saccharometer indication, according to Balling. 

is called "apparent attenuation," and the percentage of this fall, 

the "apparent degree of attenuation." The indication of the 

saccharometer itself at the end of the fermentation period is 

called the "apparent extract ol bcci." T;iV<i\\ vo^t\V\ >NaH 



FERMENTING CELI^R OPERATIONS. 739 

[he original gravity of the warl, the apparent attunualion t^n.nblcs 
the calculation of the percentage of alcohol, from which, in 
turn, is determined the real attenuation, the "real degree of 
attenuation." 3n4 the Balling of beer. (See "Figuring in the 
Brewery.") 

The consistency of ihe Kriiusen head is due largely lo the vis- 
cousncss of the albuminoids by which the high volutes of foann 
are hfid together, to collapse after the generation of carbonic 
acid has fallen below the amount necessary lo support the foam. 

The yeast does not ferment all the sugar in the wort, but 
leaves an average of 1.5 per cent after the principal fermenta- 
tion, of which about one-half per cent is maltose aud one per 
crnt malto-dcxtrin. (See "Bottom Yeast.") 



AD Indlcilod 
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lly s»ctb»ro- 


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aw 


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M 


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lift 


It 


l>M 


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in 


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»M 


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m 


iA 


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torpUehlnB 





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.1 



HIGHER PITCHING TEMPERATURES. 
The wort, upon reaching the starling tub, always i 
foreign germs which it took up on the surface and Baudelot cool- 
ers. Before fermentation starts, these foreign germs will multiply 
with comparative rapidity, and after fermentation has started. 
are suppressed the more effectively, the more quickly fermentation 
reaches the high Kiiusen stage, at which the fermenting action 
of the yeast is at ils height, as is the temperature of the fermenting 

The old practice is lo cool the wort to 42' F. (4.5* R.) and 
to allow hours to pass before pitching, sometimes waiting over 
night. This is not in accordance with scientific principles, and. 
consequently, Wahl. on the occasion of a convention of the 
United Slates Brewmastcrs' Association, held at BB.U,vw,cret, ^■ti- 
proscd Ihe following treatment ior use vn ^.^^M^Ka.T\ ^jxt-"""*-^- 



740 FERMENTING CELLAK OPERATIONS. 

Refresh and develop the yeast witb first wort of 59* F. (12° R.) 
and put in the starting tub. timing this preparation so that thi 
mass is just beginning to ferment at the niotnent when Ihe 6rst 
wort reaches the starting tub from the Bau'jeloi cooler. The 
wort should run on tbe yeast, instead of tlie yeast being put 
into the wort. The wort is cooled down tu 49° F, (7.5' R-) 
instead of 40-42° F. (3-5-4-5' R-)- 

When in Knusen— which will be in Jo to 24 liours instcatl of 
40 to 45 as by the old practice — pump the wort into another vat or 
distribute among the fermeDters. The temperature will have 
reached 51* F. (8.5° R.) by this lime. Keep it at this height 
by means of "swimmers," or attemperalors until the Krausen 
have fallen down sufficiently, and cool in about three days down 
to 39° F. (3° R.), working so that the decrease of the sac- 
charonieier in the last 34 hours will not exceed 0,1 per cent. 

The advantages of this practice arc many: 

1. The wort need not be cooled down si) low, that is. re- 
frigeration is saved. 

2. The wort is ready for pitching sooner. 

3. Fermentation sets in sooner. 

4. Fermentation is finished 2 to 4 days earlier. 

5. The development of the yeast is more vigorous. 
fi. The yeast remains purer. 

7. Less Krausen arc needed, their temperature being higher ; 
or, equal amounts of Krausen do more work and give iiic.>re life 
to the beer in a shorter time than colder Kriiusen 

The new practice has nict with a speedy recognilion. having 
been introduced with goi.uI rcsuhs in ninny breweries. 

Fermentation of a won pitched at high temperature : 



FERMENTING CF.LI.AR OPERATIONS. 74I 

BOTTOM YEAST. 
(See iilso Yeasts and Fermentation.) 

The substance, by the agency of whicb fermentation is carried 
on is called yeast. 

The course of the fermentation as performed by the yeast de- 
pends not only on the viiality and environment of the yeast, as 
age of yeast, temperature, aeration, composition of nutritive 
medium, presence or absence of other organisms, but also upon 
the type of yeast employed. 

Types of cultivated yeast are distinguished by differences in 
the following properties possessed, or effects produced, by them: 

1. Degree of attenuation; 

2. Fermentative energy, or rapidity of attenuation ; 
li. Reproductive energy, or growth of yeast ; 

4. Rapidity of settling of yeast, or clarilicalion of beer; 

5. Qualities of beer obtained, as taste, odor, and dur- 

ability. (See "'Yeasis and Fermentation.") 
The closest attention should be devoted to the yeast, as only by 
a sound, that is. pure and strong, yeast can a sound lH:cr be 
produced. 

CHARACTEHISTtCS OF A GOOD IIOTTOM YEAST. 

It has a thick, stiff, pasly consistency, not watery or slimy, a 
yellow lo brownish color, a bitter taste due to hop-resin, and a 
characteristic odor. 

It consists, for the mo.'t part, of single cell organisms 
of the class saccharoniyces and species cerevisix. Yeast 
mechanically encloses a large amount of water, or beer — about 20 
per cent — through which are dispersed minute bubbles of car- 
bonic acid gas, that escapes when the yeast is stirred, emitting a 
rustling sound. After the beer has tun from the fermenter, the 
yeast sediment should be quite firm and thick. However, unless 
an absolutely {jure culture, every yeast has an admixture of for- 
eign organisms, as bacteria, wild yeasts, and mycodernia. All 
these impurities may be classified as "potentially dangerous," 

Since wild yeast or mycoderma cells do not settle so readily 

as culture yeast, the different layers oi ■yeasX. to a. \e'^■ct«:■cl.v\l^.% ■*'»'^ 

iviJ/ nol he found jjencrally to contain "w\\A ^ca^^ <« ^wjccAe'^ma 

in uniform numbers. Nor is the brewev salt \"n \Mi«vvv% \-io'«^ ^ 

absence of nild yeast or mycoderma in tt\* -se**^ scaiwctvv 



743 FERMENTING CELLAR OPESATIONS. 

the beer is Iree from ihew ofanoxioni foreisn organisms. There- 
fore an examination of the beer should always be made at the 
same time; 

There are some admixtures that may be conndered "hanninc," 
as hop-resin and proteids, which give a deeper color, and ciTslali 
of oxalate of lime. (See "Micro-orsaninni.") 

For microscopical examination of yeast as to strength and 
purity, see "Iklicroscopical Laboratory." 

KEEPIHG VKAST EOUMD AND PVEE. 

Four essential p^nta are lo be considered in this respect. 
Prc^r nourishment, proper temperature, auilicient air, exclusion 
of adverse influences generally. 

Neglect of these requisites may ncces-sitatc a change of yeast, 
(hat is, the introduction of an entirely new yeast by the brewer, 
the old yeast failing to perform its functions as desired, sinci: the 
yeast may degenerate and become cither too weak or ton strongly 
contatninated to serve its purposes. 

WEAK YEAST. 

Symptoms of weak yeast are: 

1. Watery or smeary condition, due lo lack of carliniiic 

2. Slow settling of Ihe yeast in llic val. in llic -;.iii;i'li' 

glass, and when watering or wnihing: 

3. Poor "break" of beer; 

4. Sliiw progress of fermentation: 

5. Rim fermentation; 
0. Rest fermentation ; 

7. Foxy fermentation ; 

8. Cold anil bare spots in the Kr.Hdsrn. (See '"Abnor- 

mal Fermentations.") 
It should be borne in mind that abnormal fermentations are not 
necessarily due to the weakness or impurity of the yeast. A 
microstiipii-al examination is needed to decide this point. 

NOVRISIIMF.KT OF \-C.\ST. 

The principal yeast foods in beer wort are the albuminoids and 
certain mineral s.ilts. Of the a\b\\n\ti\otds the amides are the 
'nost readily digeitihk. the peptones ne^.V. v\w aWwuw-se m\* to- 
w/ubJe aiK'g no[ heing availaUe at. a\\ ^ot vVv* vw^^^^i. V^t* 
"Nutrition" under "Yeasts and FMmcn\i\\ov\r~) 



FERMENTING CELLAR OPERATIONS. 743 

Unfavorable conditions of yeast nutrition, that is, such as tend 
lo increase the relative quantity of sugar or diminish the relative 
quantity of amides and phosphates, may be brought about by the 
f<rilowing circumstances: 

By using too much of raw cereals or sugar, which enlarges the 
quantity of sugar in the wort and diminishes the amount of ,ilbu- 
miiioids and phosphates. 

By holding the mash at temperatures favorable to the formation 
of sugar too long, especially when the malt is rich in diastase. 

Employing too high initial temperature whereby the production 
of amides and peptones is curtailed. 

The preventives in these cases are self-evident (see Mashing 
Methods). 



These may consist in: 

Allowing fermentation to take place below 41° F- 

(4' R). 
Keeping the yeast without fermentation at higher temper- 
atures (above 4' R.>. 
Changing the temperature rapidly, for instance, pitching 
cold wort with yeast thai wa^ started in a warmer wort. 
The proper temperatures for bottom fermentation are 42° F. 
(4-5° R.) to 51° F. (8.5= R.), " 
(S.,S° R.). (See also Tempcralurt 



Veast requires air to carry on its vital functions. Oxygen 
should be supplied 10 the yeast in the wort to hasten fermentation, 
increase the yeast crop, and prevent degeneration. 

Yeasl seems to absorB a large amount of oxygen which it holds 
in reserve and utilizes during fermentation as it needs it. This 
free oxygen seems to be absolutely necessary for the yeast to carry 
on fermentation, and if not absolutely necessary for reproduction 
it Cfrtainly stimulates it and has generally a beneficial effect on 
the yeast. Excessive aeration is to be avoided, however, as under 
its stimulating effect the yeast may multiply excessively and 
take a corresponding amount of valuable subslai\tt^ o"^ 'A •Ovit 
wort, which, like the amides, aid m %vivtt% \itM ^\:&^«l^^ '^"^ "^J*""*. 
and foam-holding capacity. (See a\so Res^.wa.'CvQtv ^iv.'i.*^ '^'^ 
and I'ennentation.) 



^44 FERHENTIHG CELLAR OPERATIONS. 

A2r«tion can be tap|died by: 

Aerating the wort on the snrfaM cooler or the Bandetof 

cooler. 
AeratiRK the yeast directly, or aerating the wort after 
pitching, or during fermentation. 
lo all cases care should be taken to supply the yeast with pure 



E IITFLUENCES CENDULLY. 

Adverse influences to which yeast is most commonly exposed 

Frequent washing of the yeast especially with large quan- 
tities of water, or soft water. 

Long duration of fermentation. 

Letting the yeast stand nnder the beer or water too long. 

Keeping yeatt in an Jnadive state too long from i>ne fer- 
mentation to another. 

Employment of salicylic acid or other antiseptics in ex- 
cessive quantities. 
(Sec also Inlluence of Fermi-ntation Proilucls iimlcr Vi-a'l ;^riil 
Fermentation.) 

STRENGTH FN I N"G THE YEAST. 
.•\ yeast ihat lias become weakened may l»e strcngihened by one 
of the following methods : 



It should be put llirough fermentation in n pure mail wort from 
lime to time. This is the most appropriate renit<ly H-hcri- an ex- 
cess of sugar in the wort is the cause that weakened thi; yca^t. 



Certain salts like phosphate of potash and others may he mioh- 
jectionable for sircngtiiening yeast when a<l[UHl while the yi':<sl 
is being rcirc^-hcd ami developed for pitching, flowcver. in viiw 
of the possible injury that can be done by adilitinn of a wrong 
substance by mi.'lakc, it is best lo avoid chemical? in any form. 

DRUGS TO BE AVOIDED. 

-l/a/?i- nrticlcf «erc used in InrmeT \\m<:ii \t\ \\\\^ ^m\\\<-;- 
'on. nnti iIutc was iiuich occuM \tiiow\cA«e v^excwViX \n \« 
rewrrs cuitctmiiig tllccn. Among these aT\\c\ts wct«: tt\i\™t::? 



rEkMENTINr. CRLr.AR OPKRAtrONS. 745 

anise, cloves, saffron, caTdamom. grains of paradise, coriander 
seeds, orris root, bay leaves, etc. 

These and similar admixtures are for the most part quite indif- 
ferent, and in some cases injurious. They imparl to the beer a 
peculiar odor. They should never be used. 

The same may be said of alcohol or spirits. 

Neither should malt flour be used in this connection, since such 
flour always contains bacteria. Nor does malt flour lend to 
slrenglhcn the yeast. On the contrary, the diasta^ie it contains. 
by changing the dextrin to maltose, increases the relative amotmt 
of sugar. There will, accordingly, l>e a higher degree of nllcnun- 
tion, accompanied by a tendency to weaken the yeasl. 

VEAST WATKR OH BOUILLON. 

A yeast water or yeast bouillon, or soup, may be used lo ad- 
■ vanlage for strengthening purposes. To prepare it, boil six ga'lons 
of yeast with six gallons of water for half an hour, cool, let set- 
tle, pour off the yeast-water, about one-halt of whole qiianlily, boil 
nnlil flavor becomes agreeable, which may take a few hours. 
and add to six gallons of yeast, together with six gallons of first 
wort of a temperature of about 59° F. (i2° R.), or finished 
worl. The active elements for the present purpose in this solu- 
linn are large quantities of phosphates of potash and amides, 
( U. S. Palent of June 4, 1895. issued to R. Wahl and M. HcniusV 
ABUNDANT AERAnOH. 
Finally, abundant aeration should be provided for the wort on 
ilic surface or Baudelot cooler, in the collecting or starting tub. 
Iwfore and just after pitching, or while refreshing the yeast for 
pilching. This aeration is not to be contitmed after ihe beer has 
come into Krausen. 

CONTAMINATIONS OF YEAST, 
The principal agents of contamination are bacteria, mycoderma. 
and wild yeast. 

Such cont.miination may be indicated in the hrev^ery by: 
(i> Bad odor of fermentation. (2) Bubble fermentation. 
(3) Fo\y fermentation. (4) Ropy feTmtt\\a\:\oi\. W^ \wiJ^"^'= 
e)arificaiioii of the beer in sample ■g\as5 ot cVa? t^^- "-.^^^ ^^ 
odor and taste of finished beer, (j) \mpaiTc4 W\\Viwc\c-i -!.^*> 
, ability of the beer. 



74» FERMENTING CELLAK OPEKATION5. 

Foreign organunu reach the yemit from the air, from drippiiigs 
from ceilings, -through unclean vessels or ntcnsils with which 
beer cornea in contacL There is danger of infection wbereveC 
nnfiltered air is permitted to reach the woit or beer, or wbere 
vessels are left uncovered, aa fennenters, affording an oppor- 
tunity for foreign matter to drop in. 

□eanliness, therefore, of the most scrupulous and exacting 
kind, is a prime necesiily and the safest precaution for keeping 
jeast pure and aoand. 



r CONTAUf NATION. 

Rtm the wort from the snrface cooler as soon as it has cooled 
to 145* F. (so* R.). To leave it on the surface cooler after that 
point has been reached is to promote the development of forrign 
ferments, which have easy access to the beer, owing to the great 
surface exposure, and multiply rapidly at favorable temperatures, 
from 145-77" F. (50-20° R.). The air in the cooler rooms should 
be as pure as possible. Malt dust, street dust. etc.. may become 
very dangerous at this point. 

High fermenting varieties of yeast are not infected so readily 
as low fermenting. 

Pitch with yeast directly after cooling. 

Keep the yeast cool by attemperators or "swimmers" or brine 
pipes, never directly by addition of ice, which often contains im- 

Protect the yeast, beer and wort from contact with impure air. 

Prevent the drippings from the ceiling of the surface cooler 
room, and of the fermenting cellar, gettiiiR into (lie wort or 
beer. Protect the beer by inclined covers of canvas, wood or 
sheet iron hung over the fermenting vats. 

Observe the strictest cleanliness. Thoroughly clean all pipes, 
conduits, vessels, floors, walls, etc. (See "Cleansing Opera- 
tions.") 

Low temperature is another important safeguard. The temper- 
ature shoiild be kept down as much as practicable in all cellars. 



Besides clcmliness and low temperatures, alcohol, carbonic 
icid, lactic acid and hop-rcs'm arc \.\\c ^awnV v'^^^^'^aiives of 
the yeast and l»ccr, nmong whk\\ a\co\wA \\as ^vc';'"^ "wwv^rt^w* 
fSce "leasts and Fermentation.'") 



FEBUENTINC CELLAR OPERATfONS. ■ 747 

TREATMENT OF CONTAMINATED YEAST. 
Unless contaminated beyond hope of recovery, a yeasl may be 
purified by the following means : 

WATERING. 

This may be used if (he number of bacteria approximates 15 to 
30 per 1,000 yeasl cells. 

Application; To SO pounds of yeasl add two gallons of pure 
cold condensed water, unless the natural water is absolutely above 
suspicion, to which has been added one ounce of gypsum (plaster 
of Paris). Stir well and pass through a very fine sieve — hair 
sieve — allow to settle while cooling by means of atlemperator or 
brine pipes, never liy adding ice. Pour off the water. 

It the number of bacteria exceed 30 per 1,000 yeast cells, a 
change of yeast should be resorted to. 

HIGHER FERMENTATION TEMPERATtJRFS. 
By employing higher pitching temperature or allowing the tem- 
perature to rise higher during fermentation, the culture yeast 
is enabled more effectively to rid itself of mycodemia or wild 
yc.isl nr hacteri.T. (See "Yeasts and Fermentation.") 



Several cells are separated from the rest under the microscope. 
I he most suitable selected and propagated, according to the 
methods of Hansen, avoiding with absolute certainty infection 
from all possible causes, besides assuring the maintenance of the 
typical character of the yeast required for the desired fermenta- 
tinns. (See Pure Yeast Culture). 

FACTORS AFFECTING FERMENTATION. 

Fermentation, as has been repeatedly explained, is subject to 

modification by various factors, the most important of which 

1. Amount of maltose; 

2. Temperature, 

a. al time of pitching. 

b. as it rises during fermentation; 

c. time of holding highest temperature. 

3. Amount of pitching yeasl'. 

,*. Condition of pitching yeast. >«\\e.\V« -Neii^ o^ w^<swt 

5- Type of yeast. wVielhet ol \v\ftV ot \o-« ■a.'^^*;^^"'^''* 

power, whether slowXj ov t^isAcVk-j ^vvv-t^t. 



746 • FERMENTINO CELLAR OPERATIONS, 

6. ASratton ; 

7. Presence of foreign bodies (abnormal fem;enlaiion>. 



DIFFERENCES IS A 

The effects of these factors on practical brewing operations 
may be again briefl; considered. 

(a> The larger the amount of maltose in the wort, (b) the 
higlier the fermenting temperature, (c) the longer ihis tempera- 
ture is mainlained. (d) the stronger the yeast, <e) the stronger 
the aeration— (A) the higher will be the attenuation. (B) the 
grealer will be the .imount of alcohol in the beer. (C) the less 
will be the percentage of extract remaining in the beer. 

The attenuation is also influenced by Ihc amount of mnllci- 
dextrin in the wort. 

Where a wori is very rich in sugar (sugar to iion-suBar — 100; 
20. or sugar percentage 83,3). the saccliaron icier indicatinn may 
fall from 13 B. to 2 B. Where the ivnrt i> unusually p<ior 
in sugar (supar to non-sugar = 100:80, or sugar percentage 
Ss), Ihc saceharnnicti-r will fall from 1,1 R. i.> 6 B.. and with 
nhundaiil aeralimi, high lemperalurc, and >'cast of high atten- 
uating lypc and extraordinary vigor, may he hroughl down to 
.'dicuit 4'^i R. -Mtenuaiion dcpt-nds, li.twcvcr, mainly lin^n Ihc 
aniount of siigar, and, secondarily, on Ihc lypc of yeast employed. 

The reBidne of sugar left in ihe wort al ihe end of the prin- 
cipal fiTmcutalion generally amounts to one-h.ilf per cent n( 
mallnsr and 1 per cent of mnllo-dextrin for worts of average 
originnl gr.ivily or about 10 per eenl of lire original extraet. A 
;easl of liigh aiienualing type, like Frolilierg. gives an appirent 
degr.v of alleimalitin. which is ahoiu 10 per eent higher in a 
beer of or.lina;y gravily th;.n «hvre a yea=l .^f the S.i.i7 lype is 
emplnyi'd. other ihings being ei|ual. 

The differeuee in ailenuation resulling frr.iu the employment 
of differeill yea^t tyi)ts is supposed 10 he due \" ihe i)re'.enee 
of an enzyme in [he yeast of higher aiieiiiiaiiug power, which 
has ihe properly (if inverting niallo-dexlrin to dexirose, whereas 
ilie yea-i of low alteiinaiiiig power does mit eoiiiaiii this en;;me, 
or oonlaiui il in a smaller iiuanlily or Iow.t decree 01 aelieity. 

All .iildilinn nf tu.ilt lle«ur to t\ie Wct ot vqt^'.v mc^e^it;^ 
'/<<■ .-titfiinaim,. bcraii.ic the <lias.tasc ol \.\^e wa\i ft»w TOvert-. 
><■ Jc-xlrin of the hccr, ihuinK lermcvrtaVTOn- \t^ vw\w^«. •«^^^* 



PEKMENTING CELLAR OI'KKATIONS. 74y 

then ferments. This addition cannot be rccomiiicnikd uii ac- 
count of the danger of conlaniination, the malt Hour containing 
'many bacteria from the niatt husks. 

BUHATION OF FEB MENTATION, 

(a) The higher the pitching temperature, (b) the hit^hvr iht 
fermentation temperature, (c) the better the aeration, (d) the 
atronger the yeast, (e) the larger ihe quantity of yeast added. 
(f) the lower the percentage of sugar in ihc wort — the shorter 
will be the period of fermentation, 

(a) The higher the pitching temperature, (b) the belter the 
aeration, (c) the stronger the yeast, (d) the larger the quanlily 
of pitching yeast — (A) the quicker will the beer go into kriiustu, 
(B) the quicker will the saccharomeler indication fall, (C) the 
quicker will the fermentation reach the high Krausen stage, (D) 
the higher will the Kriiuscn rise. 

FERMENTATION TEMPEKATUKE, 

(a) The higher the pitching temperature, (b) the higher the 
percentage of sugar, (c) the stronger the yeast, (d) ibo greater 
the quantity of pitching yeast, (e) the belter the aeration — the 
higher will ihe temperature of fermentation rise, 

QUANTITY OF YEAST. 

For every too pounds of extract fcrmcnlcd, about 15 pound™ 
of new yeast is produced. Part of the yeast, equaling about one 
pound per barrel, goes with the beer on rub, about i pound 
of yeast per barrel o[ beer is wasted, being the top and botton' 
layers of the yeast sediment, while 1 to 2 pounds per barrel is 
obtained ot a. quality suitable for pitching. 

The belter the aeration, the larger Ihe percentage of sugar 
fermented, the more vigorous the yeasi— the greater will be the 
new yeast crop. 

The smaller ihe quanlily of pitching yeast, the greater will 
be the amount of new yeast developed, since a small quantity 
of pitching yeast will yield as large a ycasi crop ds a large 
quantity. 

INreCTION. 
(a) The longer the wort stands without yeast, especia.!!.-) ■»,*- 
higher temperatures, (b) the smaUer 'Ave ■^wia.tv'iW^ o\ 'jv'v-On.v-^* 
yeast, (c) the weaker the yeasl — t\\c tnoTt \3,NaT^^\t ■»■<«, "'^ 
conditions for the development ol iorwRTi ^wnvtTvV*. 



rUtMKMTING CSLLAR OPERATIONS. 



The danger of infectiod ii g re » l e *t before fermentation be- . 
comes active, since after the -energetic sction of the yeait has 
set in, foreign ferments have leu freedom of development. It 
ii therefore duiraUe to have the Kiiuscn rise at qniddy 
M possible. This can be accomplished by pitching at higher 
temperatures thstn was cuitomary in former years, starting at 
.«• F. (7.5° RO. 

ABNORMAL SYMPTOHS IN FERMENTATION. 

COUXMBAXE SFOTS. 

In the stage of low Kraosen the entire surface of the beer 
is not always covtrei, bnt there may be openings in the hean 
of foam. 

The cause is weak yeast, or conditions tending to bring about 
a lowering of the temperature at the surface, like a cold draught 
of air. 

BLADDCRY Oft BUBBLE FnUENIATIOH. 

Lai^e bubbles may be seen in the krausen while they are 
collapsing. 

Cause : Large amounts of finely divided suspended tnatler 
like starch, proteids and bacteria. When beer contains loo tittle 
hop-resin, bubble fermentation may show more readily. 
BEST reailBNTAIIOtl. 

In this case fermentation progresses but slowly and comes to 
a standstill while the indication of the sac charo meter remains 
very high. 

There may be several causes. I. Too low a percentage of 
sugar in the wort. It niny occur where the original Balling of 
tlie wort is high, but the ratio of dextrins is excessive. To pre- 
vent this, change the mashing method. To restore the defective 
wort to a normal condition, fill the fermenting vats half full with 
"green" beer just coming into Krausen. and pump the beer show- 
ing rest fermentation to the Krausen beer, adding one quart of 
cold extract of malt (for preparation see Starchy Turbidity of 
Beer), for every so barrels of beer. The diastase of the malt 
will first invert the dextrin and make the new sugar amenable 
to the inHaence of the yeast. 
Cause 3 may be weakened or dcgcTicT^vti ■^eaw., ^a^sualW 
. caused by too high a percentasc ol wtP* «i '*■'' *'^^'-' \.wt«Oo«.x 



FEBUKNTING CELLAR Ol'EBATIONS, 75 1 

lack of amides and mineral substances. To pniTni it^ 
change the yeast and the method of mashing. To 
the beer that suffers from rest fermemalion due to this 
, mix it with equal parts of fresh Krausen beer, without 
ig any malt extract. 



When the Krausen begin lo fall, the head o£ foam sometimes 
disappears, and the beer seems lo boil up from the lower side 
of the fermenting vat, the bubbles of carbonic acid drift swiftly 
across the surface to the opposite side, the beer in the vat has 
gone into a rotary motion. 

Cause; Unequal distribution of the yeast at the bottom of 
the fermenting vat, generally due to a strong inclination of the 
vat, and most frequently when the wort contains large cjuan- 
tities of sugar, also when the pitching temperature was loo low, 
and too small a quantity of yeast is employed. An unequal dis- 
tribution of yeast may be caused by rough wood or the presence 
of any foreign body in the vat. 

Treatment; Rouse the yeast well from the bottom of the 
vat. A dressing with malt flour or common salt, which is some- 
times recommended, is of no value. To prevent this abnormal 
fermentation occurring again, adopt another mashing method 
if the wort contains too much sugar, pilch at higher tempera- 
lures, and use more yeast 

HIU FERMENTATION. 

After the Krausen have fallen down, a rim of foam appears 
around the sides of the vessel, and the beers do not settle well. 

Cause; Yeast clings to the walls of the fermenting vat. either 
because of a weak condition of the yeast, or because the wood is 
rough or not properly planed and varnished. Another cause 
is too rapid cooling of the beer before the Krausen have prop- 
erly collapsed, leaving loo much sugar, which the yeast con- 
tinues to ferment. 

FOXY FERMENTATION. 

The beer retains a muddy and reddiah appearance, and will 
not settle. 

Cause: Weak, light yeast, or wild yeasl, or mycoderma, or 
much suspended matter of any kind, as s\m.\\, ^ioVt\*>'i, itA 
bacteria. Another possible cause is t\\a.\. \.\\e \)ctT v.Na.-i ^■^•^' 
been cooled loo quickly, when it sliU coalawci \««,e o^-w*^*-"* 



75* FERMENTING CELLAR OPERATIONS. 

of siigar, the continaed genenition of i.-arlK>n-<lioxiile keeping 
ihe lighter particki in suspension. 

ROTTEN FERHEHTATION. 

This manifests itself by a foul odor arising from the fermenta- 
tion, which is best observed by blowing into Ibc Kriiusen head. 

Cause: Infection by bacteria of putrefaction. (See "Cnntami- 
nations of Veast.'') For treatment see Bacteria Turbidity. 



In top fermenting beers. The beer becomes stringy or ropy. 
Cause: Infection, usually by bacillus viscosus. 

V.A.CUUM FERMENTATION SYSTEM. 
The important features of this system arc : 

1. The fermentation is conducted in closed glass cnainekd .^tcd 
tanks, avoiding necessity of varnishing. 

2. There is no contact with the atmosphere. 

3. Sterilized mr only i:> ailniilled, uniler pcrfecl rL'tiihilimi lUir- 
ing the leniifutalion. 

4. Fennenlalion being conducted under a jiartinl vacnnni. there 
U a cominuous removal of carbunic aciil gas as Ui>t m gcner- 
atcil, which, together with admission ot sterihzed air. causes a 
continuous rousing of the beer. 

5. The fermentation is completed witliiii seven days from the 
kettle. 

The s|K'cial apparatus used in the vacuum fermentation sys- 
tem are as follows (see ilhistrationi : 

I. Beer in!et with cap,— 2. Pipe support for three. way tixinre. 
— 3. Gate valves for attemperalor connection-.— 4. .-Vir filler.— 5. 
.'Mr sight feed with glass.— 6. Air check and stcip cock.— 7. Rack- 
ing c.jck with strainer (formerly called spring racking valvel. — 
St. Racking-off cock with cap and chain with liali-inch air pipe 
connection. — 9. Bracket for yeast valve support, — 10. Manhole 
cover— II. Beer outlet for bottom elbow. — 12. Yeast strainer. — 
13, Top or large ear for manhole crab. — 14. Bof.nm or small 
ear for manhole crab. — 15. Crab, wheel and screw for manhole 
pEati —16. Testing cock with rubber luppii'— T- Thermometer. 
— 18. Air cock with cUk^w for ho.;e c.innecii.-.n,— jc,. Three-way 

/fix-//-.//, r/ir /mlf-inch lahc in the air pipe ui-i kWv^; ih« air 
'>/'/ /ri-f/ fixture is not .s/jowii ill tile m;iT!;m-.i\ fevVn^?-. i^M w 
^ tcxiififf gi^^^ (bonic). usod on testniB cock. 



754 FERMENTING CELLAR OPERATIONS. 

The dimensions of Ibe lonks arc as follow!^: 

Inside (lianii^ter of all tanks. 7 feci 6 inclics. — Outside iliame- 
ter of all tanks. 8 feet. — Dish of toits and h"Mtom=. 10 inches. — 
Height of each ring, 30 inches.— Heigiit of legs, 18 inches. — Bot- 
lom of tank above floor, 7 inches. — Height of tank over all, three 
rings. 10 feet 3 inches.— Height of tank over all, four rii^. 1^ 
feet 6 inches.— Height of tank over al1i five rings, 15 feet 3 

The eafacUy of lauks is as follows : 

Three-ring tanks hold full 85 barrels. — Fcnir-ring tanks hold 
full tio barrels.— Five- ring tanks hold foil 135 barrels. 
The following cellar sfoee is required : 

WCEKl.V FEHMCNTIN'U C.M-.MITY. 

Three-ring tank 70 barrels 

I-'our-ring tank 90 barrels 

Five-ring tank 110 barrels 

Three-ring lank -I-Soo pounds 

Four-ring lank .^.500 pounils 

Five-ring tank 6.?K> pounds 

.\s far as rt'frigeraticn is concerncil. it will then require ice- 
iiiachiiie capacity over the cooler 10 y to r'i:~ R.. (or cooling the 
vacuum cellar 2J,ooo cubic feet at 6' R., fur coolinp llii- beer, say. 
to 1' R.. and for cooling the racking -riiini jis usual. Estimates by 
e.\|)ens place the ict-niaoliine ;apaeiiy reqnired. complete, at 
thirty tons for svdt a plant. 

The cliif lij'd-s and Ctirb-iuUiiis l>i"ks ;ire llie same as liic 
vacniim lanks, esecpi iliat llu'y are made iii lieaiier steel and iv 
infoTced 1" Mand cxceT^sive pres.-ure. Tin- linings of these tank* 
:irtaUo of bronze, and -pci-LiIly :ul;ipli;il iv ilicir purpose. These 
i..nks are steel, glass ciiamcicl. 



The preparation of ilu wort i^ identical wiili tho 


meibod eiu- 


ploved for won intended for .--y^-n fer.ncTilali..... 


1 he wort is 


called to 46 lo 4'!' y. ih'y M r'i" Ki- and ruirii 


:i!o the start- 


;nB tub or difectiv into feriiitniing lank. Veast i* a 


<]iled as soon 


a> co-.d^nsr i-^ i-'>!i'"'eitced, nnd tin- 'itianlHv := 1 yic 


- c.-nt of the 


total ex.r.cl :n «..M m i"-^nd-. -r al...., ^ :■ i ,■ 


■.■.",; per bar- 


re/. 77„. f.r,;j,cr„Mre ei lb. kr:v.Miny .,l'.r i- j 




(.?' /'.. 7' !<■'■ It ;:i, «..n lui- V.vii rvm -.v.-... .■•■A . 


-■:'.V.,i.;n -VATt.- 


•"Still: il ;■-, Mj,] ,.r dnmii I'v \;icimm raV- \V \>':- 


^^^^^\v( av =c>q\ 


'■' thr Kr.,t,>^'„ .nmcar. RCiicrally in \J. t" v. \v!\v 


;> \\ \\w ■«Q 



FERHENTING CELLAR OPERATIONS. 



755 



has been run into the fermenter directly from the cooler it need 
not be drawn into another fermenter until the final stage of fer- 
mentation. The feniientation may also be finished in one fer- 
menter only, if desired. When the beer has been collected in the 
fermenter. the vacuum is regulated to iS to i8 inches, and this is 
maintained during the fermentation. The amount of filtered 
air desired to be passed through the fermenlarion can be exactly 
regulated and observed. The amount of air and the time for 
which it is to be admitted depend upon various conditions. The 
general practice is to admit the filtered air as soon as 15 to 18 
inches of vacuum has been reached in the fermenter. The ad- 
mission of air is continued generally for 48 to 96 hours. The 
temperature of the fermentation is allowed to rise to 51° to 53° 
F. (S^j* to gW" R.), depending on conditions .ind results desired. 
When about 90 to 95 per cent of the final apparent attenuation 
has been reached, lowering of the temperature is proceeded with 
in the usual way, .The vacuum is maintained until the saccha- 
rometer indications remain stationary for six hours, when the 
vacuum is relieved by allowing Altered air to enter at the top 
of the fenncnler. The fermented beer is allowed to rest from 24 
to 48 hours, for the yeast to settle out, and for cooling to the 
desired temperature before running into the chip-casks, which is 
generally 36° to 39° F- (2° to 3° R-). 







SAMPLE 


ERM 


NTAT 


OK. 










inK Till). 


'vi't'ioir" 


-.1 
'Jb=. 


.it 


41h 


51 h (Hiaer- 
VBlion. 


^^.. 


• llH. 




AtKriiuaen 

lo V&ouuin 

T«nk. 


iff. 


& 


Hrs, 


0.er Inlo 
Olhor 


Hr,- 


fi 


BlUIn^....' 


7H-R. 
II.KJ a. 


IB.8 


lO-S 

On 


4 

On 

otr 


DM 
S.B 


7W 


oa 


aw 

Off 



ON CRIPS. 
The trcatmejil on chips is identical with that now' in ordinary 
practice for stored bper. If the beer is intended for carbouatin^, 
it is cooled to 33° to 32° F. (Mi" to o" R,>, ani \V\s >,<:t\Mjex's>--v«t 
niainlaijifd for 48 lo ij6 liours, dcpendwg u^w Ocw- ^ovw^aW^'-'J'' 
of the beer and tht: character oi the ^ca.sx. O:^^^ 'f*'^'^ ^i-it^^ *^" 



7S6 rSKMEMTIMG CELLAR OPERATIONS. 

^cqrcd in iti fennenUtioB. After beins held at so tow m tent- 
penlnrc for the ncccuu? tiine, it ii filtered- Care mnat be 
taken that the tempeislnre does not rite during filtration. Tbe 
filtered beer is then forced through the carbonator and charged 
with the gas collected during the femientation, and is tbca 
stored for 12 to 24 boun in a cask under pressure, and then 
racked off. 

CDLUCnXG dUUUHIC ACID DtlUNG THE F^MUtTATIOM. 

About 12 to 24 hours before starting to collect gas the air b 
shut off. but the vacuum kept on. The vacuum-pump convejs 
the gas to a Btnall cylinder. When the gas pressure in this c]t)m' 
dcr reaches about 3 to 4 ponads, this pressure opens the (team 
valve to the compression pump. This pump forces the gas into 
steel cylinders to a pressure of 150 pounds, or more, if desired. 
H tite gas pressure in the ttnall cylinder falls belon 3 poondl 
the steam valve on compression purap closes. In this way the 
gas collection works quite automatically. 

CAUONATING. 

The desired gas pressure in the carbonator. generally 33 to 
25 pounds, is regulated by a reducing valve beiwecn the gis 
storage tanks. The back pressure on the carbonated beer u 
generally about 15 pounds. Of course, the pressures vary ac- 
cording to the desired quantity of carbonic acid gas the car- 
bonated beer is to contain. 



STORAQB CELLAR OPERATIONS. 



The beer is ready for tanking when the principal fermentation 
is virtually finished. The marks by which that stage can be 
detected are the following: 

1. Decrease in the indication oi the saccharometer should 
still be from 1*^ P^r cent to ^a per cent during the last 24 hours. 

2. The beer should have a good cover of fine, more or less 
dark foam. This protects the beer from contamination by con- 
tact with cellar air; therefore the cover should not be skimmed 
off raore than once during or after the collapse of the Krausen. 

3. The temperature of the beer should be 39' F. (3° R). 
This temperature is brought about by attemperators in the 
fermenters, or by running the beer from the fermenter to the 
storage vat through a cooler, 

4. The beer should show a good break in glass. Held against 
the light, the small sample glass should show a lumpy condition 
of the yeast, balled up in little clots, between which the liquid 
in a thin layer should show translucent. 

5. The yeast should settle in the sample glass at cellar 
temperature within 24 hours, the beer becoming entirely bril- 
liant. The yeast should not settle on the sides of the glass. 
In a warm room it ought to settle in 3 to 4 hours. 

6. The beer should look black when the cover is blown 
aside, showing that the yeast has settled well and left the liquid 
comparatively clear. 

7. The beer should siill contain some sugars, i. e,, should 
not he completely fermented, in order to enable secondary 
fermentation to take place. During the previous 24 hours before 
tnnking there should still be a slight attenuation. 

8. Beer for export purposes — bottle beer — shr>«.\4 Ticft. ^it ■^- 
!owed to settle too much, but rather W lackei "escttxv' "C^™ 
clear ("lauler"). 

757 



758 STORAGE CELLAR OPERATIONS. 

Before rniming the beer into the storage vats, the foamy 
head should be skimmed off with care, and then the liqnid pmnped 
Wllhont the least concassion or agitation of any kitid. 

The beer should be distributed into different Ruh tanks in 
order to secure a more uniform product both u to appemraocc 
and taste. 

OK STOftACE ("ruh"). 

Storage, Itnh," is that alafe iit which the beer is kept after 
the conclusion of the primary fermentation and prior to final 
clarification fqr the trade package. 

The objects of resting the beer are to eliminate certain ma- 
pended matter, like yeast, securing greater clearness, and cer- 
tain objectionable matters, like proteids, securing greater dnra-* 
bilily, especially in pasteurized bottled goods. 

During ihe "Rnh" or storage period there should be a slight 
progress of secondary or after-fermentation. The residne of 
maltose and part of the mftlto-dcxtrin are fermented by stow 
degrees, the amounts of carbonic acid and alcohol increasing. 

The yeast settles the more quickly, the less sugar there is 
present and the smaller the storage vats; and proteids are 
the more thoroughly eliminated, the better the mash was pepton- 
ized, the lower the storage temperature, and the longer the 
period of storage. Hence, long storage at low temperatures en- 
hances Ihe stability of beer after pasleurizalion. 

Starch particles do not settle on Ruh. Nor can dependence 
be placed on improving the beer through long Morage in respect 
to number of bacteria it contains. On the contrary, bacteria 
niay increase during storage. 

Low temperaturel while the beer is in storage, is necessary to 
precipitate the proteids and to cheek the de^'elopment of bacteria. 

Keep the storage cellar as near to ,12' F. (0° R.) as possible. 

If the beer becomes brilliant on Ruh. that is. if after-fermen- 
tation comes practically to a standstill, bacteria will develop 
more easily. 

If tlic beer is 10 be stored for a long lime it should not be al- 
lowed to liccome si> clc.nr in the fermenting vat as when an ordi- 
nary beer i* produced, but should. Ik- run into storage casks 
while still -gr^n." 

// Ihe beer becomes clear on storage and we intend to store it 
longer, it should be kr.^tisened with jlosipet ceTAo\'«j\aa«avV«»« 



STORAGE CELLAR OPERATIONS. 759 

and pumped into another Ruh lank. Another plan is to let the 
principal fermentation proceed as far as usual, and subsequently 
run in some Krausen beer while ihe beer flows to the storage 
vats. This plan is recommended for beers designed to be very 
brilliant and remain in protracted storage. 

If it is desired to bring the beer quickly on the market (city 
beer), add chips to the storage beer and also isinglass for pre- 
liminary fining. 

For bottle beer, a high attennaling, slowly clarifying yeasl 
should be employed. 

For keg beer, a low attenuating, rapidly clarifying yeast is 
niore suitable. 

Export botile beer should be stored three months; export 
draught beer six weeks. 

During the storage period, hop-oils are partly converted into 
resins, the hop aroma diminishing accordingly. 



CHIP CELLAR OPERATIONS. 



TBI warn m nn cstr cask. 
When aufficwnlly toatorc^ in storage, the beer is Tft&i^ 

pamped into chip casks, so called from 3 method of clarifjiAgJI 

beer by means of chips (wluch see). 
Treatincni in the chip cellar has a twofold obieet 
I. Tri iiii| .iV '1 ihr !iiT (he necessary lite, that is, a stifficicflt . 

unonnt of carbonic acid gas so that it will foam properly when 

tapped. This is done — 

a. by kraasening and bunging, or 

b. by charging with carbonic acid gas directly (car- 

bonating) ; or 

c. by both krausening and carbonating. 
3. To make the beer brilliant. This is done— 

a. by the addition of chips. 

b. by the addition of isinglass. 

c. by filtration. 

KRAEUSENtNG. 

This consists in the addition of Krausen beer, that is, young 
beer in the first, or Krausen, st^e of fermerttftion, 24 to 44 hours 
after pitching, according to pitching temperature and amount of 
pitching yeast used. As to amount of extract and other cob- 
stituents it differs but little from fresh wort, hence it changes 
fj\t composition of the ripened beer. While the addition «f 
Krausen beer will cause fermentation to continue in th« 
chip cask owing to the presence of fresh yeast, all of the sngsr 
introduced by it will not be fermented. 
The effects of krausening. therefore, are ; 

I. The krausened beer will have a higher percentage of ex- 
tract, especially sugar. This has the effect of inipairing tlie 
durability o( draught beer, sugar beinK favorable to the growth of 



<»IIP CELLAR OPEBATIONS. 761 

a. The krauseiied beer will contain a larger amount of hop- 
resin, the taste of the beer is accordingly changed, Krausen beer 
being sweeter on account of sugar and more bitter on account 
of hop- resin. 

3. The krausened beer will contain more proteids which will 
impair the durability of bottle beer. Use sugar Krausen for 
bottle beer. 

4. The kransened beer will contain a smaller percentage of 
alcohol. 

5. The tetr^ierature of the beer will be raised slightly owing 
to the revival of fermentation and the higher temperature of the 
Krausen. 

€. Carbonic acid will be generated by the contintwd fermenta- 
tion in the chip cask, which gas accumulates in the beer after 
bunging. 

7. Young yeast cells are added. 

The more energetic the cask fermentation, the more easily 
will the beer clarify. The young, vigorous yeast cells readily 
form clusters or lumps of yeast which will envelop, and, upon 
settling, carry down with them the smaller ones, together with 
bacteria and other suspended matters ; ihus. in part, at least, 
promoting clarification. 

Kriiusening is based on a principle similar lo thai which leads 
English brewers lo "prime" beer in the trade casks by adding 
a strong solution of cane or invert sugar, 

AMOUNT OF KRAEl.'SEN. 

This is governed by the properties desired in the finished beer. 

For shipping beers — draught and bottle beer (sleamed)^that is, 
beers of which durability is required, not more than 8 to 10 per 
cent. For common draught beer. 15 per cent of Krausen is gen- 
erally used. These amounts vary, however, with the demands of 
the trade. In some cities as much as 25 per cent of Kriiusen is 
added regularly to the city beer. 

Where the laste is too bitter, use more Krausen with less 
hops. Where the taste is flat, also use more Krausen, but have 
them hopped as usual. If a beer is stubborn of clarification use 
more Krausen. 

Let the Krausen foam work out of the bung-hole for ihree or 
four days. If the beer is bitler, continue for e\i.tv\ &V]%. 

The formation of a Krausen cap over 0\t \w.wi-V^^c vtAw.'i.'t*" 
that the Krausen are working piroperty. 



76i Cliri' CELLAR OPERATIONS. 

CLARIFICATION OF BEER. 
Matter remaining in xasptrnsion at ihe end of the sloKige 
prriod is eliminated by mechanical means. First among ihem 
■1 the introduction of chips. 

"Beer chips" or "ciarifying chips" are pieces of wood so cc( 
as to prcMiit a nuximum of >iiTf»ce with ■ miniinam of volane 
and weight. 

Giips are made of varying lengthy breadth and thichneat. 
Some brewers favor the very thin, curly chip^ others prefer th» 
straight, thicker and smooth chip, others again the cormgated 
chip. Metal chips have also been introduced, but sioce .it .k 
known that certain metals will produce cloudiness in beer, th^ 
should be employed with caution. 

The chips clarify through the force of adhesion exerciaed ty 
the surfaces of the same upon the small particles of matter stts- 
pended in the liquid. 

PKEPAUKC CHIPS. 

Chips from young hardwood, beech or maple, are more ef- 
fective than chips from old or soft wood. The wood should be 
well seasoned, i. e., well dried before cutting it into chips. The 
chips should then be boiled in plenty of water to remove 
coloring matter and woody taste, and one pound of soda is 
taken per barrel of water to remove the resin and make the 
wood more porous. Boil again with one-half pound of soda per 
barrel, a third lime with one-quarter pound per barrel, then whh 
water alone. If. after boiling for some time, the water remains 
colorless and without taste, and reacts neutral, the chips, after 
cooling, are ready for use in the chip cask. 

Beer can be run twice on the same chips without removing 
them, then take them out and wash with cold pure water. After 
running beer on them twice again, wash them, first with cold 
water, and then with hot water, or boil them. 

If the beer is infected, the chips must be removed each lime 
after racking, and boiled each time after washing with coH 

If chips that have been used are to be dried, they should 
prci/ously be well washed and spiiivkied liberally with a sola- 
ion of bisulphite of lime. 



CHIl' CELLAR OPERATIONS. 763 

MUUBER OF CHIPS USED. 

The number of chips lo be put into the beer depends largely 
upon the degree of haziness of the beer. As a rule, the number 
fhould be the greater, (i) the younger the beer, (2) the more 
particles in suspension, (3) the liner the particles in suspension 
(Ifactcria. proteids), (4) if no fiher is employed, (5) the larger 
the quantity of isinglass employed. Without filter the number 
of chips need not l>c more than 50 per barrel. If beers clarify with 
difficulty, use double that amount. With filter, use 5-20 chips per 
barrel, according to size of chip cask. 

FINING THE BEER. 

The process of brightening which proceeds naturally in storage, 
is further assisted artificially by fining the beer by means of 
substances which will rapidly precipitate suspended matter. 

For tliis purpose prepared substances that contain animal gela- 
tin are used. Such substances are obtained from fish sounds or 
from calf bide. 



From Fish Sounds. — These are the cleaned and dried swim- 
ming bladders of fish generally, principally of the sturgeon 
family; in the United Stales, from the hake. In the process of 
manufaclnrc, they are first soaked in water, then rolled, and 
in rare instances starch is .added for better appearance — gloss 
— and finally dried. This isinglass comes into the market in the 
form of lliin shreds or ribbons. It varies in color from a deep 
yellow lo almost white. There should be no odor or taste in- 
ilicating decay. 

From the Hide of the Calf.— This isinglass is mannfacturcd ac- 
cording to Wahl's process. (See Brewing Materials.) 



There are two principal modes of preparing the article, as 
supplied by (he dealer, for use in the brewery. 

Warm Preparation. — Soak one pound of isinglass in iK gal- 
lons of cold, pure, soft water, renewing the water until every 
trace of odor has disappeared, washing the isinglass in Ihe mean- 
time by rubbing it lightly. At the expiration of about an Uqu.c 
add one-fourth pound of tartaric acid — lot ^^ wy^'^te, — ■KcA.^«t«* 
stirring until no lumps arc leil. XiA ii\ w^i* (\\i*-«^^'^'3 ^^"^ '^^^ 




y6i CHIP caixAK opesations. 

iat water, ronsc wdl. mix widi an cqnl qaaiititjr of beer, itir- 
rinf to an intimate uiijUiuc, poar into the bony-hole of Ae 
chip caik, and atir gentlj. 

With the tartaric add tbe innslaai oa(fat to awdl coniidenUr, 
and readily diwdve in tbe bot water. It it not advinble to 
dincdvc it by steam, or to boil it, aa the beat destroys tbe iiin- 
^■M rapidly, particdlarly in the pretence of add. 

CoM PrepanrtiQn.^Soak in cold water and add add and hot 
water, the mat at for tbe warm preparation. When diuolved. 
add four gallons of cold Water, route well; add Eradvally 
more »ater, and repeat tbii at intcrvalt for 4& hours, adding 
aa much water as the iainglats will take op. A good quality will 
take 30 gallons of cold water and keep its gelatinous consistency. 
This solution is mixed wilh beer, poured in through the bung- 
hole, and the beer stirred. 

The isinglass may also be gradually thinned down without 
previous solution by adding small quantities of cold water until 
up to 30 gallons are obtained. 

When using the cold process an addition of sulphite of soda 
should be made as the gelatinous mass is' likely lo mould. 

Sounds. — If the sounds themselves are used in the brewery, 
ihey are soaked in cold water which is poured olT, after soften- 
ing. Then add one-half pound of tartaric add per pound of 
sounds; when well sofiened cut up by passing through a 
sausage machine. Add cold water gradually, allow io soak 
thoroughly, and prepare warm or cold as above. 

Wahl's Process Isinglass.— This does not call for tartaric acid, 
but after properly soaking in cold water (one pound per one and 
one-half gallons) for one hour, should be dissolved in hot wa- 
ter, after which it may be treated on the warm or colli plan like 
fish isinglass. 

OPEHATION OF ISIS CUSS. 

The process by which the isinglass acts is as follows: The 
gelatin contained in the isinglass dissolves in warm water and 
precipitates In (lakes when cooled in beer when the solution is 
sumcicntly thinned out, but in lumps, w^ien x.\\t wAmvca \% \i« 
oncentrateii-~therelore the cold preparaUow "\^ TO-iie e5,tt<v*«, 
«n the warm. The flakes gather up t\K ^rt^cV^ \t. ■«.'.^»««, 
■O-Zng- them upwards during the e«^pe ^^ wt\«wt ^cv4 «^w 




CHIP CELLAR OPERATIONS. 765 

before bunging — and settling to the bottom with them, after 
bunging. 

Prepared warm, the finings contain the gelatinous matter in 
true solution which, oil addition to the beer, becomes insoluble. 
and settles in the form of a net enveloping the suspended parlirles 
and carrying them lo the bottom, leaving the beer bright. 

Prepared cold, the gelatinous substances are only in suspension 
nnd very minutely distributed, being insoluble in cold water. 
The more and the thicker a jelly the isinglass yields, the better 
is its quality for brightening the beer. 

The quantity of finings to be used is dependent upon the extent 
and stubbornness and the nature of turbidity, and whether a 
filter is employed or not. Without a filter, use one pound to 40 
to 60 barrels prepared warm, or one pound to 100 to 150 barrels 
prepared cold. When using a filter, one-half of this amount 
will be sufficient. 

BUNGING. 

After fining, the beer is bunged, that is, t^e bung-hole of Ihe 
chip cask is closed tight for the twofold purpose of enabling ihe 
secondary fermentation which has been going on alt the time, 
to charge Ihe beer with ihe requisite amount of carbonic acid gas, 
and of promoting ihe sedimentation of whatever particles may 
still remain lo cause turbidity. 

If a bunging apparatus is used, (he beer is usually bunged di- 
rectly after adding the isinglass. If not, it is bunged as soon as it 
has become moderately line. 

After bunging, (he carbonic acid gas generated in the chip cask 
cannot escape. The beer grows richer in carbonic acid gas and 
exerts a pressure on the inside of (he cask. The more carbonic 
acid is generated, the higher wtM the pressure rise. The higher the 
bung pressure, the colder (he beer, and the higher the percentage 
of extract, the more carbonic acid will accumulate in the beer. 

The augmenting pressure in the chip cask facilitates (he pre- 
ciptlation and settling of particles in suspension. 

When not using racking apparatus, htex %'wivi\4\it\i«w»?-^.'«'-''^ 

frojii .* lo 5 pounds' pressure, and ta\.VM \c?,% WwV ^-j.^™.^ '^^ 

paratus. If the beer is bunged wHVv mOTe, -Ov^w "b 'S^;*^*'^ "^"^ 

sure it is apt to fqpm, if not very to\d, ■w'^t** ^^^'T'^X -wa' 

If the beer contains too much carViotviC at\A «»* ^ 



7^6 CHIP CELLAR OPERATIONS. 

the foam so well as it it liad its proper quantity. If the beer con- 
I tains too niucli carbonic acid gas the individual hubbies that make 

up the foam will be larger than if the foam is creamy, and break- 
ing up more easily, the foam will collapse quicker. 

RACKING. 
I The finished beer is racked olT. Ihnl is. run into the trade pack- 

ages (baffi'ts. kegs, etc.l. 

This is done by means of air pressure, the racking bench 
usually standing higher than tlic chip cask, a steady flow of be«r 
' nnder an invariable prcs.'ure shonld be maintained, avoid- 

ing jars or concussions, sudden stoppages, etc. as otherwise loo 
much carbonic acid gas will be lost and the yeast might rise in 
the chip cask, making the lieer turbid. 

The ()uanlily of carUinic acid gas that beer contained at vari- 
ou? stages «;is fMimil l.i l.i- (l.-d-ramrv .■! Wahi & Hcnius) : 

.Vfter principal fiTnicntati.<n o.-o per cent. 

.-\fter twn months' sliiragc (in Inwcr 

layers ) 0..15 per cent. 

.■\fler racking fri>in storage in I'hip 

"* ..-•»„orc..„,. 

Before racking from chip cask 0.40 to 0.4J per cent. 

] In the kegs 0..15 per cent. 

In the glass o.j? per cent. 

If the l>cer contains less Ihiin O..10 per ceiil cif carlxtnic acid in 
j the keg or liottli'. or less than o.ji; iier cent in the glass, its taste 

I Hill he Hat, 

I Thin- arc ni-idcrn dwiccs i'.>r preventing fnaniing while rack- 

! ing by niaiiit.iining a o.uiiitcr-prcssure on llic lli'wing beer, yield- 

ing to the forward pre- urc -iitlicici'ily 10 allow the liquid to 
dow. hut cfTering loo much resistance tn allow foainiiiR. This is 
applied both 10 kegs and lo boitk-. In Si'inc cases ihc eounter- 
prcsfrrc is exerted by carhrinic acid, preveniing contact of the 
beer with atmospheric ;iir until ihe irade c:isk is tapped, thereby 
niiniiui/ing the chances oi initction and adding to the stability 
0/ the product. 

CHILLlSli THE llV.tVL. 

// /".-■ .i<lx-,\-,hl.: ivhcther a rackins -levWv \- «-^.\ -t ^vA.^,^ (V%\\ 

'/ic beer ,„i it< wuv from i\n: c\iip cas.V; Vi vV' W\tt. ^^Aft'^'v^?, >-\«: 

'<-"'pfr.ittir<- ,./ riK- Leer below lli-.- fvfc/u>* V""^^ "^ •^■''■'''- '*■' 




CHIP CELLAR OPERATIONS. 767 

beers CMitain an abnormally high percentage of proteids Ihe 
low temperature may render them insoluble, when the filler 
may remote them, this process yielding a more stable beer when 
bottled and steamed. If beers contain but little proteids the 
time of passage through the cooler is too short to precipitate any 
appreciable amount of them. 

CARBONATING. 
■ By charging the beer with carbonic acid (carborating) , the 
detrimental iniluences of krausening are avoided. It is difii- 
eult, liowcv':r, to treat hccr uniformly according to Ibis method, 
or to produce beer witli creamy head without addition of 
Kriiusen or sugar solution at the same time. 

The carbonic acid in carbonated beers is generally introduced 
into the beer on its way from the chip-cask to the filter. It has 
been found inipraciicable. if not impossible, to carbonate Ruh 
beer from the storage tanks directly, one reason being that in 
such beers the carbonic acid is not uniformly distributed, the 
amount being larger in the bottom than in the top layers. In 
order lo be successfully carbonated the beer is usually run into 
a chip cask where a small percentage of Krausen is added, and 
after bunging long enough to raise a slight pressure it is passed 
through the carl>anator. 

FILTRATION. 

The latest and a most efficient artificial aid to clarification 
is the beer filter (see filters). It has conic into general use of 
late years. The beer to be filtered need not be so brilliant in 
the chip cask as where no fill-r is used. 

The proccs.s of filtering beer consists in forcing the beer, gen- 
erally by means of air pressure applied at the chip cask, through 
one or more layers of compressed fibrous material, called filter- 
mass, which commonly consists of wood pulp or paper pulp. 
The thicker the layer of pulp, and the stronger it is compressed, 
the more effective will the filter be in removing turbidities, but 
the slower will be the process of filtration. By means of filtra- 
lion s-easl cells, both of culture yeast and tbe. d\fl«*.T.\ N^\\.'i*i.rA 
of wild yea.st, and myeodeTmo c«\\s ca-xv ^« ^tTO.«st*i.. ^ 
the niter material is of fine texture (,m\T;t4 VAV ■*^*^5*.,^^^ 
and compressed very hard, bacteT\ti\ ani ^^tA^*' \>m'^™'^'^^j 
be effectively treated, whereas slarc^v^ mt^«*:^'>-'^ ■ ^'""''^ 




CHIP CELLAR OPEBATIONS. 



aiiimtWHM of the iiartidea in nupauioii, cannot be removed hf 
Utration. 
The advanU«et of fihratioa are: 

I. Gmter brillUn^ and cmucqucnt greater dnnWftr 

of the beer. 
3. Saving in cbipt and itinglau, a« wdl u the tbne; 

tabor and ntenulB employed daring that itage. 
3. Doing away with beer remnants and their treatment, 
ai a fiher will allow the last residue of beer to be 
clarified and nacd. 
The filter is inserted between the chip cask and the r a c ld ng 
bench, the beer in its flow from the former to the latter befa^ 
forced tliroiigh the same. 

PILTUING CK^RATIONS. 

Beer should always pass through the filter under back pressure, 
as it will otherwise foam to such an extent as to preclude the 
proper tilling of the trade packages. 

In cases where there is no back pressure racking apparatus, it 
is advisable to place the racking bench higher than the filter and 
chip-cask in order to produce a natural back pressure action, and 
prevent foaming. For the same reason, and in order to get a 
uniform flow of the beer to be racked, Ihe hose connecting the 
filter with the racking bench ought to be at least 50 to too feet 
long, and handled so as not to form any sharp corners. The 
hose may be of one to one and one-half inch diameter, according 
to the size of ttic filler and the racking capacity desired. By in- 
^'reasing the siic of the hose the racking capacity may be in- 
,:rcased considerably. 

The filter ought to be put in a cool place and if practicable, in 
the chip cellar. Several pounds' pressure is necessary for the 
passage of ihc beer through the filler to the racking bench. The 
pressure from the chip-cask is regulated according to the flow 
desired, and is limited by the degree of air-tightness of the casks 
and their soundness, and may reach 10 to so pounds. During the 
time when the filter is not in use it ought to be filled with cold. 
pure, iron-free water, prefcraMy condensed or boiled water. 
After the connection between iVie tbi?-cAs.V„ «i\m ^■p.i wecm* 
beach is established, and the vaWe oi l\ve c\\\^-ca?.V \s o¥«vt&. •»;*,- 
'-fr is allowed to escape till beer awe»". ^«d \W ov'iiVvivi qV ^ 



CHIP CELLAR OPERATIONS. 769 

tering properly started. A little foaming invariably takes place 
at the start, and the foaming liquid is let off till the beer begins 
to flow elcar. Where the hose leading front the chip-cask is 
connected with the filter an observation glass will do good service, 
which should be supplied with an automatic appliance for clos- 
ing the tiller inlet as soon as the cask is emptied and air gels 
access to the flowing beer. This is usually effected by a rubber 
ball floating in the liquid in the glass cylinder, and settling in the 
outlet as so.in as the liquid is displaced by air. 

Racking into barrels at the bench is started as soon as the beer 
begins to flow clear. Care should be taken not to interrupt the 
flow of the beer as the filtering material would otherwise give off 
some of the retained particles and cause turbidity for a few min- 

OBSTINATE TURBIDITIES. 
It happens, occasionally, that lurbidilies will not yield to the 
ordiiiary treatment, and special treatment then becomes necessary, 
which should be governed by the nature of the turbidity. In all 
cases of obstinate turbidity an energetic chip-cask fermentation, 
obtained by using more Kniuscn or sugar — or glucose— Krau sen 
«ill be found effectual. At the same lime the filter mass should re- 
ceive an admixture of fine asbestos fiber, and be packed tighter 
to mako it more effective. In this way wild yeast, bacteria and 
prolcid turbidities are praclieally removed. 



When krjiuscning the beer, add one quart of cold extract of 
malt {'"Kalter sati") to 50 barrels of beer. 

To prepare this cold extract of malt ; To 20 pounds of crushed 
malt add to gallons of cold water, stir well for 10 minutes, allow 
lo settle for one-half hour, pour off ihe liquid through a flannel 
cloth, bring the thick malt upon the flannel, and allow to drain. 
Of the liquid so obtained add one quart to 50 barrels of beer, 
preferably when krauscning. 

PBOTKID TUMBlonr. 

This form of turbidity often disa^pcaits u.'^qtv -HTrtrnvp.^ '>^'t 
beer slightly, so that it often happens \\-\a\ '\t \s ^^c,^-\^-^ '■''^ '^ 
celfar and has become entirely iriWiatrt, "wVetv \ii'5^«^'*> ^'^ 

sa/oan. 



770 



CHIP CmLLAH OI'ERATIONS. 



If (lie beer is very ctoiidy, sugar Krauscci should be used for 
treating it (see Preparation of Bottle Beer). 

Beers showing proteid turbidity should never be used for 
pasteurized bottle beer. 

.\BNORM.AL TASTE AND ODOR OF BEER. 

There arc limes when notwithstanding all precautions have been 
properly taken— at least the brewer so thinks— the finished beer 
will possess an abnormal taste or odor, making it unsalable or 
•t lea^t less palatable, tn such cases (lie important thing to do 
is lo go over (he whole course of manufacture in the most search- 
ing manner, to discover at what point a mislake was made, and 
take measures to forestall any repetition I'f ilic calamity. 

For (he inmiediaic purpose of saving the imperfect beer and 
making it as sound as possible, prompt and drastic measures are 
required. Wherever possible, natural mean* =liLmM bo employed. 
and (lie use of chemicals avoided, and in euosi cases it will be 
fi')Uiid ihat sugar, hops, a hopped sugar solution or niurt; or k'ss 
Kriiiisen. niori; strongly or more weakly hopped, as the case 
may warrant, will prove effective, will cure the evil by return- 
ing, as it were, to an earlier stage and Boiiig through the various 
proecises once more, with an eye single to the removal of the 



g llic laMc; 



Hid odor* of most froijnent ncizuri 
.im the desired propt-riits of the b 



Tlii; mav K- ciw:-l In- the use of i 
Western or Pacific C"a.-i !i..p?. which nr 
Leer a rank. M'.tir after la=te if use-i 
mor.- tlian ha!f .?: il-c li .p' u=cd sh.-.t'- 

0;h>.-r causes ilir.i :■.:■■-%■ Ic.id to .vi ur 

■\-!!g ::' :.':.■ /;,'(> .i";u-k, ..T (4'' t'.^v vrv^. 
Tn.^uu.m : Tiie Kcr in t!u- cV.■.■,^ c 



r;:ni-h hop-, especially 
■(■r]uently found to give 
liirgi- T-ianlilics. Not 
'n-Nt of Pacific Coast 
Blending 






■■ of 



CHIP CELLAR OPERATIONS. 771 

SWEET TASTE. 

All excc&s of sweetness, or too mild a taste, may be caused by 
loo much sugar, or an insufficient amount of hops. 

Treatment ; The beer in chip-cask should be treated with less 
Kriiusen, strongly hopped, 

HABD OR TAKT TASTE. 

This is caused by too much acid, usually lactic acid ; such 
beers arc also difficult of clarilicalion. 

Treatment; The beer should receive an addition of soda — not 
bicarbonate of soda, as thij will make the beer foam too much — 
to neutralize the acid. The amount to be added depends on the 
degree of acidity. In some localities the addition of soda to the 
beer is a general practice in order to give the beer a milder taste. 

OKIOK TASTE. 

This is due to a peculiar condition of the yeast, some varieties 
giving rise to it more quickly than others. The yeast may at 
the same lime be entirely pure. Change your yeast at once, as 
soon as this taste or smell becomes noticeable. . 

CELLAR TASTE. 

Beers will readily lake up any foreign odor, as when in contact 
with wood or pilch, poor varnish, or when the cellar air has a 
rotten or foreign odor like that of asphalt from a freshly laid 
lioor, or tar from tar-paper used as an insulating rnaterial between 
the walls. Beer should, therefore, be carefully protected from 
contact with any such odor either in a vessel or in the air. A 
brewer should also avoid the employment of any substance in the 
cdlars that has a foreign odor, for instance, substances for dis- 
infecting or for cleaning purposes like carbolic acid and chloride 

STABILITY OF BEER. 
A beer which is expected to possess durability should have as 
few particles as possible in suspension. It should be perfectly 
brillia^it. 

n should be made between : 
. Stability of pasteurized VcAtte \)t« '..t-f.'^^''. ViV'^'^ 

Slabilily of not pastc«i««6 \«« (^e-.-VO^'^ &t^>l%^^■^ ' 
local bottle beer). 



772 



CHIP CELLAR OPERATIONS, 



If pasteurized beer becomes tnrbid. it is usually proteid tur- 
bidity, otherwise tbe beers have not been propcTly pastenriied. 
(See "Bottling Depart nient.") 

If keg beer or not pasteurized bottle beer becomes turbid, it is 
usually yeast turbidity. 

If beer kept for a certain time shows any other turbidity oot- 
side of these two characteristic turbidities, it was not racked oS 
in a sound conditicm, or it was infected by foreign organisms 
in keg or bottles due to improper cleaning of the same. 

A sound beer filled into dean packages should not become sour 
or show a turbidity due to foreign organisms. 



This is a process desq[ned to give greater stability to beer. 
(See also "Bottling Department.") In general outline it consists 
in healing the finished beer in bottk tu 3 U'mpcr.ilurt' sufficient to 
kill siKh yeasts and other organisms as niay remain in the liquid, 
excluding the light during this process, after which the beer is 

The problem that presents itself in this ireatcncni is to reach 
and hold a suf5cient heat to accomplish the destruction of all 
germs without materially affecting the beer itself as to taste or 
brillianc)'. or causing too nmch loss by brcak.igc of bollles. Va- 
rious devices have been constructed for steaming. \'o altogether 
satisfactory method of pasteurizing beer in ki'gs or casks or 
otherwise in bulk has yet found its way into brewery operations. 




SPECIAL AMERICAN BOTTOn FERnBNTATION 
BBER5. 



EXPORT BOTTLE BRER. 

At every step from the purchasing of the barley to the proper 
putting up into packages and storage, of the pasteurized beer, 
all precautions should be directed toward getting rid of the 
proieids. (See "Principles of Brewing.") 

In a general way, superior material must be used for bottle beer 
to what is necessary for keg beer, or any brand designed for im- 
niediale consumption. The reason is that bottle beer is calculated 
to be kept longer and under more trying conditions, going quite 
commonly into residences or otherwise into private use where 
there arc none of the facilities for giving beer appropriate treat- 
ment, such as a well appointed bar-room possesses. The adverse 
Influences to which beer is exposed in tran.iit during long jour- 
neys also count in 



Materials : Take oirfy a choice pale malt, well grown, i. e., about 
QO per cent of the kernels ihnuld have Ihc acrdspire developed to 
three-quarters or the whole length of the kernel, and the 
barley should contain only a limlled number of glassy and half- 
• glassy kernels. The malt should have been alored for three 
months, having been carefnlly treated in the dry-kiln by prelimi- 
nary ilrjing on the upper fliKir at a low temperature, i. e., not lo 
exceed 100° F. (yi" R.), and tliorougli airing durinR this process, 
follnwcii by a final (cmpcrature on the lower floor of nnl less than 
167' F. (60^ R.l, (See "Kilning Operations.") ' 

I'sc only best quality of rice free (vtnw Mvj vwmX-i ^■^™S\ i,v.». 
/rcf frniii foreign seeds, or liest nuaWly ri\ m,t'a^ n'' *>'^'^'' '^''"■^ 
tnriiinn „nl more (Ii.iri i per cetlt of r-A, r\OT wvut *.V-if^ \'^ N^"' '^ 
of Dioi.'iiirc. or corn slarcli. 



774 SPECIAL AMERICAN BEERS. . 

For. metbods of nushiii^ and boiling see "Maihing and Boil- 
ing Operations." 

Fcnnentation : The wort is pitched with lU ponnd of yeast 
per barrel at 45.5° F, (6" R.) and temperature allowed to rise 
to 59" F. (SW R-), then cooled fo 39' F. (3* R.). 

The storage cellar shottld be kept as near to freezing point as 
possible; tbe chip cellar between 34* and 36" F. (1 to a* R.). 

Storage. — The beer ihoold be stored for three months. 

Chip Cellar. — Treat the beer in the chip cellar as usual, bnt 
with the exception that sugar Krinscn should be employed in- 
stead of common Krauien. The Kranscn should be prepared and 
nsed according to the following method, viz.: 

Sugar Krtusen.— In ao barrets of boiling water in hop, or rice- 
kettle, disserve ISoo pounds of anhydrous grape sugar, hoU for 15 
minntes. add 30 pounds of fine American or imported hops, boil 
for 15 minutes more, nin into hbp-jaclc, cool to 55" F. (10° R.), 
add two pounds of yeast per barrel and allow to come into Kran- 
scn. (In about 24 hours a fine white foam will appear.) 

Now add to the beer in the chip-cask 10 per cent of these hopped 
sugar Krausen, or five barrels per 50 barrels of beer, allow to 
work out of the bung-hole for three days. 

For treatment of beer in bottling department $ee that head. 

EXPORT DRAUGHT AND UNSTEAMED BOTTLE BEER. 

Where beer is intended to ke^ for some lime without 

being steamed, as in the case of keg t>eer shipped out of town or 

unstcamed bottle beer, certain points rco'lifc pnrtioiil.ir attention: 

1. The beer should be perfectly brilliant when racked off 

into the trade package : especially should it contain 
the least po.ssible number of yeasl cells and bacteria. 

2. The beer should contain a proper aiiiotml of alcohol 

and as little .'ugar as piwible. 
X It should be stored at a low leinperalure. 
The less alcohol the beer contains wlitn rncWd, the more sugar 
the beer contains when racked, (he more yeast cells it contains 
when racked, and (In; higher the storage teiiiperaliire after rack- 
ing—the sooner it will l>econ)e Inrbid and form a sedintert. 
An export dMiiglit Wer should comam avv^<^^:\\^^^\>;^•; 1, ^ar 
vent of alcaboi. 



SPECIAL AMERICAN BEERS. 775 

In order to reduce the amount of sugar to the lowest possible 

a. The temperature of the principal fermentation should 

be allowed to rise to ji' F. (8.5° R.). 

b. The beer should be stored for at least six weeks. 

c. Krausen with the smallest amount possible — about 

10 per cent. Sugar Krausen should not be used. 

d. Let the beer work out of the bung-hole for 10 days, 

filling up with fresh Krausen every day or two. 
Then fine and keep under five pounds' pressure for 
four weeks at least before racking. 

e. Keep the chip cask cellar at a higher temperature than 

the Ruh cellar, vis., at 3^4-39° F. (2-3° R.). 

f. Use warmer Kriiusen—si" F. (8Vj° R.)— i. e., pitch 

the Krausen brew at a higher temperature, 49° F. 
(?%" R.). Preferably add to the beer abotil 5 
per cent of Krausen and carbonate it. 

g. More chips should be used and the l»eer fined with 

more isinglass than usual, and it should then be 
filtered, 

MALT TONICS. 

These beers are made of a dark color, some having the general 
characteristics of a heavy -brewed Bavarian beer, like Kulm- 
bocher, for instance, with a pronounced mall flavor and sweetish 
taste, a high percentage of alcohol and relatively small porccniage 
of extract; others having the .same general characlcristics but 
a low percentage of alcohol and high percentage of extract. The 
latter type is brewed and fermented like the former, but receives 
a larger percentage of Krausen, or wort, in the chip-cask. 

Malt tonics are generally put up in bottles, attractively labeled 
and usually distributed by druggists. If such tonics are adver- 
tised for use for medicinal purposes and so sold by the retailer 
in good faith, and not as beverages, and if Ihey really are medi- 
cinal preparations, the druggist will not require the United Stales 
rcinil liquor dealer's license to sell the articles. The mere ad- 
dition of a drug used for medicinal purposes is not sufliciciil to 
exempt the dealer. As to such licenses as he ma^ ■^ti\\\vin. vw^fs 
state or municipal Jaws and ordinances, \oc3>\ TWtvlwi.V''i'^^ w,-»*i''' 
bc-consulted. (See "Legal Relations.''^ .^ 

A/aUrialt: H/gfi-drled malt with ca*avnc\ ■n\^\'^. \)\^Oi 




SI^CIAL AMERICAN BEEK5. 



or roasted oom, in qnantitiea to mit color, hops from i14 to a 
pounds per barrel, according to flavor and degree of bittemna 

Strength of Wort: i6 to iS per cent Balling. 

Method of Muhing and BoiUng. (See "Pure Malt Beer.") 

Method of Fermentation md Storage. (See "BotUe Beers.") 

Treatment in Chip-ratk: Use from 15 to 30 per cent of 

Krauscn. and if low percentage of alcohol and high percentage 

of extract is desired, add in chip-cask a ctM-rcsponding amonnt 

of wort. 

Trealmrnl in Bollliug. (See "Bottling Department.") 

TEUPERANCE BEER. 

By thi!( term certain bcveraget are known which are intended to 
be sold in districis where the sale of intoxicating liquors is pro- 
hibited. The percem^e of alcohol is reduced so as to make the 
beverage n on -intoxicating. (See "Legal Relations.") Such beers 
arc usually produced from a wort of 6 to ft per cent Balling, con- 
taining no more than 4 per cent of reducing sugars. 

Materials: Pale malt with or without unmahed cereals or 

Mashing \fcthod: Wahl's Lauter-mash nielhod will give good 
results (sec "Mashing Operations") where a brew is specially 
made: otherwise the spargings of an ordinary brew may be used 
together with glucose containing a high percentage of dextrin. 
Add one-half to three -quarters pound of hops per barrel in kettle, 
tie. 

FcrmnUalicn : .Vdd three-quarters pound yea*! per liarrel at 
45' F. (6° R.). let ri<e to jR" F. {7^ R.>. cool to 39° F. 
(3" R.). store one week. 

Trealiiwnt in Chif CUar: Kr.iuscn with 15 per cent of tem- 
perance Kriiufcn and tre.it beer as usual or carlmnate. 

Trciilincnt in Bollling. (See •■Bollling Department.'") 

CALIFORNIA STEAM BEFR. 

This liccr is largely consumed throughout the stale of Cali- 

fonti.!. ll is c.illed steam beer on account of lis high elTervescing 

proptTlics and the amount oi pressure ^,"'s^cavl^*"^ it has in the 

packages^. TUc pressure rangcl Svom ifi V" lO njowmA^ ™ tw^i. 

trade package, according to the amowv oi V.r.ww\N ^44<4.. \*m 



SPECIAL AMIiHlfAN llUKRS, 77? 

peratures, and time it lakes before being consunicd and the 
distance it travels from saloon rack to faucet, etc. Usnally 50 
lo 60 pounds' pressure is sufficient for general use. 

Strength of Wort; u to laH Balling. 

Materials: Malt alone, malt and grits, or raw cereals of nny 
kind, and sugars, especially glucose, employed in the kettle to 
the extent of 3^',:i per cent. The liarlcy is malted as for lager 
beers. Roasted malt or sugar coloring is used to give the favor- 
ite amber color of Munich beer. 

Mashing methods vary greatly. Some brewers employ English 
mashing methods, but the double mashing methods employed in 
a great many lager beer breweries, starting with low tempera- 
lures, in fact, mashing as though for lager beer with the excep- 
tion of stopping and mashing at 158° F. (56° R.) until all is 
converted, will give very good results. But as a rule the initial 
temperatures are taken about 140° lo 145° F. (48" to 50° R,), 
then to 149° to I54° F- (52° to 53° R.), mash 10 to [5 minutes, 
and then raise to 158° F. (56° R.) as final temperature. 

The raw cereals are cooked and added in (he same manner as 
if conducting a lager beer mash. 

The mash is allowed 10 rest about 43 minutes, and the same 
precautions tnken In running off wort and sparging as in other 
mashes, the sparging water to be about 167° F. (60° R,). 

The hops used depend upon the quality. Of a good quality, 
three-fourlhs of a pound per barrel is used and added in the usual 

The wort is boiled as soon as Ihc bottran of the kettle is cov- 
ered, and after the kettle is filled, boiling is continued for one to 
two hours. The wort is then pumped to the surface cooler, and 
then over the Baudetot cooler and cooled lo about 60° to 62" F. 
(la" lo 13° R,). In breweries where no cooling apparatus is 
used, the wort is exposed over night, or until it is cooled to 
aljout tlic above temperature. 

fertneulation: The wort is now run into tubs of the 
starling tub styte and size, where it is pitched with about one 
pound per barrel of a special type of bottom fermenting yeast, 
and well aerated. In about 14 hours a thick, hcavv K.^w.-iks^ 
head appears from which the heer \o \>t ^acVei 0% >. ^■i'-"*^'^^ 
The temperature of the beet is novj aWu^ »° ^'^ ^ \^^^i. 
or about 6s° lo 63° F. {13° (o \A° ^-^ "^^ ^wcVci ^'^ *** ■ 



778 SPECIAL AMERICAN SEEKS. 

Krinsen have been taken it ii run into long, wide shallow vats, 
calleil ctarifiers, which are made of wood, about ta inchei high. 
Precautions thould be taken that clAriiierj, in nliich the beer 
stands six to eight inches high, are not too cold, >o as to give 
the wort running out of the tnba a sudden set-back which maj 
check fermentation. This can easily be avoided bj sprinkling the 
cbrificrs with hot water previons to letting wort run. 

The wort then ferments in the clarifiers for two to four 
days. Precautions are taken against exposure to srnilii^ and 
the fermentation should not rise loo high. The matter which 
rises to (he lop is skimmed off continually. 

When indications are the same as in lager beers, viz., dark 
color, yeast well settled, good, clear break, etc., it is ready to 
be racked directly into trade packages, or if for some reason it 
is deemed expedient, it may be racked into small casks of 5, 10, 
15 or so barrels' capacity and kept there at a moderate tem- 
perature until wanted, then Krausened and racked off. IF racked 
off directly from clarifiers. the Krausen is added with a qi<art 
measure to the trade packages, according to the :^moiint of car- 
bonic acid desired, the weather, etc., usually about five gallons 
per one g^^neral trade package called one-half barrel or 15 gal- 
lons, or, in general, about 33 to 40 per cent. 

Finings .ire also added to each keg in about the same propor- 
tion as for lager beer. Trade packages are then gone over with 
a special filling can. filled completely and closed with iron screw 
bungs, when after two days it is ready for shipment. It should. 
as a rule, he about S or 10 days old before leaving the brewery, 
when it has attained the necessary' pressure. In the saloon it is 
laid tip for two days to allow settling, the bung being opened, as 
a rule, mer night, to allow just a small anioimt of gas to escape, 
so as to be ,-ihlc to draw from the faucets without getting too 
much fo.iin. This Is done if drawing directly from keg, while, if 
nsing beer .ipparatus, "'steaming," as the escape of the gas is 

Ii this U'cr is properly brewed and handled it makes a very 
clear, refrijslting drink, much consumed by the laborinfr classes. 
h will keep tor some lime in trade p.ickagc'. i. c. iwni 2 to 6 
momhs, but is usii.illy brewed and con-umc.l within a m"nth or 
//ircc iicfAs 



SPECIAL AMERICAN BEERS, 779 

PENNSYLVANIA "SWANKEY." 

This beer has a local reputation in some parts of Pennsylvania, 
and is still brewed in Allegheny. It may also be classed ns a 
temperance beverage, containing but little alcohol. Its namt is 
probably a corruption of the German "Schwenke." 

The material employed is malt. Balling of wort, about 7 per 
cent, hops about one-half pound per barrel, and a flavorinR 
condiment like anise seed. 

The malt is doughed-in at 167° F. (60° R,). and the mnOi 
held at 154" F. (Si'/y K.) until inverted. 

Tbc hops are boiled one to two hours, the condiment alioul 30 

The pitching lemperalnre is about fii" to 63° F. (12° tn 74' It). 
The beer is run into pnncheons ns soou as the Kriiusen lirgin I0 
fall, is allowed to spurge out. and is lopped up every few honrs. 
until the Balling of beer is altoul J. when the beer is racked inlo 
trade packages and stored al about 61° to 0.i° F. (13' to 14° R.). 
until it lias raised sufficient life, when the beer is cooled to almiil. 
42° to 45° F. (5° to 6° R.) and marketed. 

Cream, Lively or Present Use Ale, Slill nr Sparkling Ale 
Amcriean Slout. Fotlcr and Stoek Ales. AmerieoH l^eiss Beer. 
Kentueky Common Beer, will be found under "American Top 
Fermentalion liters. "' 



PRODUCTION OP THICK MASH BE£RS IN 
QERnANV AND AUSTRIA. 



The data on this subject were mainly taken from Thausing's 
"Makbereitung und Bicrfabrikation," 1898. 



{Sec also '"Malting in Germany.") 
Bavarian beer is light-brown (like the Munich) to dark-brown 
(like the Kulmbacher). It has palate- fulness, a sweet taste and 
malt dai-or. Balling of wort abottt iz.5 to 14.5. Export and Bock 
about 15 In iK. On account of the pronounced malt taste the 
beer should be but lightly hopped. 

Bohemian beer (like the Pilsener) is light-yellow to greenish- 
yellow, the laslr is vinous, dry. somewhat slinrp : instead of the 
malt tnsle. the hitler taste of hops predominates. The light 
Bohciiiinn "Ahi^ug." or "Schcnk" beers arc brewed 10,5 to u.J 
Balling, and are r.icked i.'ilhcr in a cic.ir coiulilinn or kr.nusened 
(Hcfcnbicr). The lager beers, usually from wort* of 12.5 per 
cent, are as a rule not krausened. 

11'iVn.T beer as to Insie, amount of hops and color takes a 
miilille place between the other two. 

• The lagi-r heer is brewed 13.; Balling, (he ''.Abpug" beer, which 
Is racked si>on afiiT fermented, about 10.5. Wiener ■".\f;irzcn;' 
and c-xport beers .ibout 1J.5 lo 15.5 Balling. 

.■Xceoriling 10 Thausing modern beer in Germ.iny and .Xusttia 

is brtwcil according lo the decoction method with Ihrcc m.ishes. 

while fnniitrly ijircc different systems werL- r list inijui shed and 

known as the Vienna, the Bavarian and the B.^hoitiian. This 

o'i.'liiiclion has become obfiilcie, since at \irefcnt in .-Xustria, espe~ 

<•;«//>■ /(; \7i'fin;i. ;i,s well as in RiiWnVia a^A t.\i:T™-A\v; A\\- ittoc.- 

'■"" I'iclho'l n-i'tli three luaMies U wwcrsaWs- i:™vV^n'A. Vi'si* 

780 



EUROPEAN rniCK MASH IIKKKS. 781 

and there slight changes arc maUi; in ctrlain breweries in rcaaril 
to the temperature iicriotis ami (he finit of boiling iFit iii;isii 
without, however, any [icrccptible diffiTi-nci-s in results as 10 tin- 
character of tbc liter. 

The initial or duiiRliine-in itmijerature is about zK" t<i .lo' R. 
(95° to too' v.). If iiol Hatt;r is run in, il should be dune sli.wly 
and while keeping the niasliiilK nmclnni: moving, tm tlial llii> 
proL-eediiig will take 13 to 20 minutes. 

Three parts »i the whole mash arc; sucetssively Ixiiltd and 
called the first, setond and third nins;:. eiich for 10 id 45 miiuitef. 
In Bohemia, where jialc burs an- llit vogue, boiling is often re- 
stricted to 10, IS or 20 mimilts. in N'itnna generally 30 minnie,*, in 
Bavaria often 45 minutes. 

As 10 heating the nuish in the kelile. experience shows that tlii> 
should not be done too quickly, hut thai on Ihc other hand, it is 
nut only a waste of time, but also may impair (be quality of the 
licer. if the mash is left for a prolonged period at low teinper;itiire. 
i. e., heating it too slowly. This heating is governed to a certain 
extent iiy Ihc qualities of the mall. The method of hfaling is 
most important with the first mash, whieh, in the tliree-niash 
process, is run into the mash kelllc -nt a ttmperalure of 2^" 
to 30" R. (i/i" to 100° F.). and there frequently raised to 
40° lu 45" R. (iJ2^ to 1,13" F.) by the remaining water. 

This ihiek mash is then raised in 30 to .10 minutes I0 60" R. 
(167" F.) and in 10 to 15 minutes more to a l)oiI. To prevent 
scorching, the stirrers must be kept going until boiling begins. 
Where imperfect stirring devices arc in use the temperature is 
not uniform throughout the mash, but higher at the bottom and 
near the sides than is indicated by the thermometer in the mash. 

Enough of the thick mash was run Into the pan to bring the 
total mash in the mash tun (first mash) to 40° to 42° R. (i2J° to 
126.5° F) V pumping it over. The mash should be pumped 
neither too fast nor too slowly. What is said about heating the 
mash applies here as well. About 15 minutes may be taken 
for this work. 

The mash having been well worked through, a sufficient quan- 
tity is again run into the mash kettle so as lo bring, upon return, 
the total (second) mash to 50° to 52° R, (,vv^-5.° ^"^ "^ff '"^ ^ ■ ^'*-'^' 
0/ ttic first mash liaviiig remained in ^V\t ^mv ^\\t ■i^t's'^^. ^*'^' 
general!}' has So' to 55° R. ti44V W i^tf "5-"l ■^■'^ '=^^'^'^ '''' 



7& EUSOFEAK THICK HASH BEERS. 

rcttcbioK it and can be to heated that it comes to a boil in is to 
35 minnte*, acconling to the malL 

The firtt two mashea an thkk mashes. By kec^ns the wmA 
machine going while the mash mas inro the pans, nmcfa of die 
thick part of the muh passes into the pans. Brewers foim ci ly 
were particular to boil very Ihidc mashes, thinking thereby b» 
make the beer Ytxy full to the palate. The third mash is gen* , 
et^y a "lanler" or thin mash. Before rmming it from the na 
the raash is allowed to rest for a while, permitting ihe solid parts 
lo settle to some extent, wherenpon Ihe mash is run oS to as to 
get as much dear mash as possible into the kettle. Brewcn 
used to put a strainer before the outlet and, in some brew-* 
houses, to drain off the "lauter^' mash through the false hottoo. 
At present, the distinction between thick and "lauter" ""fhrt it 
- not often made, and frequently three' thick mashes are par- 
posely boiled. 

The ihird mash is brought to a boil as quickly as possible, 
usually in about 15 minulcs. The quantity is lo be taken so that 
the main mash reaches 60° R, (167'' F.) by pumping up the "lau- 
ter" mash from the pan. This last operation is called "final mash- 
ing." It is followed by pumping the mash into the strainer (Lan- 
terbottich), where it is kept in motion for some lime by crutches 
or stirring machine to enable Ihe grains to settle uniformly. 

The decrease of diastatic power in the decoction mashes ac- 
cording to Lintner is considerable. (Zeitschrift f. A. ges. Brao- 
wesen, 18S8, p. 317.) If this power at iS' R. is designated 
as 100. it was found to be 61. 1 at 43° R., 26.S at 49.8' R., SDd only 
26.8 during the straining period. 

The mash having been brought from the niash-tun lo the 
strainer (Lauterbottich) is left to stand. Then the wort is 
strained and the grains sparged, using the same general precau- 
tions already described for the respective processes in the produc- 
tion of American lager beers. 

The wort is generally boiled in the keitle nnlil it shows a 
good "break," then onc-lialE of the Imps is ailUed. and after 
one hour's boiling the second half, which is i>oi!ed for an hour 
10 an hour and one-half more. Total length of boiling with 
Atys, 'wo to two and onc-lia\{ hows, 'smwcvmci oTv<;-V.-iU of the 
Ae>/>s is added ns soon as the wort \)o\\s. owt-i\wa^\cT ^\\tT wnt 
^ar, the last quarter one boat bciott i\mnw* owv.. 



EUROPEAN THICK MASH BEERS, /R^ 

According to Thauging (Malzbereilung u, Bierfabr., i8g8. p. 
609) ihe amount of hops used for ihc diRerent types of beer is 
generally given per hectoliter (about 25 gals.) of wort, mention- 
ing the saecharometer indication of the worl. 

For Bavarian beer, to one hectoliter beer of 12.5 to 14.5 per cent, 
hops to the amount of 0.20, 0.28 to 0,30 kg. are used. 

For Vienna beers the quantities of .hops per hectoliter used are 
as follows (I kilo — 2,2 pounds) : 

For 10.5 per cent sacch. indication 0.20 — 0.22 — 0.26 kg. 

For 11.5 per cent saeeh. indication 0.25 — 0.28 — 0.30 kg. 

For 12.5 per cent sacch. indication 0.30 — 0.33 — 0.36 kg. 

For 13.5 per cent sacch. indication 0.32 — 0.36 — 0.40 kg. 

For 14.5 per cent sacch. indication 0.3S — 0.40 — 0.42 kg. 

For 155 per cent sacch. indication O.40 — 0.45 —0,50 kg. 

For Bohemian beer the quantities of hops per hectoliter are as 
follows : 

For 10.5 per cent sacch. indication 0.30 — 0.3S — O.40 kg. 

For II. 5 per cent sacch. indication 0.35 — O.40 — 0.43 kg. 

For 12.5 per cent sacch. indication 0.42 — 0.46 — 0.50 kg. 

For 13.5 per cent sacch. indication 0.45 — 0,48 — asj kg. 

The boiling of the wort in the kettle, as well as the mashing in 
the inash pan, is as a rule still accomplished by means of direct 
firing, but steam healing is more and more taking its place in 
iirewerics of modern construction, since brewers have become 
<onvinccd that the claims as to superior quality of beer from 
fire-boiled worts rested on prejudice. The amount of coal needed 
i[i steam heating compared to fire healing for the boiling of 
mashes and wort is about two to three. The amount of steam, 
according to Thausing, needed for this work, based on actual 
ti'sts, varied from 36 to 54 kg. per hectoliter wort, which, based 
on an evaporating effect of 7,5 kg. would mean 4.8 to 7.3 kg. of 
coal per hectoliter, or about 13 to 20 pounds per American bar- 
rel, which figure is to be increased by 50 per cent in case of 
heating by direct fire. 

In cooling the wort the same methods are employed and the 
same precautions are to be observed as in the corresponding 
operations in America (which sec). 



784 EUROPEAN THICK HASH BEERS. 

According to Prior. German worts conlain in 100 pans of wort 
extract the following constilnents, in approximate quantities : 

Saccharose 2 to 6 per ccnl 

I>extrase and levulose 6 to g per cent 

Maltose 52 to 63 P" cent 

Dextrins 18 to 26 per cent 

Gums (taken from the 
amount of gum obtained 
by Lintner front a Munich 

beer), about 0.18 per cent 

Nitrogenous substances (N 

X 6-25) 313 >o 5,6 per cent 

Mineral substances, about.. 2 percent 
Free acids calculated as lac- 
tic acid 0.6 to 0.9 per cent 

Aubry gives resuUs of boiling liops with wort with regard to 
ihe amount of albuminoids eliminnlcd. In loO parts <^f wort ey.~ 
tract he found the following .imounts of nitrogen for unboiled 
wort and after b-'iling ivilli lii.ps (Wagner's. Jabrosbtrichie. iftja. 
V- &4S) : 



I A o.9.'6,i o.s;tx> 0.4053 

Uniioppcd wort 1 B 0711,=; 0.545S o.3?4S 

I C 076.:;j 0,551s 0.3067 

\ A 0.8921 0.7114 O.S943 

Hopped wort , B 0.7576 0470^ 0.2564 

/ C 0,7416 o.5io(. 0.3S81 

BiuigtiKr ;iinl Fri.>? obtained auiounti of d-lfereiit albuminoids 
before .lud after boiling, as follows: 

Before lii^iling. .\fitT boiling, 

,\lbu'iiin tiicrcgen o.Kij per coi;t 0057 per cent 

IVpii-.iie iiilfiKcn 0.125 per eent 0.100 per cent 

,\iniiie iii'.r'.igen o..i62 per cent o,,iP3 per cent 

Accmling [■' TiiLiusing. ilii; p\l(\v\v\^ vcm^ti^uw; is chosen 
/oner tor Jiyht colored beer- ai\A \Vie:\\';T W .\„\\^ ^-'. --i-lvX oi\ev 
jencrallv between 4' atid (j^ U, t,Ai' ani A; ; 'c V ""' 



EUROPEAN THICK MASH BEERS. 783 

temperature of fermentation for Bohemian beers is 6" to 7° R 
(45-S'' to 4?.75'' F.). for Vienna 7° to 7.5° R. (4775° to 49° F.), 
for Bavarian 8° and 8.5° R. (50° to 51° F.). The amount of 
yeast used is the greater, the higher is the Balling indication 
of the wort, the smaller the fermenting vats, and the lower Ihe 
temperature. The amount generally varies from one-third to 
three-fourths liter and should never be less than one-half liter for 
hectoliter of wort (about one pound per barrel). 

The temperature of the beer after fermentolion at the time when 
it is ripe for casking is 5° 10 6° R. (43° to 45-5° F-)- Somethiies 
it is cooled in the fermenting vats to 2° to 3° R. (36.5° to aS-zS* 
F.). In the Munich breweries the beer is cooled on the way 
from the fermenting vat to the storage cellars, by means of 
pipe coolers to 3°. 2° or 1.5° R. (38.75°. 36-50° or 35° F-)- 
The beer, ripe for casking, should contain a sufficient quantity of 
fermentable extract so that the secondary fermentation may pro- 
ceed properly in the storage cellar. The opinion that high atten- 
uated beers have a low degree of palate-fullness, and low atten- 
uated beers a high degree thereof is untenable. If the beer in the 
fermenting cellar has high attenuation and shows sluggish after- 
fermentation a light bodied beer with poor foam-holding capacity 
is the result, whereas a high attenuation in (he fermenting cellar 
combined with a proper secondary fcrmcnlalion is unobjeclion- 
abie. It is to be considered a favorable symptom if tlic differ- 
ence between the attenuation of principal and secondary fermenta- 
tion i$ a large one, and unfavorable if the difference is small. 
It will be misat is factory if this difference is only 2 to 5 per cent, 
satisfactory if to to 15 per cent, while differences of 20 per cent 
have been observed. 

Some illustrations may be given: 

1. A wort showing 10.5 per cent by the saccharometer reached 
3,5 per cent by the saccharometer in the fermenting cellar, i. e., 
66.6 apparent degree of attenuation (v — 66.6 per cent). After 
remaining in storage for six weeks the saccharometer still showed 
3.2 per cent. The apparent degree of fermentation of the beer is 
calculated at 69.5 per cent (v' = 69.S per cent). The difference 
Li-tween fermentation in fermenting and storage cellar (.v' — "iN 
IS 2.9 per cent. The beer will turn owv \«\?a.<\i.\^O.QX-5 , 

2. A wort s/iowing 13.5 per cent by ^\^« sa.cOna.i'^w^'-" "'^ '^"^ 
mcntcd in the feriiieiiting cellar lo SS P" '^^^'^ '^"' ^^ ^^*^ 



786 eusopEAN thick mash beers. 

cent) ; in the storage ceUsr lifter fonr moolb* to 4 per cent ^ 
the saccharometer (v' = 70 per cent), v" — v = loJR per cent 
The fenncntation ii normal. 

3. A wort is fermented in tfae fermenting cellar from 10.5 p<r 
cent by the saccharometer to 3.5 per cent, and In the atofiae 
cellar to 2.5 per cent bjr Ibe saccharometer. v = 6&6 per oM, 
v' = 1^.2 per cent; v' — v =^ 9.6 per cent. Notwithstandiiv 
the high apparent attenuation in the fermenting cellar the heer 
may be faultless. 

The degree of attenuation that is desirable is different tot 
different types of beer. For Bavarian beers an apparent degree 
of ferincnlation of 50 per cent is sufficient, whereas for Vienon 
and Bohemian beers 55 to fa per cent is desired. Beers with low 
original extract should not attenuate so highly as beers with m 
high original extract. 

CHIP AND STORAGE CELLAR. 

Bohcnitan and Wiener lager beer is treated quite simiLirlv 
in storage. Both are run "iautcr" from fcrniciiter, not "green;"" 
storage temperature should be low, after 'fermentation slow 
The 12 per cent Bohemian lager beer is stored three to 
four months, the Wiener 13 per cent lager beers, about four to 
five monihs ; neither is kriiusened ; the Bohemian is bunged for 9 
long period, the Wiener often is not bunged at all. 

Wiener '".Abzug" beer, for which cold storage is essential, is 
six to eight weeks old, and is racked after a short bmiging period 
The Bobemian "Jungbier"' is usually kr.iusened when racked into 
the trade packages and must consequently be allowed to settle 
before tapping. 

Bavarian beer is not aged as nmcli as the oiher^ as this would 
interfere with the sweet taste and palate-fulness. Bavarian beer 
is brought on the market after bunging about eight to fourteen 
days, about four to ten weeks old. the stronger beers being 
stored longer. 

In piping beer the casks can never be filled to the bung-hole. 
owing to the foam. Hence, they must be filled uji ilie followii^ 
day. Sooner or later a white foam .ippears .^l X\w bung-hole, 
ubich proves an active secondary fernienlation. The greener 
the !>eer iv.is racked into cask, i\\e moi<; \v ■;QWa\\\'T. ot readily 
femientublc e.xiraet, and the warmw v\\t \ic« ™\^ \\Nt ^<»«^^ 
cejlar arc kept, the bigger will be a« \woA o^ lo^™- *^*^ *« ^^^ 



ICUROl'KAN THICK MASH BEERS. /OJ 

fermentation may be so vigorous that beer is ejected from the 
bung-hole and runs down over the cask. This ought not to 
happen. In order to avoid loss of beer and for ilie sake of 
cleanliness, vessels are placed on the bung-holes to receive the 
foam and beer that is forced out, which is always very biller. 
This is used for tilling up casks or, properly treated, can l>i.' put 
on the market. The same object can be attained by not tilling 
up the casks to the bung-hole until the intensity of secondary 
fermentation has somewhat abated. It is always advisable to 
let the foam work out of the bung-hole. 

If no hood of foam rises from Ilie bung-hole, notwithstanding 
the casks are full, or if it disappears very soon after rising, the 
beer being "dead" in the cask, it is a sign of deficient secondary 
fermentation which is always bad. The causes may be faulty 
iTialt, either overgrown or undergrown or spoiled in kiln, yield- 
ing a deficiency of fermentable extract in the beer; more rarely it 
may be due lo casking the beer while too "lauter" (clear). The 
brewer should always watch the secondary fermentation closely. 

The hood of foam contracts and takes on a deeper color, finally 
disappearing entirely, which is always the case with a sound beer 
if the cask was not full. The composition of the extract, the 
strength of the beer and the temperature of the cellar cause the 
foamine to stop sooner or later. What the brewer wants is that 
the hood remain for rather a long time without any violent 
working out. It affords a symptom for judging ihe progress 
of the secondary fermentation. After the hood has disappeared, 
the cask is filled up once more. For beers that are used young, 
stored cold, and properly prepared so as to be of normal com- 
position, it ought to be enough to fill up once, as the secondary 
fermentation lasts a long lime. Lager beers are generally filled 
up two or three times and when they have stopped throwing up 
foam, the bung-hole is loosely covered with the wooden bung. 

While in storage, a sound beer becomes clearer by degrees, the 
particles making it turbid, as yeast and other suspended matters, 
(.■specially albuminoids, settling on the bottom. In order to hasten 
clarification and make il perfect, clarifjin^ Onv^^ a^t v^^. vcAq <&«i 
hccr wiiere hltcrs are not used. 
Tlicsc chips arc made of hazc\ or viVvXe XicccV^NO^-i- /^^"^ "'^^ 
i.v cut so as to secure straight chips a.\>o\H. \t) V-c* * '^'''"^ 



TbS eukofean thick mash beers. 

1.5 to a inches wide, and A to A iiKh thick. They should be 
smooth and without cracks. Before using them they are 
tboronghly boiled in a special tub, cbanpng the water repeatedly, 
steam that is pure and without oil or other impurities being' cchii- 
monly used, whereupon they are rinsed in cold water. They are 
wet when put into the storage cask, being inserted cither into 
the empty cask through the manhole, which is simple and quidc 
or bcmg added through the bungtiole after the cask has been filled 
with beer.. The beer is run on the chips if it is to be marketed 
soon, whereas it is preferable to insert the chips through the bung^ 
bole if the beer is to remain on storage for some time- They can be 
put in two to four weeks before racking for shipment, in the lat- 
ter case. As to the number of chips for a cask a little experience 
wiU speedily give the requisite information. The more quickly the 
beer is to be clarified and the more stubborn it is of clarification 
the more chips should be used. As a rule one kilogram of wet 
chips is enough for one hectoliter of beer, which is equal to about 
half a kilc^ram of drj- chips. Care should be laksn to prevent 
chips lying in front of the tap-hole, which might cause trouble 
in racking. This is more likely to happon where the beer is 
run on the chips and for that reason experienced brewers gener- 
ally prefer to put in the chips through the bung-hole or else re- 
move the chips from the tap-hole after the cask has been filled. 

Occasionally the practice is met with of pumping beer intended 
tor local consumption, froni the storage cask 10 smaller casks, 
oflen on chips, and to "krausen" it .strongly at the same time, 
whereupon after it has become tlear, it is biinsed and racked, or, 
in small breweries, drawn direcily for immediate consumption. 
It is believed to acquire particular brilliancy and life by this Ireat- 

I.ager licors. anil I'ttcn young bi-trs. are (;tni*rally racked from 
the storage casks without "Krausen" and quite clear. They are 
called ".Mi?agbier"' in Austria. In Bohemia more especially, the 
practice prevails of adding some iVniicnling wort, in ihc low 
"Kniiifi'ii" flnge, lo dear young bur wlicn rackinj; into trade 
casks, paniciihriy in the co\d seajovi. This 'n>^ti.\«, ^-jWi^'VLtin- 
fen" /or sJiort. The aniomit oi ■■Kiuv\*vn" <..> Xw i>V\-;^\ Awa\i\.t 
■he greater, the It-s_^ active is v\k \cai,\. \\w ^^^i';' ^■■■■^ ■■■^■^'^^*^ *^- 



EUROPEAN THICK MASH BEERS. 789 

tenualed the beer, the more foam is desired, the warmer the 
storage cellar in the brewery and the colder the bar-room in 
which it is to be kept while being consumed. The amount of 
"Kraosen" should, therefore, be governed by the condition of 
the beer and yeast, ajid the season. If loo much is added, there 
will be danger of the beer being turbid when tapped and perhaps 
not becoming clear again at all. A small amount of "Krausen" 
is half a liter per hectoliter, a large amount is 5 to 6 liters. As 
a rule, 3 to 4 liters per hectoliter is enough. The amounts must 
be determined empirically in each brewery and varied to meet 
the requirements, 
"Kriiusen" should always be taken from normally fermenting 

"Kriiusened" beer, before being drawn, should lie still in the 
place of ccMisumption for some time, from one to eight weeks, 
according to the temperature of the place. It should also re- 
main lying still while being drawn. Only in rare cases does the 
practice survive of the dispenser of the beer opening the cask, 
filling it up until it is clear, and bunging it once more. If this is 
done, plenty of "Krausen" should be given, as much as 10 liters 
per hectoliter or still more. 

"Krausening" serves to revive active fermentation in the beer. 
It is made to foam strongly and the large amounts of carbonic 
acid developed imparls a sharp taste and the foam becomes firm. 
It enables even beers that have been stored warm and arc not 
suitable for consumption, as "Abzug" beers, to be sold in good 
condition. This affords a reason why breweries which put out 
"krausened" beer need not be so particular about keeping their 
cellars cold. The Bohemian breweries sell their young beer all 
through the year almost altogether with "Krausen," only lager 
beer being marketed without "Krausen." It is the practice at 
Pilsen to allow the beer after being racked into trade casks with 
"Kriiitsen," lo lie in the brewery for several days and undergo 
another fcrmenlalion, filling them up again just before they 
leave the brewery. The beer thereby becomes ready for con- 
sumption in the dispenser's room in a shorter time, requiring 
lets lime of storage on that account, furthermore, being stored 
in a cold cellar will foam better, the toaiTcv WC\ \it ^wix*. ■wKA 
and lifting, and the beer taste more pricViv. si\ o^ -nVaOa a'^t -in^- 
lues that dislingtiish good Bohemian be«. Ku(A\vM ■ii.-^^t*^^'' 



790 EUROPEAN TBICK MASH BEERS. 

of "Kniusening" is that the fcnnenting beer in the trade carit 
ii less sensitive to sercrc cold and also suffers less from best 
This is important in shipments to Img distances, and explains 
why it is customarj in Bohemia to add a small amount of 
"Krauscn" (one-half to one liter per hectoliter) even to tager 
beers which are intended for long distance shipments (export 
beers). 

Beers that have been "krautened" can be sold younger than 
"Abzug" beers, and need not be quite dear when leaving the 
brewery, since they remain in storage at the public-house where 
they become clear, provided the beer was good to begin with, 
the "Krauscn" is strot^ and the beer properly treated. This ac- 
counts for Bohemian breweries getting along with small storage 
capacity. 

BUNGINa 

The bunging period differs widely for one type of beer. 
General rules cannot be given. In Munich the summer beers are 
commonly bunged for about two weeks, the younger and weaker 
winter beers six to eight days. Vienna ''Abzug" beers are usu- 
ally hnngcd one or Iwo weoks, lager beers cilher not al all or not 
to excaed two weeks, Bohemian lager beers are generally 
banged for a long tin^c. viz.. up to four weeks and over, parlica- 
larly if the storage cellars are nioderntcly cold and the beers old. 
Tlic pale Bobeniian I>ecr which is generally more highly fer- 
, ntented require"; and stands longer bunging. The practical brewer 
will readily sec if a iK'cr has been bunged enough by drawing a 
sample through the try-cock. When the licer is agitated in the 
sample glass, mimerous tiny bubbles of carbonic acid gas should 
rise in ii slowly. It is a bad sign if the carbonic acid liberated 
by the agilalioii escapes quickly. 

In draught (.M'zug) and lager beers that arc to be racked 
clear it is ciiilomary. in order to obtain the mvi'-sary lite, to 
bung the caik.i tichily. thereby preventing the esc;ipc of carbonic 
acid fias and crciling .1 pressure in Ihc same. 

Thr.' iiilliiencc of temperature and bunging on the carbonic 

acid conlont of her i- shown hy I.anger .iiid ?i-hult7c. The 

aiiimiul ••{ c.irlioiiic add in worts of 10 jut ci-nl H,. in which 

.v" per crnt of lite cxltatl was a\i\iaTi:'\\\-.- \o(vl-.v,',.;A \\\ x\w prin- 

cipal fermcni.ilion. was: 



EUROPEAN THICK MASII liEEBS. 



At 0.4° C. = 0.332 p«r cent = o.oio per cent 

At 1.6° C. = 0.326 per cent = o.oio per cent 

At 2.8° C. = 0.311 per cent = 0.008 per cent 

At 4.0° C. = 0.297 per cent = 0.012 per ceni 

At 4.7' C. = 0.297 P'Jr "nt = 0.017 per cent 

Average = 0.012 per cent 

It may be said that within the range of lemperalure from 0° to 
5° C, the carbonic acid content of a Vienna "Abzug" beer, with 
equal pressure, rises or falls by about o.Ol per cent, according as 
its temperature rises or falls by i* C. 

The carbonic acid content of this Vienna "Abzug" beer when 
bunged for five and four days, respectively, showed an average 
increase for three tests of 0.046 per cent, i. e., 100 g. beer after 
bunging contains 0,046 g. carbonic acid more than before bung- 
ing, or 100 c.c. of beer by bunging takes up an additional 23.8 c.c. 
of carbonic acid. For 36 hectoliters o£ beer this amounts to nearly 
9 hectoliters of carbonic acid gas more absorbed by bunging. 

To increase iJie carlmnic acid content, of beer o.oi per cent, an 
average excels of pressure of 31.3 mm, mercury column at o^ C. 
was required. When bunging wa.s over, the tension within the 
cask averaged no more than 0.19 atmospheres. 

The largest amnunt of carbonic acid that could be forced into • 
Ibis "Ali7,ug" beer hy the lowest cooling and moderate bunging 
at the same time was 0,390 per cent. The beer was excellent. 

With 0.320 per cent of carbonic acid the ".\b;ug" beer cif a 
brewery in Vienna was only medium good as 10 life and prickU- 
ness, but if the carbonic acid content fell below 0,320 prr cent, 
the consumers began to complain, 

SPECIAL GERMAN BEERS. 
Besides the recognized types, like the Bohemian, yiciin and 
Bavarian beers, of each of which there are brewed two \!,rieties. 
(he Scl'fik or K-'itt/iT Beer and the Laser or 5iimiiicr R*c' *v^»- 
above), there are beers brewed for spEc\a\ ^w^^'^'f' '^'^ c'j.OiW-^^^. ^ 
hkc Bohemian Export. Vienna Escort or Ba-uoT\ow V-Jt^ro'^- « 
ficers brev/ed /or special occasions \ike Boct. 




79^ euitOPEAN TBICK HASH BBEfiS. 

Export and Boek differ from the Schenk and lager in that 
tbcj are brewed strotiger and coolain more alcohol. Thus the 
percentage of alcohol and extract fonnd, as the result of the 
atialjrses of a large number of beers, was on the average: 

Alcohol. Extract. 

Schenk or Winter Beer 3-36 5-34 

Laager or Summer Beer 3-93 5-79 

Export Beer 4-40 ^-38 

Boefc, Ooppelt or Maraen 4-69 7-« 

Beers are brewed in certain localities which have achieved a 
reputation far beyond the confines of their homes and which hare 
certain peculiarities that distinguish them from the ordinary type. 
Such are : 

Kulmbachcr.—h very dark beer with the Bavarian character- 
istics especially accentuated, brewed along the lines of a Bavarian 
lager, from a very strong, original Balling of wort of about l8 
to tg per cent. 

Far Brauniclin-cigfr .Uuntriir. Broyhan. H'cissbrrr. Adam brer 
and olli.T sffcial Gt-nnan b^irs. Sfc 'Gcrmaa Tof-Firmcnlalion 



TOP FERflBNTATlON BEERS. 

IN THE UNITED KINGDOM, AMERICA AND GERMANY. 



While on the continent of Europe the lager or bottom-fer- 
mented beers have rapidly displaced the old-lime top- fermented 
becra, excepting Weissbeer, they have been unable to gain much 
hcadw.-iy in the United Kingdom, where top-fermented beers, as 
ale and stouts, still hold undisputed sway. The same is true of 
Canada, and other English possessions, where lager beer brew- 
eries are still unknown in many localities, while in the United 
States there has been a decided revival of interest in ales 
especially. 

ENGLISH TOP-FERMENTATION BEERS. 

Tile beers brewed in the United Kingdom and its possessions 
show similar cliaraetcrislic differences in their properties as the 
German liccrs. They are called "ale," "porter" and "stout." 

Mild brers, whether ale, porter or .flnut, are called such as 
undergo no secondary fermentation, but arc marketed about seven 
days after the principal fermentation is finished. 

Stock beers, or old beers, whether ale or soiit. are such as 
have undergone a secondary fcrmcnlalion and are stored about 
two months or more before marketing. 

The mild beers are distinguished from the stock beers by a 
more sweetish (mild) taste, containing more untermenlcd malto- 
dcxlrin and less acid, the old beers, on the other hand, becoming 
more alcoholic and tart. There is. therefore, much difference in 
the properties ot mild beers and old or slock beers. 

Mild ales are usually brewed of a darker color H\w\ 'iVi -^"if., 
ivilh less original gravity and less Viops. 

O/// or sfnck ales have a pale to amWt coNox , t\vii^.», ^■•'^'^*^ "^^ 
moreorlcKs tart taste, strong hop flavoT. an* vVovi'^'^^'^'^'^- 
795 



794 TOP FERMENTATION BEERS. 

a high percentage of extract, have less extract left, but contain 
more alcohol tlian stout, which is mainly due to the practice of 
drj-hopping ales, which remits in breaking down the malto-dex- 
trins more effectually than ii the case with stout, which is not 
dry-bopped. 

StOHtf are quite dark, almost black, have a pronounced malt- 
caramel lasle and aroma, a sweetish taste if mild, and a more or 
less tart taste, according to age and circumstances. They are 
brewed stronger than ales. . 

Porter is brewed less strong than the old beers. It stands in 
a similar relation to stout as does a mild ale to a stock ale. 

BREWING MATXMALS IN ENGI^ND. 

The nutteriah used in England, besides mall, haps and water, 
are usually sugars of different kinds. Such are caramel (pro- 
duced fi'om glucose) for black beers, invert sugar and glucose 
for mild and stock ales, while of lati' years, rice, maiw and 
u'hcat arc gaining in favor. The Engli^li drinking public now 
prefer iK'urs of low gravily to the stock l>ceri. and since they 
should contain only a niodcralc amount of alcohol, but <^nf{icient 
extract to be full to the palate, sugars should be used for these 
t>ecrs. containing the requisite amount of un fermentable eitlracl. 

Mall. — Most brewers use sotnc foreign barley mall, together 
with that produced from domestic grain, on account of the 
better darilication of beer and better drainage of wort, white 
sonic brewers use California barley malt eriircly. the beer from 
which keeps belter in hot weather (Th.nchcr Brewing nnd Malt- 
ing. i&j8. page jo). Foreign grain, beside*, dots not develop so 
much acidity and mold during germination. 

Usually pale malt is employed in the production of all the 
beers, together witli some coloring material, preferably car.imel, 
brown malt. .->nil>cr malt or roasted corn for dark ales, porter and 
stoul. Sometimes black beers And mild ale; reeeivi' an addition 
oi caramel solution in the fermenting ve=sel ii;*! jirior to the 
close of the principal fermentation. For dark beer* liichcr ksln- 
dried mall' .ire preferred by niany brewers. 

.■\s to the requiremems the u'alt i= to meet and the produclivm 
of F.nplhh JJialT. see '".Maltinp in Knglaiid." 
//i'/j-.— ir/f/i regard to bops. \\ie t\\s.\\A\ Vii;«-:i \i'i<3« 
the cnipinymciit oi foreign quaWtks <^i \vv^ ^'^ 'A-.™^ •«■'"■'«' *« 
fonwMic arffcfo, idc proportiim iren«ett\\> r^w^^ ^'- V' V" ^'^^V 



TOP FERMENTATION BldERS. 



795 



The English hops are distinguished for (heir delicacy of flavor. 
especially Ihe East Kent goldings. and these are eagerly sought 
for flavoring choice pale ales in dry hopping. 

The relative qaantilies of hops and of other materials to be 
used in brening the different beers, according to Ihe gravity 
of wort and other requirements, may be gathered from the 
subjoined table : 





Lt».Hoi»ln 


GraTlly 
Lontt, 


ItarreL 


HalllnRof 


London i*lBWller ale.... 


f.. 

12-IS 

4-8 


23-EB 

sa-?ft 

si 

acMO 
above lo. 


LbK. 
IMS 

'Tl" 

m-3 ■ 

s 

3^ 


M 


London [our bLe <ml1d) . . . . 


ib'I? 






BanonetvorlWe 


17- IB 























Water. — The water used in brewing is given much attention 
in England (sec "English Brewing Waters" in chapter on 
"Brewing Materials"). 

hhewinc systems. 

Masliing iifcralioiis arc carried out according lo the infusion 
system, although semi -decoct ion. or limited decoction, is em- 
ployed in sonic brcwcric;, especially where itnmalled cereals 
are employed. 

The mash for the production of l!ie various beers is varied 
somewhat according to the materials used and the type of beer 
to be produced. For ales brewed from pale malt, higher initial 
temperatures should be taken than for black beers, or slout. 
where high kiln-dried malt is employed, and where a high 
degree of stability is required, like Dublin stout; whereas for 
London stout brewed for rapid consumption, moderate initial 
temperatures may be used lo advantage. 

The amount of malt used to mix v,\ttv \\\t -wiVw X^ ^xwk"^ ^"i-^ 
poiinih per .4njer(can barrel (.2 E,ngV\s\\ bsit^cN^ V^^ t>^v«^f 
Jj6 pounds). 



796 TOP FBRUENTATION BEERS. 

In atl cases water of a comparatively high temperature (itrik- 
ing temperature) is run into the foremasher or outside masher, 
where it is well mixed with the malt, then falling into the math- 
ton, which contains warm water enongh to cover the false bot- 
tom. The rakes are run to get even initial or primary tempera- 
tures, the mash is allowed to stand a short time, when the 
temperature is raised hy an underflow of water of about 180" 
under the false bottom or through an underlet, to the end tem- 
perature, which is generally but little above the initial tempera- 
ture. Here the mash is allowed to stand or rest for about one 
and one-half lo two hours, after which the wort is drained 
completely, and sparging is undertaken. The temperature of the 
first sparging water i$ usually taken higher, about 170', fur a 
few barrels, as the grains have cooled somewhat ; then itio° to 
16s* is taken, which will bring the temperature of the mash 
lo about 160°, which is the permissible limit, .'\fler reaching 
this temperature the remainder of the spnrgtng waliT should be 
run on so as to have the mash gradually recedo lo 152°. which 
is appro xiiiialcly the tap heat that should be maintained through 
sparging operations. 

TemperaiurcE may be taken as follows for different lypes of 

Pale or Slock Ale. — Initial temperature, 151° to 152°: stand 
'5 to 30 minutes; raise temperature by underflow lo 15.1*; siand 
one and ouL-half lo two hours, and tap. 

Irish Sli'til from high kiln-dried mah. Initial temperature, 
14,1° to US' : If stand, 15 minutes; and raise heat 152' by under- 
flow of 180°. 

l.iMtd''n Sloiil frnni high kihi-dried malt. Iniiial tt'mperattire, 
148" to 150' ; let stand, 15 minutes, and raise lo i-,y. nith un.ier- 
llow of 180'. 

Limited Decoction. — This process seeks li> eoiiiliine the Ger- 
man decnction process wiih the EuRlish inlnsion meilioj. The 
Plash is carried out as usual, the niash-tnn heing, li-'wever. pro- 
vided with .1 'leam coil. ,\ficr running otT the lir'l won to the 
amount of lialf a barrel per quarter ( 1 L'. S. barrel 10 500 [Kiunds 
0/ malt) into a separate vessel until reiiuired. fto^nn is turned 
oa. and tlw tomper.ilurc ot the mas\i Ta\s«i,\ v> :\i Y . v^' R.^ 
"'/'ere if is fccpi I'or abnul 1 J i\i\t\\«e*. >k\i>:\\ vVt \.;\\NVv-.^a\.\\ni \i 
'"''iced to afionl 160' F. \,^7 R-t \>i' s-V^tim?. -j-aV. v-.>V\ -s-sXm 



TOP FERMENTATION BEERS. 797 

while stirring. Then, the wort which was held in reserve is re- 
turned, and the temperatiire brought to ifo° F. (57° R.). The 
mash is left to rest for 20 to 30 minutes, and taps are set, and op- 
erations continued as usual. 

When unmalted cereals in the form of grits are employed they 
may be treated according to methods familiar to American 
brewers. In England, it would seem, the mai?.e cannot he 
sufficiently gelatinized by employing '.he methods there in vogue, 
the unmalted cereals not being subjected to high enough tem- 
peratures, nor sufficiently long. The raw cereal mash when 
considered properly gelatinized, is cooled to the usual striking 
temperatures of the water, and the malt is lun in to get the ordi- 
nary initial temperature, and operations are continued as usual. 

Boiling lilt: Wert.— While running into the copper the 
wort is held at a sufficiently high temperature to destroy the 
diastase, and some brewers boil while the kettle is filling, others 
bring to ebullition as soon as filled. Hops are sometimes added 
as soon as the heating surface is covered, buL it seems to be 
becoming the more usual practice to add the heps when boiling 
sets in, adding all the hops at once in the production of black 
beers and mild ales, while in the production of stock or pale 
ales a large proportion (% to ^) is added when boiling sets 
in. the remainder about 15 to 20 minutes before turning out, 
the wort being left gcnlly to sinmier after the additinn of the 
second portion in order not to lose too much flavor. 

-Srjme brewers boil only one hour, others two and more, bui 
iHvi hours' Imiliiig seems to be becoming the more general 

In many breweries the copper lias not sufficient capacity lo 
hold (he entire brew. The wort is then boiled "at twice," or 
in "two lengths," or evi-n at three times or in three lengths. 

Sparging is kept up under these circiimslances until the ket- 
tle is full, tile tups are then closeil and the wort is allowed 
to "stand on" umU the tirst length is finished, or the second 
length is collected in an "underback," where it is kept hot 
umil needed. 

From the copper the wort is "lurYioA (i\\\." 'n\Vi ^^\•; \\rv^-Vis>*-. 
where it rests lor about 20 iiiitiutcs, ivni »* v"'"^"'V^'^ '^'■' '■'^^'^ ^?'''^ 
face cooler, ivlwre it lies until the leM\V';^'AV\«>= ^= ^'^-'" ^^^"^^si. 
130' 10 140°. It is then passed ovi^r ov \\\vo\i%\^ ■* V^'-'"^ ^ 




TOP FKRMENTATION BEERS. 



to reduce the lemperaturc to 58* to 60* F. (13* 10 13* R.). and 
is then ready to receive its addition pf yeast. 

TOP-FIX UBNTATION APFUANCZS ANV OFEUTIONS. 

The essential difference between lop-termenlation and bot- 
tom-fennenlalion is in the behavior of the yeast, which rises to 
the lop during top-fcnneniztion, where it is cither removed by 
soitable implements, by a process called "skimming." or is al- 
lowed to work out of an aperture at ihe top of the fermenting 
vessel, by a process called "cleansing." It the cleansing takes 
place in casks, the yeast working out through "swan necks" into 
a common trough, it is called "Burton union system ;" if 
through openings (lips) in the top and edge of upright tanks, 
the tanks theniselves being so placed as to form a trough for 
the yeast, it is called "Ponto system." Then there is a com- 
bination of the skimming and the cleansing syMems in the 
''stone square <^ysieni." the yeast working ont through the tap 
of a closed stone square, from tvlicre it is rcii:ovi.'(l by skini- 

FEBMENTISO VESSELS. 

These are now ehitfly constructed of wujd loak or fir and 
also American cedar of late). Stone and slale have not given sat- 
isfaction, although still extensively used in soiik* parts. 

The vats are made cither round or square and arc called 
"rounds" or "squares," rtspeclively. Rounds are usually made 
of oak staves, held together by iron hoops : squares, of planks 
about two inches thick, boiled together with iron bolts, genir- 
atly made of fir or cedar. 

The vessels .ire not coaled with varnish or pitch, as is the 
case in lagi-r licer brewerii's. as the alcoiwl in some ales reaches 
such a high percentage as to .^fieu pitch or shellac. Oak 
vessels are prepared b>- filling ihem with boiling hot water a 
number of times, while lir containing nmch resin must receive 
special treatment. Southby recommends to lill such vessels 
first with U'iling water, which is run niT the next day. Then 
the side* are scriibbtd with a mixture of j'-j pounds ot chloride 
('/ lime ;iT gallon ni waler. After 24 li^'iirs the \a\ is washed 
oiii II iili a mixlure ot one part ot \\\iiTv(W.i,T\i; ^;\>,\ aw4 i<»K 
parts of n,i[tT- Then it is \\ashei\ '-'VA s^-^vi-.v\ wiv.:^ VuCa 
i-oiJing water anil linallv scrubbed ovu «\\\\ sx\ - xAwvmv ^\xt 

of bisutpbUc 01 lintf to retiwve :»U u;ic.> -^ ■;^■>'^'*"« 



TOP FERMENTATION DLERS. 



799 



American cedar needs no special preparation, but iiiay be used 
after being scrubbed out. 

"Stone squares" should be constructed of large slabs of liarit, 
impervious slone, or of slate, which retains a smoother surface 
during wear. The description and sketch here given are taken 
from Sykes, the Principles and Practice of Brewing. 1897, p. 445. 

The stone square has a jacket, C, also buih of stone slabs, 
leaving a space of about two inches, which is filled with 
water for ihc purpose of altemperating the beer. The square 
proper, A, is covered over with another slab having a circular 
aperture, the "manhole," uf 18 inches' diameter, which is sur- 
rounded with a stone ring some S or 6 inches high, on which fits 




a slonc lid provided with a handle. In one of the corners 
of the covering slab is another opening situated a tew inches 
froni each of the sides and about three inches in diameter, 
provided with a brass valve, E. to which a chain is attached. 
From the under side of the valve a tube. D. extends to within 
a few inches of the bottom of the square; Ihis is technically 
known as the "organ pipe." Upon the upper side of the cnv 
cring slab is placed the yeast trough, Vt. cfv\\W.T\\0.t4. '=^ 'v-«''^ 
p- slabs, ii has the same s«pcrftc\a\ r 



a depth of from 24 to 30 inches. A pvimv 



„\ \V.t ■5^=-'^* 



sary adjuncts oi i 






inches and stroke six inches. The 



Us 6vi.mcveT ^^ '•^"'tJ 




TOP PKRMENTATION BEERS. 

fully cemented in all ita joinU and tbould be inspected from 
time to time, as any defects in the jointing are certain to vaakt 
tronble. 

Instead of the water-jadcet an ordinary attemperator maj be 
nsed inside. Slate cannot be cleansed 1^ boiling water, ms it 
would be likely to crack or qilit NeiUier can bistdpfaite of 
lime be applied, a* it would attack the slate. Neutral sulphite 
of lime is therefore used to whitewash the inside of the square 
for antiseptic purposes, while coatings or deposits on the stip- 
face are removed by caustic potash or soda solutions. 

Loom Pitces. — Where the cleansing method is emplojred, brew- 
ers often run the beer frotn the square or round into casks or 
puncheons holding about four barrels. Tfaey arc placed on 
troughs in which the yeast is collected that escapes from 
the bunghole. The casks are inclined to one side so 





that the yeast runs down one side only. Someliincs conical 

tinned pipes arc insericd inlo the bunghole. called "swan necks." 

through which the yeast works out imo thu trough. The casks 

must be kept "'topped up" eonlinually — every two hours during 

the first 24 — upintt for this purpose tirst the clear trough beer, 

3n<i when this is used up. bright beer from a pre\liiiis hrewing. 

The loosc-pKce swan necks arc oUei\ so arratii-ed that the 

fsme trough serves both as ycart tccwct awi 'ic'^i v^ow^ V,V« 

lopping up). Bill aL-cording \0 NVns\rt « « \^w<^^ VvV\« ^w Vn«t 

them quite distinct, the only t\ecc5saiv ■?^';<^^ 

■■at-e the bottom of the feed uowg\i ' 




TOP FERMENTATION litliKS. 8oi 

holes, so llial llic beer level may be well up the swan neck pipe 
(see sketch, page 800). 

Burlori Unions. — In ihis system llie principle is the same as 
with the "loose pieces," but there arc many differences in detail. 
The casks holding about four barrels are permanently moiuited 
on tall wooden stands, (0 which they are slung by means of two 
axles, one attached to each head. These work in bearings 
and perniil Ihe cask to be rotated on ils axis, the front tnmnion 
having a square head upon which a handle fits {or this pur- 
pose. The bungholc of each cask is provided with a conical 
brass socket, into which fits a hollow brass plug, carrying the 
swan neck to convey away the yeast. This is carried up ver- 
tically a foot and a half or two feet, makes a turn of half 
a circle and curves over into a long wooden trough which ex- 

. tends between the rows of adjacent casks, called Ihe yeast 
trough. At one end of this another vestel is fixed, called the 
"feed trough." which has a capacity of five or six barrels. A 
lap is fixed into the bottom of this, from which a pipe of about 
two inches diameter proceeds, extending in front of each 
row of unions and giving off a short branch to each cask, wilh 
which it can be connected by means of a union joint to a tap 
permanently fixed in the head of the cask. Another cock is 
hxcd in each cask exactly opposite the bunghole, and is pro- 
vided wilh a short tube, which projects some little distance in- 
side the cask, and which can be raised or lowered by means of 
a screw. This serves for the removal of Ihe fermented beer, and 
as the lulie communicating with the tap is some little height 
abuve Ihe bottom, it serves to hold back the bottoms. When a 
set i)f unions are cleansed, the swan necks are first removed and 
Ihe feed-pipe conmiiinications unscrewed; the handle is then al- 
l^ichcd to cadi cask in turn, boiling water poured into it and 
ihf ca-l; rritatcd on its axi.s. This is an objeelionalilc feature 
in ihc system, for the introduclioii of large quantities of hot 
water into the fermenting room neceisarily raises its tempera- 
ture. (Sykes. the Principles and I'ractiee of Brewing. iBf)7, p. 
448.) 

Allcmpcralors are made either fixtA ot nwiNaMic. "Wt V*--^^ 
arc made of tinned copper pipe, (iv;i\ i\\ secVTOtv. ■wv^- '^'^^'^ 'n\>'™; 
farms a cont'muoas coil circling the tun aXiovi^. V^"';'^ ^*'"''\'y,. Vv 
Movable adeniperalors are suspended ■«\\.Vv OnavT^^ '^'^'^ *■ ' 

weights. 




802 TOP FBRMENTATION BEEJtS. 

Arrangtpuitti for Stimmmg.—SoiaH roaads t 
tunally skimmed by hand. In luge rounds either a "psraduitc" 
or "skimming" board is used. The parachute is a funnel cod- 
iwcted with a pipe penetrating the bottom of the ton. For 
rounds, the skimming board is n>ade to revolve around a cen- 
tral rod, and is capable of being raised and lowered, as «dl as 
rotated, from the outside of the tun. It pushes the yeast be- 
fore it into a trough, which extends (instead of a parachute) 
from the center to the edge of the tun, provided like the para- 




ctiuic with a down pipe through the botiutn of the tun. 
(Wright, a Handy Book for Brewers. iSgr. p. 4<.»8) 
III the squares ihc trough extends along (ine of the sides. 
.1 Rotary I'umf if u^ed for rousing and i^i so constructed that 
it permits of the raising of the cominuons sirvani of wort, or 
piimp'xng air into the fcrmcniiiig ivort. 
^norhcr contrivance iot tovwrng nni aeTniivK at the same 
lime consists of a small CAsk <.>\ aWwi. tVic; 'fi\V->\\^ t^^^nvi, 
with both its ends removed and tovm^ * ™«*«^ ^"^ '"^'^'^ """t^ 
firon^;, its sides. It is weis^ted -cX* \<:^^ ^" '^^^^^^ '•^ 
:adily, and suspended by a rope ¥as,s,vtv% 'os 




TOP FERMENTATION UHERS. 803 

cask is let down into the fermenting wort and pullod sud- 
denly to a short distance above its surface; by repeating this 
several limes, -a very efficient rousing and aeration is secured. 
(Sykes, the Principles and Practice of Brewing. 1897, p. 451.) 

TOP-FER MENTATION OPERATION S. 

The amount of yeast to be added is dependent upon the sys- 
tem of fermentation used, the fermentation temperatures, gravity 
of worts fermented, materials and temperatures used to produce 
wort, qual^y and consistency of barm employed, and amount 
of aeration. 

With the Yorkshire stone square system, a slow type of yeast 
is employed at the rate of only 9i to 1% pounds per barrel. 

The following table for the other systems may be found useful 
(Thatcher. Brewing and Malting Practically Considered, i8g8, 
page 86) : 

AMOUNTS OF 



30 If. worlds loJ'/ilb. iwrb^l. ora to£K 

3.Mb woil!i»!ilolH ]>> l>erbbl. oiS;^ 10 3 lb. |i«r Amprlemi bbl.or23i4 llill. 

In many breweries the yeast is added to the whole of the 
Hort nflcr it has reached the fermenting tun. Sykes recora- 
uieiiils first to run down a small portion of the wort at a tem- 
perature of from 65° to ?5° F., and to mix the yeast with this. 
In this way a rapid and vigorous growth of yeast is secured 
from the onset, and the reproduction of any bacterial organisms, 
should these happen to be present, cffectnally held in check. 
The remainder of the wort is then run in at a slightly lower 
temperature than that which the whole bulk if to have when 
collected, so that at the finish the gyle may be at the proper 
heat. The wort, while being collected, is rou-^ed at frequent in- 
tervals in order that the yeast may be evenly diffused through it. 

Where much rousing and aeration takes ^Vitt 'Ciw -i^-k^x -«^Jv 

mu\lip)y faster, and less yeast is tet^Mue* \o\ ^jwOftWt V.^'^™* 

fqiLirc systum). , ^^.^ 

The best yeasis cotnc from beets ol n\e4w<^ *T^^\\-J NJC'^ 

heavily hopped. In strong woils X\it ^^a.^^- ft'^*'*'^^ ^ 




TOP FKRHENTATION BEERS. 



sIvSRisb, and in heavily bopped wort its surface ac<]iute« a 
coaling of hop-resin, which DainnJIy inlerfera with the fnlfil- 
menl of its proper functions (Sykes). 

FcrmenlaHon Teiiiferatiirtt.—The weaker beers of about tS to 
3o pounds Long. (taU to 14M Balling) are sUrted at about 
58° to 60° F., and arc allowed to rise to 66' to 70' F. Stronger 
beers are started from 56° to 58° F., and arc allowed to go np 
to 75'. 

Where the plant is provided with powerful attemperators the 
fermentation may be commenced at a higher temperature and 
confined within narrower limits, say between ^i" and 65' F., with 
good residls. Lower fermentation temperatures are said to give 
beers with finer Savor. 

ApfcaratKc of tht Headt 0/ Yetut During FfrmvHtalicn Lac- 
cording to Sykes). — Two or three hours after pitching small 
bubbles of carbonic acid begin to rise to the surface. In another 
two or three hours froth begins to form around the ^ides of the 
vessel, and this gradually extends over the whole surface and 
increases in volume, until what is termed the "cauliflower 
stage" is reached. This Ihcn gradually passes into ihe "rocky 
head stage." The heads go on steadily increasing for a lime, 
and often attain a height of three and four feet above the sur- 
face of the wort. The more or less "frothy head'" now com- 
mences 10 fall, and the "yeasty head" coKtniences \o lorni. This 
is in a constant slate of motion from Ihe continual fonnalion 
and hursting of the large bubbles of gas. With the commence- 
ment 01 the formation of the jeasty head, what is known as 
[he ■skimming point' i.* reached, the normal limc for this 
being about 48 hours from the time of piiching. The gravity 
of the wort will by this time, according to circumstance*, 
have liei'n reiliiccd 10 from one-half to tiio-lliirds ci its origi- 
nal graiily. It is al this [loiiit Ihai the >cparniii.ii i>i ihe yeau 
from the wort begins in the cleansin); and >kiinming systems, 
!md it is alen Ihe point at which the trcnlmcni of (he beer on 
ihc different system* diverges. 

('/.■MS.-i:j; .S>/.iH.— The wun is piTchul ;ti ~f' 10 uV F.. and 
n/iiti iif gravity is rcducci\ aUnw ontAr.Cii. -.m^ iv- \v.\\%'erature 
Aas r/son fn a|,out ro . which is gciKtu\H ^v.wV'.\ -.v, -^ \^ n^. 
fMirs after pjicliing. it is run invo \W eVav.--.u¥. =^-Vi. \-««w 



i"cces, or Burton unions. The Umv-iTaUUC 



^liW-; 'v.vv'- ^"^ 




TOP fi^rmenta: 



I BIKERS. 



805 



in the small casks to 70* in winter. Where the trasks have no 
aitemperators the beer is run down at a somewhat lower tem- 
perature in summer. The casks must be kepi continually full 
by feeding or topping up by hand, as otherwise the yeast is not 
comp'letely ejected, some ol it, sinking to the bottom, and the 
beer is likely to acquire a yeasty tasle. (See also above under 
"Loose Pieces" and "Burton Unions.") 

Skimming System (according to Sykes).— In this system the 
fermentation is started in tlic same way as in the cleansing sys 
tern, but when the skimming point is reached, the wort, instead 
(if being run off into cleanfing casks, is well roused. As scon 
as the head begins to assume a distinct yeasty character it is 
skimmed off once in every six hours, or even oftcncr. by band or 
special apparatus, and the wort which passes off with the yeast 
slioidd be freed from the latter and returned to the vat. When the 
Icmperatiire of the fermenting wort has risen to about 59° F., the 
allcniperalor is started slowly, and the flow of water through it 
is so regulated that the beat is allowed to rise half a degree every 
three hours. When tbc temperature has reached 6s° to 66* F 
!bc atlcmperatiir is put into more vigorous action in order to 
lircvtiil any further rise of temperature. As soon as the proeesE 
of fermentation begins to slacken, the temperature is lowered 
111] it reaches 60° F. SkUmiiing is kept up till tbc wort is judged 
to be able lo throw up just one more head of sufficient thickness 
to protect it from atiuospberical contamination, 

Tbc right point lo slop akimmiiig is found by pushing a snial' 
portion of yeast on one side and examining ihe surface of thr 
beer thus exposed. When this appears black and clear, denoting 
that there is scarcely any more yeast in suspension, skimming ir 
slopped, and the head which subsequently forms is allowed ic 
remain undisturbed. 

Droppine Syilem (according to Thatcher, Brewing and Malt- 
iuR. Practically Considered. 1808). — Thi^ system is so thoroughly 
suited for producing modern light gravity pale ales that its adop 
linn will ultimately become general amcng the brewers of the 
United Kingdom. Tbc beers after he\T\x icin\eW.'i& 'vc> ^o-mi^"!> 'i'^ 
st/iiarcs. as usual, until tlie skitnmuiR \«i\v\l \% t\cm\-j ■tt-itVtis.^^ 
Ilic correct temperature attained, ave \\wv\ Axov?^^ ^ 
vc^seh. fittuitcd upon a lower floor. TlWse 4toW^'-' 
generally sqmrea or rounds. raUiev sVaW-^-"- V-^*^^'' 



^t'-'J^' 




ttructtd of dale, or itnod, copper lined, the sliallowneM mdwdliig 
expulsion of yeatt bf mr&ce attnclion, conieqneutlr dearar 
beera are attainable. Attcnqwraiors are fixed in both top and 
botttMD vessels. After drop^nfc tbe beers are treated as npon Ae 
ordioaiT tkimming astern, removal of yeast, attempctation, etc 

By dropping the beer, tbe yeast is thoroughly aerated snd tins 
stimulated to vigorous reproduction. The dirty head, containiag 
hop-resins, bacteria and other foreign matters, is left in tbe top 
vessel, consequently only a fresh and clean su^ily of yeast rises 
in the droppioc vessel. 

Following i$ a typical femienlation of an i8 pound (12K Ball- 
ing) beer: 

r. I-oiiDds. 
Wednoil*!', T p. m.. W Ik.D. idded IM |<oiindH>c«si iwrbanrl. 
Tbunda)-. T*. m.. Wh IT.S. ibrowlntto'l >l>e lilankpt. 
Iliuniilmy. 7 il m.. fil IS.U, rocky. lUiliW'kmklni: hnd. dirl renioird » tl 

rrldv- r 1. m.. S4 14.0. trnihy twad, stiemi-eniinr on. 

FrMsy. T il m.. am lO.S. ran to dranilni: Miitarc. 

Mluraay. TB.B..1U r.S. ■Ilomprisltd. HklBUDlDRt-VRry ibrf^ baorr. 

SstuRtaj. T|Lm.,7Uti S.u slieiDMrelorolI.KtliiiminiEfxiTy thrcvbooni. 

Sunday. T«,ni..ni't !> S. taut iKln, atlrmanl addvd pmnlnKnolulloii. 

Snodsy. T|i. m.. STW s.& HFilllB|c,Biifiii|wnlln)c hard. 

Monduv. ' ■. m.. at !>.H. i«ttllnii. allemiwiailiiK hard. 

Tiuwday. Ta. m.. .SHK &.S, nck«L 

Yorkthire Stone Square Sytlem (according to Wright, A 
Handy Book for Brewers, 1897). — Thi!; systen) i<^ nfi gainm^ in 
favor. The necessary number and costliness of the vessels are 
against it. also the difficully of nminlaining lliorougli cleanliness 
on account of the liability of the stone slnl):^ to crack under the 
influence of boiling water. 

The yeast is usually mixed with won in llie upper square 
(see above), and then allowed to run into the lowrr. which has 
been filled or nearly filled. Fcriaiitcal roii^inR hy Tiieans of a 
pump, the number of strokes given inerensiiig with cndi repeti- 
tion, is tlic cornerstone of this sysii-m. It begins between 20 
and 30 hours after pitching, with Ibc pump -rousing of the 
content? of the upper square, which h.-ys had fonie indicp of wort 
left in it. now, however, allowed, by opening the valve, to .flow 
into the lower Miuarc. Subseipicnl puniping-j are I'r'im the lower 
square into the upper, whence the W'lrt il'iw. Iwck into the 
lower again, through the cprti valve, thisc punipiiig-i hi'ing con- 
linued at lutcrval*. till the (leptse (il aUem\ar\^M\ v- n^ached at 
ivhich yean begins tn {..rm. TVic >-ca~v woiV.- sw\. >a \W vnaxk- 




TOP FERMENTATION iltKRS. 807 

from it flows hack into the lower square, through the valve. 
The lattv ii'left open till the fcrnientalion has nearly reached lis 
term, when it is closed for good, any excessive formation of 
yeast being afterward skimmed froir the manhole. Owing to 
Ihe enormous degree of aeration and the mechanical rousing 
which the fermenting worts undergo^ the range of tempcralure 
can be very much reslricted. It rarely exceeds 6° F.. compared 
with the noroiaJ 9°. 10° or even 12° of ordinary systems. 

Ci^tnsing in Ponlos.— This sysiem is dropping into disuse alto- 
gelher. 



After the ycast-making has ceased, the beer is allowed to rest 
for 34 to 48 hours, so as to deposit the bulk of the yeast held 
in suspension, and as soon as it h.is become sufficiently settled 
it is run off cilher into the store or the trade casks, care being 
taken to avoid any agitation which would cause excessive froth- 
ing an<i the rise of yeast in the tun. 

All casks must be thoroughly steamed before filling. After 
racking, the packages are bunged and brought to the cellar, the 
bungs [ire again removed that any e.\cess of ycasi may work out, 
and the packages are filled with clean, bright beer. The stock 
beers usually receive a porou.s spile or bung to give necessary 



Ales usually, and black beers sometimes, receive an addilion of 
hops in the storage or trade cask, Ibe quantity v.irying from i-ne- 
quartcr pound for niild ales lo one ponnd per barrel for pale. 
bitter and stock ales. The kind of hops used for this purpose 
are Bavarian. CaUfornia, Mid-Kent and Sussex (Thatcher). 
The beer, through dry hopping, acquires greater stability and 
hop flavor, while the tannic acid of the hops promotes clarifica- 
tion. The hops arc introduced into the empty cask by means 
of a wide funnel, through which hops are pushed with a short 
nooilcn rod. care being taken that the hops arc simply loosened 
and not broken into fragments (Sykes). Hops contain diastase, 
which degrades certain types of maho-dcxtrins. so thai (hey 
become fermcnlablc. 

SECONDARV FERMENTATION, 
S/ad beers undergo a secondarj ov s\o-n W^vweW-a^wM v,\ w 
xloragc OT trade cask. It this ieTmen^aVTOn '\% ^^■c^^\"■''•~^''■^ ^''* 



8o8 TOP FERMENTATION BEEJEtS. 

the beer is said to "fret" or "kick up.*' The secondary fer- 
mentation is carried out, not by the same yeast that fermented 
the sugar during the principal fermentation, bnt by other typet» 
often wild yeast. The malto-dextnns of the beer supply the 
substance for this fermentation, being partly degraded by inver- 
sion enzymes contained in the yeasts and by the diastase intro- 
duced in dry hopping. Thus, beers that are dry-hopped fer- 
ment down lower in the cask than beers unhopped in cask, like 
most black beers. The fermentation of the sugars formed by 
the breaking down of the dextrins. keeps the beer charged with 
carbonic acid gas, and this condition is essential for cheddng 
the development of foreign ferments. Therefore, a sound sec- 
ondary fermentation is of the greatest importance. Most Eng- 
lish beers are sent out directly after racking, dry hopping and 
fining, and before secondary fermentation has set in, the de- 
mand for stock beers having diminished more and more in late 
years; or, the secondary fermentation is hastened by frequently 
rolling the casks for the purpose of keeping the yeast in sus- 
pension, and the beers arc sent out after a storage of a few 
weeks. 

Priming. — Often a solution of some kind of sugar is added to 
the beers, especially the black beers, in the cask, which process 
is called priming. The object is to impart sweetness or body, or 
to aid secondary fermentation and give "life" or what in Eng- 
land is termed "condition" or "briskness." In the former case 
glucose is added, while for briskness, priming with invert-sugar 
is recommended. The priming syrup prepared for this purpose 
should have the full strength permitted by the cxci^^e regulations, 
that is, a specific gravity of 1.150, or about 40 per cent Balling 
Priming is also practiced vrherc beers show abnormal turbidities, 
or cold water extract of malt may be prepared and a«lded in cask 
to produce a more vigorous secondary fermentation. 

I'atthig. — In many breweries it is still customarj- to blend a 
young beer with an old one that shows acidity and pn^pcr flavor 
in a marked degree, in order to give the product the character of 
?gc. Especially is this done with stouts. The old beers are 
called vats, and as much as 25 per cent is blended at times with 
the young hccr. "The first requisite." says Wright, "is that the 
vats should come into rapid blending condition, which implies a 
/i/g^/i degree of acidity, short of soutt\c><., lu>\vcvcr, coupled with 



TOP FERMENTATION BEERS. 809 

absolute brilliancy, results which are generally secured by fer- 
menting beers of no remarkably high gravity at high temperatures. 
and supplementing this with rousing and aeration. If the ordi- 
nary English system be followed, vatting is perhaps the only 
way of getting that amalgamation of flavors which characterizes 
a perfect stout. Accordingly a blend of a vatted stout, having 
a gravity of 30 pounds (20 per cent Balling) or higher — the higher 
the better — with a sweet running porter of say 18 to 19 pounds 
gravity (12 to 13 per cent Balling) will certainly give far belter 
results than a single stout brewed at 24 to 25 pounds gravity (16 
to 17 per cent Balling), and sent out unblended." 

W or ting. — Stout and porter for immediate draught often, be- 
sides being blended with vatted stout, receive an addition of un- 
fermcnted wort varying from half a gallon to a gallon and a 
half per barrel (Southhy, Practical Brewing). Those stouts 
which arc intended for bottling and export must not be worted. 

Finitigs are added cither before the beer is sent out. or by the 
customer in his cellar. About one pound of good isinglass is 
made up to about 10 gallons, according to processes faniilipr to 
the American brewer, the cold method of preparation being em- 
ployed, and tartaric acid and sulphurous acid are usually used 
in cutting. About one to two pints is added to a cask (1^'^ U. S. 
barrel). 

Beer Storage (according to SoiUhby). — Beer may be stored 
either in the casks in which it is to be sent out, or in vats of 
larger m smaller size. In former days, vatting was almost uni- 
versal, but since the great success of the Burton ale breweries, 
vatting has gone more and more out of vogue, and is now almost 
confined to the storage of the stronger class of black beers and 
some special varieties of strong ale. For stout, the vatting sys- 
tem seems alone capable of inducing those peculiar changes and 
the development of those ethers and flavors so much valued in the 
finest productions of the London and Dublin porter brewers. 

When storing ale in casks, it is necessary to provide against 
the excessive development of carbonic acid. This is usually 
effected by the use of the porous spile. 

These spiles are made from the wood of the American black 
oak, which is full of tubular cells running in the direction of 
the grain. They are made about an inch long awd \.vvcwt\ '^v;^c«^^^'^ 
conical. They arc not pointed, but \)o\\\ <itv^'5» ^^<i '^'^^'^ "^^^ '^^'^ 



SlO. TOP FERMENTATION BEERS. 

across the grain, thns alfewing an egress for the carbonic acid as 
it is generated. As, however, they flatten the beer to some ex- 
tent, they should be replaced by tight spiles a short time previous 
to the beer being sent out for consumption. When beer has been 
kmg stored, the tubes of the porous spiles become clogged with 
* yeasty and extractive matters, so that after a certain time they 
cease to allow any gas to escape. Therefore, fresh porous spiles 
should replace the old ineffective ones where beers are stored for 
a very long time. 

By storing beer in good cellars, in which a uniform temp e rature 
of about 54*" F. is maintained, almost all risk of the beer becom- 
ing add is avoided, provided it is well brewed and frooi good 
materials. There are, however, some inconvcoiences in this 
method of storage, for. if the cellars are very cool the beers stored 
in them are apt, when removed into a warmer atmosphere, to kick 
up, owing to their not having previously gone through that slow 
fermentation in cask which is sure to take place sooner or later 
in all stock beers. On the other hand, if the cellars are main- 
tained at a somewhat higher temperature, the beers are apt to 
chill and become cloudy when removed in cold weather. 

The fact is, that by coddling beers, while you certainly pre- 
serve them from disease, you are sure, at the same time, to ren- 
der them tender and susceptible to ever>- change of temperature. 
Burton beers, in former days, were exposed by day to the heat of 
the sun, and by night to the frost, and. by this treatment, they 
became so hardv that thev retained their condition and brilliancy 
under the most adverse intluences. In Burton the usual practice 
is (Southby, 1889) to stack up the casks in open yards, covering 
them up by mean^ of hurdles wattled with straw. As the warm 
weather comes on. further protection becomes necessary, and 
the casks arc either i^laced in the now vacant malt house, or the 
straw is frequently wetted during the day by sprinkling it with 
water. 

Ales of sufhcient strength, or pale ales in which a large propor- 
tion of hop ha-^ been used, can he stored in this rough manner 
with safety, hut a groat risk is run with the lighter class of ales 
unless they are stored in ccol cellars. 

BOTTLE BEERS. 

According to Wright, ale for bottling should ho allowed to 
go through all its cask changes, svowx^wviow-^ btUUancy (un- 



TOP FERMENTATION BEERS. 8ll 

aided by finings) at the end of them being the simplest criterion 
of ripeness for bottling. 

The temperature of the bottling cellar should not exceed 55° F. 
(10** R.), and may well be lower, and a fair amount of ventilation, 
if it can be managed, with a uniform temperature is desirable. 
When bottled, however, a higher temperature is required to insure- 
proper condition, say from 58** to 60° F. (11%** to 12%° R.) : but 
note that too speedy maturity is not to be wished for, pointing, as 
it does, to faulty brewing or incomplete secondary fermentation. 

Messrs. Bass & Co. used to issue the following instructions to 
their agents : 

"The proper season for bottling pale ale commences in No- 
vember and ends in June. 

"Pale ale should not be l>ottled during the summer months, nor 
after hot weather has set in, even though the temperature should 
afterward become cool. 

"The ale should be placed bung upward in a cool, ventilated 
store, about 50" to 55** F. temperature. 

"If the ale should get into a brisk state of fermentation, a por- 
ous cane or poroi!s oak spile should be inserted in the bung until 
the excessive fermentation has subsided, when a tight, close peg 
should be sub"^tituted. 

".Ml- sJKnild never he allowed to become flat. 

"It should l)c briglit .'jiid sparkling when bottled, but not frr- 
iiHMitini]:. The bottle^ tn 1)e corked directly they are filled. 

"in lioitlinR. a tap v/ith a tube reaching toward the bottom of 
the bottles should be used. 

"When corked, rlie bottles to be piled sianditip upright and not 
lying on their sides. 

"When the ale becomes ripe, a sediment will be dcpo-^ited in ihe 
bottles. In uncorking be careful not to disturb it. but empty the 
contents of the l)ottlc into a jug. keeping back the ^^ediment." 

A simple test for bottling fitness is to fill a clean bottle with 
the beer and keep it at a temperature of about 90° F. (26° R.) 
(see "Microscopical laboratory") for about four days. If no de- 
posit shows within this time, good results may be expected. 

TURBIDITIES AND OTHER DISEASES. 

Beer Turbidities. — ^These arc brought about by much the «^?v\\\v; 
causes as those affecting liger bccr«^ vmdex cqtV?C\tv t\\Q^w\xv<^vc\-\'^^'^^ 
Their treatment is much more difRcuU ?>\t\c<i v\\<i \h^c\s -^-^^v ^v^^v'^ 



8l2 TOP FERMENTATION BEERS. 

nuunly in casks, and filtration cannot be resorted ta Recoorae is, 
instead, had to the addition of fining^. Beer turbidities may be 
caused by: 

fVeak Yeast, — If the yeast in the storage cask is the progeny of 
a weak yeast, it is apt to be light, settles slowly and rises npda 
the slightest provocation. Greatest attention must be given to the 
stock yeast to keep it in a condition of strength and parity. 
Yeasts from medium gravity worts give the best results, as tiiose 
from very high gravities are apt to be overfed and sluggish, while 
low gravity worts may not satisfy the yeasts in point of nutrition. 
The precautions to be used in selection, general treatment, 
strengthening and purifying of the jreasts are much the same as 
for bottom-fermentation yeasts. 

IVild Yeast — The types of yeast causing cloudy frets are Sacch. 
pastorianus III and Sdcch. elKpsoidcus, both of which, accord- 
ing to Matthews and Lott, may cause a distinctly unpleasant smell 
and flavor or stench, but beers which have gone through such 
frets may, if otherwise sound, become quite palatable". 

Another wild yeast type found to cause beer turbidity is Sacck. 
exiguus, a light, elongated yeast. In this case the turbidity, ac- 
cording to Matthews and Jjoit, is prolonged and accompanied by 
marked flatness, which is probably not unconnected with its in- 
ability to ferment maltose. 

Bacteria Turbidities. — The bacteria most frequently met with 
in beers, and those which cause undue turbidities besides souring 
and, in some ca^es, stench and ropinc"=s. arc sarcina, lactic fornix. 
sacchorohacillus pastorianus (these three .i)nHluce souring). 
Butyric forms may produce a disgusting smell, and are sometimes 
found in returned ales. (Matthews and Lott. The Microscope 
in the Brewery and Laboratory. 1899). Mycoderma accti or bac- 
terium accti, often found in returned ales, causes marked acidity' 
even when ales are only moderately infected. 

Ropiiicss. — This is a condition of the beer of being highly 
\iscous so that it llows like thick oil or even hangs in strings 
when poured. It seems to be due to organisms, but the question 
is still in doubt. Slack malt, light hopping and imperfect cleans- 
ing seem to favor viscous fermentaiinn. Van Lacr succeeded in 
causing ropiness in «^ugar solution by infection with two kinds of 
hid/Ius. which he calls bacillus viscosus I and bacillus viscosus 
//, and it is known that an orgamsw ca\\cv\ \.c\u-onos\oc metL^- 



TOP FKRMENTATION BliliRS. 813 . 

tcroidcs has the power of converting large quantities of the 
juice of the sugar beet into a viscous, syrupy mass. Pediococcus 
viscosus has been found to cause ropiness in German Weissbecr, 

Albuminoid and so-called hop-resin turbidities seem as yet to 
be little understood in England. As to albuminoids, it would 
seem that this form of turbidity admits of a ready explanation, 
as the high initial mashing temperatures employed in England 
favor the formation of proteids of a kind that do not readily 
precipitate (see *'Peptase and Albumen") and make their appear- 
ance when the beer is cooled to lower temperatures. (See also 
"Principles of Brewing.") In America much attention is given 
to avoiding this form of turbidity, since the lager beers are stored 
and consumed at much lower temperatures than ales or stouts, 
and relatively small quantities of albuminoids, or proteids, as we 
call this objectionable class of albuminoids, make their pres- 
ence known, on account of their almost absolute insolubility at 
temperatures near freezing point. 

Starchy Turbidity: (See "American Lager Beers.") 

Beer Sickness Due to Dry Hopping. — Sometimes fermentation 
is too quickly accelerated in the cask by the addition of hops and 
a permanent "fret" ensues, while at the same time an unpleasant 
flavor becomes noticeable. This may be caused by organisms in- 
troduced with the hops. 

Vcast Bite is a condition of the beer of having a bitter clinging 
disagreeable taste. This is attributed by English authorities to 
a number of causes, such as too high temperatures at the end 
of primary fermentation, insufficient aeration, or the presence 
of f<»rcii;i:n organisms, such as Sacch. pastorianus I. 

Bisulphite Smell or Stench is attributed to the reducing action 
of bacteria or even yeast on the sulphurous acid it contains, in 
which case sulphuretted hydrogen is formed. 

TOP-FERMENTATION BEERS IN THE UNITED 

STATES. 

AMERICAN ALES, PORTERS AND STOUTS. 

In the United States a somewhat different system of brewing 
has developed in the production of top-fermentation beers, from 
those employed in England. While the American stock beers are 
patterned after the English stock ales and stout, cream, lively, or 
present use ale takes the place of the English tw\V4 ?\^s, ^sn^ 
more recently the American ale brewci^ ^x^ ^^\\\^V^xv% n^\w ^^'^^^'^ 



TOP FERiltNTAllON ltlf£JCS. 




TOP FERMENTATION BEERS. 8l^ 

with refrigerating machines to brew a beer — brilliant or s/)arlcling 
ale — that combines the properties of lager beer and ale, i. c.. a 
sparkling, brilliant beer with an ale taste and aroma. Since these 
ales have been put on the market, top-fermented beers have gained 
some of the ground which they had lost in competition with lager 
beers. 

In the main, the equipment of a modern American ale a.id 
porter brewery does not diflcr essentially from that of a lagc r 
beer brewery. The chip-cask cellar of the lager beer brewer> 
however, can be dispensed with, a carbonating room taking itj 
place, while the stock cellar is retained, since some of the ale? 
arc stored. 

CREAM OR PRESENT USE ALE. 

Material. — Seventy per cent of malt, 30 per cent of unmalted 
cereals; or 75 p^ cent of malt, and 25 per cent of sugar added 
in the kettle. 

Mashing Method,— \i,ixiA temperature 122"* F., hold 30 minutes, 
lun in corn mas!:, hold at 154** F. for 30 minutes, run up to 
162° F., trtasji'tintit "conversion is complete, rest one hour, tap, 
boil like tagci" beer, adding from one to one and one-half pounds 
of hops per barrel. Add sugar (if used) 30 minutes before run- 
ing out. Balling of wort. 14 per cent. Cool, give from one-half to 
one pound of yeast per barrel. Use skimming system. After 
yeast-making is over, let settle for two days, fill into trade barrels, 
and add 10 per cent Krausen taken 36 hours after pitching. 

For treatment of grits, flakes, etc., see "Mashing Operations'* 
for Lager Beer. 

BRILXIANT ALE. 

Brew like present use ale. Balling of wort from 13 to 15 per 
cent, hops one and one-half pounds per barrel. 

Fermentation. — Skimming system. (Sec **Stock Ale" and 
"Brewing in England.") After yeast-making is over let settle 
tor two days, bring into storage tanks at temperature of cellar 
(44** R). Add finings, pump over in 5 to 6 days, fine again, cool 
to 36° F., carbonate, filter and rack, or run from storage tanks to 
chip-cask when there is no carbonator, fine with isinglass and 
treat gencralW like lager beer. Temperature of chip cellar about 

39° F. 

Kriiuscning with lager beer Krausen cantvol \i^ \t<:.c>w\vcsK.vw$^^^- 
as the churaclcr of the product then appio^icVv^^ V^Q \\\nvc\\ ^"^"^ '^^ 
lager. 



STOCK ALE. ^^^H 

ifatfnal. — Pale malt alone, or with 25 iter cent of sugar. 

Mashing SU-thod, — Initial lemperaluie of mash from i^g' 10 
151° F., run liot waler through underlet or pfaff to raise the teia- 
perature to 154° F- mash imlil inversion is complete, rest for 
one hour, u^e from two to three pounds ol hops per barrel, adding 
one-third after all ihe spargings aic in and wort boils, one~third 
aftcT boiUng one hour; boil one hour longer, and add the la^i 
one-third about icii minutes before mntiing out. Dulling itt 10 
18 per cent. If sugar is used, add as per cent 30 minutes before 
running out. 

Sparging water should have following Icinpcralures : First. 
176° F.; second, 170° F.; third, 165° F. ; foutih. 165° F. (See 
also "Brewing in England.") 

FermenlalioH. — Cool the wort to 59' F.. add cmc and one-half 
pounds of ycasl per barrel, let (cmpcratvrc ri*e lo 70' F.. alter 36 
hours rouse for 30 minutes, and run the «le ti^'o skimimrf, i. t., 
vats in which the yeast is skimmed off. After vea.'-t-makitig is 
over let settle for two days, run into trad^ barn's, add antt- 
guaftcr pound oE a good quality of dry' ho|>i P«r Jwrrcl, and p 



with one pint of a 30 per cent solut; 
Store from three to four months. (Sen' al 
land.") 

STOUT AKII POkTEK, 

The principal requirements, as compared 
palate-fulness, pronounced tnalt f1; 
best to use mixed mahs, 
dried malts. If this cannot be had, 
and sug.ir coloring 10 the required ar 

The mashing method and general 
are the same as for slock ale. 

//of ,1.^ Porter, one and one-quarter pounds per barrel; stout, 
two and one-half pounds per barrel. Added in the same manner 
as to stock ale. Sugar (if used) to the amount of 25 per cent, 
added in the kettle 30 minutes before running out. Porter, 13 per 
cent Balhng strong; stout, from 16 lo 18 per cent Balling. 

fermtnlalion like stock ale. No dry hopping. Store three to 
/our months. 



c «ucar per harr*]. 
'Brewing 10 En^ 



and darker color. It is 

of high and low kiln- 

lel malt, "black" malt,, 

should be added. "^ 

of porter and stout 



TOP FKRMENTATION BlitKS. 



Slock beer for bottling (ale or stout) should go through ordi- 
nary cask- fermentation (secondary fermentation) and after about 
three to six months it should be filled in bottles, while moderately 
lively, at from 65° to 70° F., when it will raise sufficient gas 
.0 become brisk again and have a pungent flavor. Beer botlled 
previous to secondary fermentation becomes too wild in llic bot- 
tles. The bottle stock beers are not pasteurized. (See also 
"Brewing in England.") 

AM EH 10 AN WEISSDEER. 

The process of manufacture of this beer niay be copied from 
the German methods. However, the material employed and 
method of mashing is usually quite different. Wheal malt is 
sometimes, but not generally, used. Instead, grlls are employed 
to the amount of about 30 per cent, together with pale mdlt 
The grits are trealed as usual, the mash is started at about 40° R 
(iaz° F.), and temperature raised by addition of grits mash ;mc.! 
water to about 58° R. (i6i° F.). The wort is boiled for a short 
period (about 30 mimites) with hops from one-half to three 
quarters pound per barrel. 

Strengih of worl about 10 lo 12 per cent Balling. 

For Ireattnent of beer during fermentation, see "Berliner Weiss 
Beer." Ale yeast should not be employed as is often the cy&e 
bul yeast from a Weiss beer yeast should he obtained in case of 
need. In America the fermenlation is generally conducted in 
vats instead of casks, in which case ihe yeast is skimmed off. 

After fermentation the beer is krausened and tilled in bodies. 

Undoubtedly the American article could be much improved by 
employing the materials, as welt as the mashing method in vogue 
in German Weiss beer breweries, especially the nialcrial, as grits 
will under no circumstances yield those albuminoids that give 
Wcisr; beer its character, as wheal malt does. Certainly there 
.^eenis no reason why American Weiss beer brewers should not 
be able lo procure a good wheal malt. 

Weiss beer in America is sometimes stored, bunged, and fined 
like iager beer, but a brilliant Weiss beer does not seem to cnich 
the fancy of the consumers, who are accustomed to the cloudy, 
lively article of Berlin fame. 

For details of Weiss beer production in Ge^mMv^ see wv-sA. ^■.i%'^ 



8l8 TOP FERMENTATION BEERS. 

KENTUCKY COMMON BEER. 

Like California steam beer, Kentocky common beer is nuinljf 
consumed by the laboring classes, and is chiefly brewed in Loui*- 
ville, Ky. It is marketed while still in an early stage of fer- 
mentation. 

Materials employed are: Barley malt and about 25 to 30 per 
cent of com, with some sugar color, caramel or roasted malt to 
give a dark color. 

Balling of wort about lo to ii per cent. 

Mashing temperatures vary greatly, both low and high initial 
temperatures being taken. In the latter case the com mash is 
cooled with water before running into the mash-tun. 

Boiling. — ^The wort is boiled with about one-half pound of hops 
per barrel, and cooled to 6o* F. (i2* to 13* R.). 

Fermentation. — ^The wort is pitched with one- third of a pound 
of top-fermentation yeast per barrel, allowed to come full in 
Krausen, and then transferred from the fernier.ter directly into 
the trade packages, which arc placed on troughs, into which 
the yeast is allowed to work out. The barrels are kept full con- 
tinually by topping up every few hours. After 48 hours in the 
barrels the fermentation is over and the barrels are bunged ; when 
very much gas is required they may be closed in 24 hours. 

The beers are not as a rule Krauscned, nor fined, and con- 
sequently have a **niuddy" appearance, but a moderately clear 
article can be obtained if the saloonkeeper lays in a supply so 
that it can settle a few da3's before tapping. 

TOP-FERMENTATION GERMAN BEERS. 

BERLINER WEISSBEER. 

Of the many varieties of top-fermentation German beers, it is 
only IVciss beer that has been able to compete with the lager 
beers, while the others, being gradually displaced, arc but little 
known, or enjoy only a local reputation. 

Although the methods for the production of Weiss beer vary 
considerably in different parts of Germany, it may be of interest 
to consider only the Berliner Weiss beer, as that is the kind 
which seems to have outstripped its rivals in Germany in point 
of quantity consumed, as well as in the I'nited States, where it is 
considered the one type worthy of imitation. 
Berliner Weiss beer should have a. v^r*? v;\.\^ color ; be nioder- 
ately char, distinctly tart, tIcVv 'm c^i\iov\\c ^c\^> ^o vXvax \v 



TOr KERMLNTATION llEERS. 819 

lains strongly when jxrared, and should hold the foam moder- 
:ely well. 

There are quite a number of variations of methods employed 
I the production of this beer, even in Berlin, but we will con- 
mt ourselves uilh giving only one in detail. 
The Materials employed are wheal malt and barley malt, hops 
Mi water. Three parts of wheat malt lo one of barley n-.ait 
as formerly considered to be the proper proportion, but sinci: a 
reater degree of transparency is required of the product, the in- 
tnalion is of late to take less wheat malt. The original Balling 
[ wort is about 10 to iz per cent, amount of hops about three- 
iiarters of a pound per 100 pounds of mall, or about one-quarter 
f a pound per American barrtl. 

The water employed should contain some salt and gypsum. 
E it does not. it may be prepared by adding about live pounds 
[ table sail plt ioq barrels, and as much gj'psum. 
Mashing 0['cralioi\s. — Three jiarls of wheat malt orevioiisly 
ampencd, so as not to be crushed loo finely, and one part of 
irley mall are run through the fore, or outside, masher, 10- 
ether with cold water, and the temperature raised by running 
I hot water from Ihe mash pan to the very thick mash until j8' 
.. (118" r.) is reached. Part of the hot water (about one-third) 
. left in ilie pan, 10 which about three- fourths pounds of hops is 
Ided per loo pounds of malt, and boiled from 20 to 30 minutes. 
hen, a "lauter-mash" is drawn, run into the pan, and boiled 10- 
rther with the hop decoction for a few minutes and returned 
ntil the temperature of the mash reaches 48° R. (140° F.). The 
rst thick mash is then drawn, boiled live minutes and returned. 
ringing the (cnipcralurc of the mash up to 55° R. (154° F.). A 
icond thick mash brings the temperature up lo 60° R. {157' F.). 
.The mash now rests about 40 minutes, when the wort is tapped 
nd immediately run over the surtacc cooler and through pipe 
Solcr, into the fcrmenier. where yeast is added. 
It is nolev/orthy thai ihe Weiss beer- wort is not boiled, and 
BMcquenlly the genuine Berlhier Weiss beer is not so clear. 
wing til the large amounts of proleids it contains, in comparison 
ii those beers for which the wort is boiled, as is the case with 
iortock, H.inover, Thuringian and Saxon Weiss bccT, 
Fermciiliiig Operations. —The ptlcteng «n\^T3.vv>Tt S'i ■.■^v.-w 
t' R. (so' ^ J <n summer an<l 14° R. (,64° ^."^ '^■^ ■«^^^'^^- "^^ 



eaO TOP FBfUIENTATlON SEEKS. ^ 

yeast may be added to a «nall quantity of the. first wort, aay tea 
pounds per barrel, and when jn Krausen, mixed with the wort in 
tbe starting tub (Ansetzbotlicb), letting the remainder of the 
wort ran in as it comes from the cooler, rousing ironi time to 
time as long as it runs. The amount of yeast may be from one- 
half to. threc-qnarters of a pound per barrel. The temperatnre 
during fermentation should not rise atfove i8* R. (85° F.), and 
should preferably be kept down to 16° Ft (68' F.). 

Some time after pilchiog a white foam becomes noticeable, 
and the beer is then transferred to the fermenting casks or bar- 
rels, holding usually about 30 to 90 gallons, where the foam, and 
subsequently the yeast, is allowed to work out of the bun^iole 
into a trough, or a yeast vat, that is placed between two cask^ 
laid so that their bungholea incline toward each other over the 
yeast vat. Soon x white foam is ejected out of the bunghole^ 
nhich is collected in the yeast vat, and the beer collected from 
this collapsing foam (Abseihbicr) is subsequently used for "top- 
ping up." 

About 24 hours after pilching, yeast makes >ls appearance, the 
foam becoming more sticky, yellow, and larger bubbled. The 
ycast<making continues for about 34 to 30 hours, and during this 
lime the foam is gathered in clean yeast rais. and ihe casks 
must be continuously kepi full by lopping up. as otherwise the 
yeast would not work out properly, would partly sink in the 
beer and impart to it a yeasty taste. 

The fermented beer, with 3 to 5 per cent Balling, is drawn into 
separate casks, where it rcceites an addition of Kriiusen, either 
at once or as soon as the beer is wanted. The amount of Krausen 

depends upon the presumable Irngth of limi; thai the beer ii to 
keep before consnmption. 

The beer, after Krauscning. is at once filled into bottles or 
Jugs, where it is kept for about 8 to 14 days liefnre it is ripe. 
Such beer receives about 25 per cent of Kr:in<^tn, If it is in- 
tended to keep longer it receives less Kriiusen. as is the case 
for the export article, which is expected to keep four or six 
weeks in the liotlle in a cool place. 

The beer forms a heavy yeast sediment in the bottle, for 
which reason it must be carefully poured, after iipening llie bottle 
H7//J c3((tio(i to avoid agitation. 



TOP FI-:RMENT,\TrON DEERS. 821 

BROVHAN. 

This is a Weiss beer, first brewed in Hanover as far back as 
the beginning of the sixteenth century. The genuine articli? has 
the appearance and bouquet of young wine, and n sweetish, tart 
taste. It is produced from barley ma!t and hops, without wheat 
mail, and is but slightly fermented. Single Broyhan is brewed 
with about 8 per cent Balling, double Broyhan, about 12 lo 13 
per cent BaMing, The beers contain a low percentage of alcohol. 

Beers similar to Broyhan arc Kolbusscr BefT and Goslarer 
Gose. 



This is a peculiar German local beer, produced from about 
two-thirds o( smoked wheat malt, and one-third of barley mall. 
The wheat is steeped for 30 to 40 hours, germination is allowed 
to proceed at rather high temperatures so that the rootlets mat 
densely. Oakwood is used (or fuel in drying the malt, the smoke 
passing through the malt, giving it a peculiar odor. The 
final kiln temperature is 40° to 45° R. (122° to 133° F.). 

The wort is made on the infusion plan ; initial temperature 20" 
R. (77° F.). cud temperature 58° lo 60° R. (163° to 167° F.), 
produced with hot water in about an hour. The wort is boiled 
;is usual, one and onc-quarler pounds of hops being added. Grav- 
ity of wr)rt 7',i to 8'/j per cent Balling. Hops are strewn over 
(he grains before sparging. 

I'VrmcntalioTi is carried out as for Weiss beer, after which il 
is put into packages of one to two barrels, which are Inineed and 
left to stand [or two to three weeks. Then the beer is liollled 
and stored at a temperature of about 8" R. for about two to three 
months. 

The color of the beer is like that of Pilsener, and the taste is 
said to be deficiously tart and wine-Iikc. 

SPONT.^NFOUS FERMENTATION BEER?. 

The first beer fermentations known were, of course, incited by 
yeaMs finding ihcir way accidently into the wort, and many local 
beers in dlfrercnl countries are still produced on this plan. But 
nowhere h.ive such beers .so extensive a market as in Belgium, 
where- lager beer breweries are very tew and where. vW vv^^-'-'i'^- 
menlalion beers divide honors whV\ tV\c ^^\Asim;t)i\^ \e'i\-w;\-\\.M-s"^ 
types, of which there arc three-. Man. Poro aw4 LamV^t. 



822 TOP FERMENTATION BEEkii. 

Mara is a beer of little gravity, Ijunbic is of high gravity. Fare' 
of medinm gravity. 

Materials: TfaeM beers are made with 40 to so per cent ol 
raw wheal, mixed with barley malt 

Maihing Methods. — The mixture is put into the mash-inn, wa- 
ter is run in, giving an initial temperature of about 40° R. (123' 
F.). Part of the mash then goes into the mash pan where it is 
saccharified at about $4* R. (154" F.}, then boiled and returned 
to the main mash, raising the temperature to about 52° R. (149* 
F.). Another thick mash is taken, raising the temperature after 
its return to 56° R. (158° F.), and a third thick mash brings 
it to fio° R. {167° F.). This wort is very dextrinous. 

Fermentation. — When it has cooled to about 8' to 10* R. (so* to 
54' F.) it is run at once into casks, receiving no yeast whatso- 
ever. There it ferments hy ifieans of wild yeasts. The casks are 
stacked one over the other and communication with air is al- 
lowed through a very small hole. Fermentation becomes notice- 
able two or three days, sometimes a week, after the wort has been 
introduced into ihe cask, depending mainly upon the tempcr;itare 
of the cellar. A black, thick liquid oozing out through the hole 
indicates the progress of fermentation. .-Xfter about two weeks 
of fermentation this hole becomes closed, owing to the thick liquid 
drying and becoming solid. The beer is then left in storage fot 
a long lime, extending up to two, three or even five years. 

It is brewed only in the winter from Oclolier 10 April. Everj 
year, when summer comes, this beer begins to work again. After 
two years k remains still. The brewer samples llic casks, and if 
the beer is very bright, the taste clean and to the customer's re- 
quirement, il is taken out and run into the shipping casks. 

The beer so obtained is very acid, containing great quantities of 
lactic acid. The very acid Lambic is boUled and keeps very long. 
It is called gui-usc lambic. These beers are often seasoned with 
sug;^r. Then lliey constitute a drink that is l>ntli sour and sweet 



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BREWINQ LOSSES FROM HALT MILL TO 
PLATFORn. 

Brewing operations cannot be carried oiil in sucii a way as lo 
deliver all of the valuable substances contained in. or derived 
from, the brewing materials into the packages that are placed on 
the platform of Ibc brewery for delivery to the market, but the 
operations should be so conducted as lo reduce the amount of 
valuable substances lost, lo a minimum. 

These losses are manifold and occur with almost every opera- 
tion and every transfer of-goods. They may be considered in the 
following order: 

Loss from scouring; 

Loss from malt hopper to mash-tun; 

Los3 from material gathering under false bottom (un- 

dcrdough) ; 
I^ss from incomplete gelatiiiizalion or inversion of 

starch ; 
Loss from incomplete inversion of albumen ; 
Loss from incomplete exlraclion of the grains; 
Loss from boiling of wort with hops; 
Loss from incomplete extraction of spent hops; 
I^ss from tr.msfer of wort from keltic lo settling tank; 
Loss from incomplete extraction of the sediment 

(-Trub") ; 
Loss during fermentation and slornge; 
Loss from finings, chips, filtration and racking; ; 
Loss from racking bench lo platform. 
SHRINKAGE IN VOLITMR FROM KKTTI.E TO ST.\RT 
TNf, TUB. 
Besides these real losics there are a/>[-/irenl lours. iNwvwit, v^ '- 
shrinkage in volume unaecompaiiicrt Aiv xVc \d%^ vA ■*.'«^ ^'^Ti . 
siibslances. Such shrinkages ate la\tcT\ wsutc "A a.^ vi'K'"''**''*'-* 
only between kettle and starling tub. v'li.-. 



832 BREWING LOSSES. > 

Shrinkage of wort due to contradion by cooling from 213° F. 
in kettle to 43' to 48° F. (5° to 7° R.) in settling lank, approxi- 
mately 4% per cent. 

Shrinkagi: due to evaporalion on surface and Baudelot coolers 
(see "Cooling"), approximately 5 per cent. 

Besides this apparent loss there is to be added the shrinkage 
due to a real loss, occasioned by: 

Adhesion of wort to vessels like kettle, hop-jack, surface and 
Baudelot coolers, pumps and pipes, about 'A per cent. 

Volume of spent hops and wort adhering is about two and 
one-half barrels per too pounds of hops, 3CCordti>g to repeated 
tests made by M, Henius, or per 100 barrels of wort if lOo 
pounds are used, 2Vj per cent. 

Total shrinkage if hops are not sparged, and one pound of 
hops is used per barrel. 1214 per cent. 

If hops arc sparged tile shrinkage is reJuccil by the number 
of barrels of water used for sparging, or. i( livt barrels are used 
per 100 pounds -of hops, the total shrinkage would l)c 7',i per 
cent, or from 100 barrels of ivort leaving the kettle gj^-i would 
reach the settling lank. 

Where less hops than one pound ptr barrel art used the total 
shrinkage may be readily calculated from above figuro, 

ExamfU. — What is the total shrinkage if 70 poiuids of hops 
per ICM) barrels are employed ? 

a. 50 \ 7" 

Soiution.^-yo pounds of hops retain — ^ — i?l barrels 

Therefore tot.il shrinkage, if hops r,rc n^n sp.Trgi>l, is jicr 100 
barrels of wort 10 J- i''i ■= i\\ barrels. 

And if hops arc sparged with thrct and mio-half barrels of wa- 
M the total shrinkage will be ii^i — ,)';■ - 8U l.r,rrcls. 

Tbi' only uncertain quantity in the above cn!m);',;ion^ is the 
Jiiiount of evaporation, which iitity vary considiTably according 
lo atmospheric conditions, system of cooling, oto. (Sec "Cool- 
ing.") It was found in onu case by R. W.-ihl, where an atomizer 

jMncc-i it Is sale to lake 5 per eeni a< an ,iver;ige, li -iiriice and 
flamldui cuL>i<.-r= aro employe^,. 



' BREWING LOSSES. 835 

LOSS FROM SCOURING. 

Malt is delivered to the brewer freed from sprouts, but is oflen 
passed through a c'eaner, or scourer, before crushing, whereby 
W to I per cent more of substance is removed in the form of 
adhering rootlets, pieces of husk, etc. Such dust, according to 
Doemens, contained, on the average of seven tests, 23 per cent 
of extractive substances. Loss, through scouring 10,000 pounds 
of malt, would be 10 to 20 pounds of extract. 

LOSS FROM MALT HOPPER TO MASH-TUN. 

The loss from malt hopper to mash-tun. occasioned mainly 
by escaping malt dust in its transfer from crusher to tun, should 
be insignificant, but may amount to considerate if the mall dust 
finds easy egress through crevices or untight joints. 

LOSS FROM FORMATION OF UNDERDOUGH. 

This loss may be considerable if the mash-tun is of faulty 
construction, or mashing is carelessly done, at times the entire 
space under ihe false bottom being filled with underdough. For 
conditions favoring the accumulation of underdough see "Mash- 
ing Operations" and "Straining of Wort," also "Brewing Out- 
fit." 

This underdough contains a considerable amount of extract- 
J yielding substances, and at times it may be composed mainly of 
I finely divided starch that finds its way through the perforation: 
of (he false bottom. The weight of this underdough was deter- 
mined in a case where all precautions were used to avoid its 
formation, and the mash-tun was of proper construction, and 
found to be 200 pounds wet, with 15 per cent of extract and 75 
per cent of water. The weight of brewing material was 7,200 
pounds of malt and 6,700 pounds of grits. Therefore 1 

Loss from formation of underdough from 10,000 pounds of 
material was about 22 pounds of extract, or 0.22 per cent. 

The Brancrkaknilcr of 1900, page 85, states that in n similar 
lest made in a brewery on a large scale, the amount of under- 
dough was found to be 70 pounds from 10,000 pounds of ma- 
terial, and contained 50 pounds of extract, a los^ amotinling, 
therefore, to Vs per cent. 

These two cases probably represeirt V\\ft e,x\.x«mt% ?-t,^ ^-i-^-i^ 
hoir difficalt it is to obtain absolutt\j ttWAiXt TtvSv^-i ^^ ^"^ "^ 
(fmntity of luiifffrdoa; h formed. 



. 834 BKEWING LOSSES. \' 

AMALYSIS or AH P MIMlWIH ai (BT WAHL AlfD aBMtDl). ^ 

Moisttue TSoo 

Dry snlntaiice ■' aSXn 

Extract in water-free aubttance. ...^ t^Si 

Of this there wai aoluble a&fi) 

Albtuneti ia dt; substance 34tt 

Inaolnble exinctive matters X90 

The Balling of the water filtered froni the underdon^ 

WW 7J0 

LOSS FROM INCOMPLETE GELATINIZATION OF 
STARCH. 

Thii loss may be considered together with the losses through 
inconqtlete extraction of grains. 

The amount of loss from these two sources is usually detci^ 
mined together, and represents the extract that remains in the 
grains and is consequently lost for brewing purposes. 

The amount of such extract varies from s to 10 per cent of 
the weight of the dry grains if the material is properly treated, 
and from 10 to 20 per cent if proper precautions are not used 
in mashing. 

It is not at all unusual to find grains that contain 20 per cent 
of extract in the dry substance, which means a considerable loss. 

We may take it that the ordinary brewing materia! will yidd 
about 2$ per cent of absolutely dry grains. Therefore, ao per 
cent of extract in these dry grains would mean a loss of fire 
pounds per 100 pounds, or a loss of 500 pounds for a brewing of 
10,000 pounds of material. This loss can be reduced, by introduc- 
ing scientific mashing methods, to about 1'^ to 2 per cent, or ISO to 
300 pounds per 10,000 pounds of material. This still means tl loss 
of about four to five barrels of beer of 13 per cent Balling, 
whereas an amount of extract left in grains, of 20 per cent of 
the weight of the dry grains would mean a loss of about 15 
barrels per 10,000 pounds of material. 

An analysis of the grains is. therefore, a very simple and effi- 
cient means of determining the extent of one of Ihe most prolific 
sources of loss in the brewery. 

The amoaat of soluble extract in grains, due to imperfect sparg- 
r'ng, can be readily detenmned \it *^t»,^wi \Vt -w^-ra tewi 
an average sample of grwDS taktn hom "i** w»m^»t. w ■**. 



BREWING LOSSES. 835 

and weighinir this water with a saccharc;pieter. The weight in- 
dicated by the saccharometer in degrees gives approximately the 
percentage of loss. Thus, an indication of 2 per cent ivould 
mean a loss of two pounds of extract for every 100 pounds of 
material, or 200 pounds for every 10,000 pounds of material, 
or about five barrels of beer of 13 per cent Balling. 

Grains taken from a brewing that was properly made gave the 
following results : 

Per cent. 

Moisture 81.6 

Extract m water pressed from grains 0.7 

The dried grains contained: 
Moisture 6.5 

Oil 7M 

Albumen 33.75 

Raw fitier 16.44 

Ash 3.47 

Extractive substance (starch, sugar, etc.) 7.50 

Of which there was soluble (sugar, etc.) 3.0S 

Insoluble extractive matters (starch) 4 42 

These grains were obtained from a brewing of 10,650 pounds of 
mall and 10,000 pounds of grila. or 20,650 pounds of material, and 
were dried in a grains drier. The total weight was 4.515 pounds, 
or 22 per cent of the weight of the material, while the weight of 
the wet grains was 24.S38 ixiunds, or 119 per cent, or 19 per cent 
more than the weight of the materials. 

LOSS FROM INCOMPLETE INVERSION OF ALBUMEN. 

The albumen of malt is only partly inverted in the mash-tun, 
and approximately one-half of it goes into the grains while praC' 
tically all of the albumen of unmalted cereals passes into the 
grains. More albumen will, however, pass into the wort if the 
mash is well peptonized, and the yield will be correspondingly 
higher than if this does not take place. 

Two woris made from the same malt, but resulting from 
mashes, one of which was well peptonized, the other poorly pep- 
Ionized, were found to contain 0.95 per cent, and 0.6 per cent, 
respectively, of albumen (see page 730) ; or, for 100 pounds of 
material, a loss of 1.8 pounds of albumen, or, Iot vij»»i v^-mAi. '^'i- 
material. 180 pounds of albumen. Cons^ieVvn^ \Vt vmi^ot^«t^'^*- ^ 
albuminoids in point of palate-fulnesa aivi lQa.'m-\vo\Sw'& *-^^^ 
6>r the finished product, the loss ol cxUact "m t'W''^ '^'^-^^ 
doubly significant. 



8^6 BREWING LOSSES. 



V 
^ 
« 



LOSS FROM BOIUNG WORT WITH HOPS. 

Here we encounter a loss in the essential oil of hops, which 
passes oflf freely with the vapors from boiling wort. This loss 
cannot be weighed. It has an important bearing on the hop 
aronuL of the finished product, and the hops must be treated with 
this point in view. (See ''Boiling Operations," p. 726.) 

LOSS FROM INCOMPLETE EXTRACTION OF HOPS. 

In some breweries the hops are not sparged with water at all, 
and the entire amount of wort held by them is lost. This amount 
is about equal to six times the weight of hops employed. Hence, 
100 pounds of hops would retain 600 pounds of wort, and if this 
was 13 per cent Ball, the loss would be 78 pounds of extract, or 
about two barrels of wort, or for 10,000 pounds of material that 
yield about 190 barrels of wx>rt, for which 200 pounds of hops may 
have been employed, there would result a loss of 156 pounds of 
extract, or about four barrels of wort 

In case the hops are sparged in the usual manner in the hop- 
jack, this loss is, of course, considerably reduced. It was found 
to be 40% pounds where 13 barrels of water were used to sparge 
260 pounds of hops, or 15 pounds per 100 pounds of hops. The 
weight of the wet hops from 250 pounds was found to be 1,690 
pounds, and the saccharoraetcr indication of the hop-liquid was 
2.4 per cent. 

LOSS BY TRANSFER OF WORT FROM KETTLE TO SET- 

TLING TANK. 

This loss is difficult to ascertain, and may be estimated as ap- 
proximately % per cent. Thus, the loss from 10,000 pounds of 
material, from this source, would be about 50 pounds. 

LOSS FROM INCOMPLETE EXTRACTION OF "TRUE" 

(DREGS, SEDIMENT). 

The proteids precipitated by boiling the wort are quite vol- 
uminous. In .\mcrican brewing operations they are separated 
from the wort in the starting tub, partly rising to the surface 
when fermentation begins, and forming the dark cover or scum 
which, when the beer is drawn off to the fermenting vat. is usually 
allowed to sink with the receding surface and to join with the 
sediment of the same nature. This "Trub," as it is called in 
German, retsuns quite a large atwounl ol -wot^, ^Vvkh, according 
r io experiments made by Lenner. ap^tox\tMLVe^ 2 v^\ wcvv ^\ ^Cofc 



BREWING LOSSES. 837 

total wort. Thi9 "Trub" should be collected in so-called sedi- 
ment bags and allowed to drain, thus reducing, if properly done, 
the loss to about one-half to three-quarters barrel per 100 bar- 
rels, or about 300 to 400 pounds of wort per 10,000 pounds of 
malt, or about 40 to 60 pounds of extract per 10,060 pounds of 
malt. If no sediment bags are used, the loss may amount to 
about four barrels, or about 120 pounds of extract. The "Trub" 
from pure malt worts is much larger than from worts produced 
with the aid of unmalted cereals, when above figures may be re- 
duced by a percentage equal to that of unmalted cereals em- 
ployed, or the loss will be about one-quarter to one-half barrel for 
30 to 40 per cent of unmalted cereals per 100 barrels, or about 
% to % per cent. 

The sediment bags should be washed with hot water after 
using, and from time to time boiled or steamed out An addition 
of bisulphite of lime to the washing water from time to time aids 
in keeping them from souring or putridity. 

LOSSES DURING FERMENTATION AND STORAGE. 

During fermentation there is some evaporation;* the sugar fer- 
ments to alcohol and carbonic acid, most of which escapes; part 
of the albuminoids and mineral substances of the wort are used 
up to nourish the yeast, and there is some waste from skimming 
off the covers, like hop-resin cover and final cover. 

From the fermentation of so much sugar and the escape of 
carbonic acid gas incidental thereto, one should imagine that a 
contraction in volume took place during fermentation on this ac- 
count This, however, is not the case. A. L. Stern (Journ. Chem. 
Soc., through Am. Br. R., XIII, p. 414) found that the volume 
of a sugar solution is the same before and after fermentation, if 
no evaporation of water takes place. The deduction is that the 
expansion of the alcohol formed equalizes the contraction due 
to the removal of the sugar. 

The loss during fermentation is not so great on this account 
as it otherwise would be. The loss due to the settling of yeast is 
approximately % per cent, and to evaporation, skimming and 
transfer, about i per cent, or, a total of about 1% per cent. 

During storage these losses continue in a measure, but the loss 
from evaporation is not so great. About % to % per cent wvUw 
cover the loss from yeast sedimentatiotv ^tv^ Vcaxv^K^i.^ vcvivc^^ ^ ^^ 
that the total loss from settling taiik to t\C\^-ca?^ \^ -^oxn^ -^^^ 
per cent 



838 BREWING LOSSES. 

LOSSES FROM FININGS, CHIPS, FILTRATION AND 

RACKING. 

In the chip-cask the loss becomes quite considerable, especially 
if no filter is used, on account of the absorption of a quantity of 
beer by the chips^ and the sediment of finings and yeast Hinging 
to them. Some water being' used in the preparation of the 
finings, and the chips going into the cask soaked with water, the 
loss in volume is somewhat reduced, but the loss in extract or beer 
is equivalent, of course, to the quantity removed with chips and 
finings. 

It was found that the amount of beer removed by 6,189 straight 
chips that were used in a 60-barrel cask, was 213 pounds, or, 
about iM barrel per 100 barrels, or, about 80 pounds of original 
extract was removed with the chips per 10,000 pounds of material 
employed, without thereby decreasing the volume, since the beer 
simply displaced so much water in chips. The total losses in 
volume due to treatment in chip-cask, transfer to racking bench 
and filtration are estimated at about i per cent. They are less 
than formerly when no filter was used. Since the introduction 
of the filter less isinglass is employed and also less chips, reduc- 
ing the actual loss considerably. 

LOSSES FROM RACKING BENCH TO PLATFORM. 

To these losses must be added the amount of beer served at the 
"Sternewirth" to working men and visitors, and which, of course, 
varies materially with the custom and output; hi per cent may 
be considered a fair amount for a large brewery, i per cent for 
a small brewery. 

TOTAL SHRINKAGE. 

Shrinkage in settling tank ^ to % per cent 

Shrinkage during fermentation 1% per cent 

Shrinkage during storage % to ^ per cent 

Shrinkage in chip-cask and to racking 

bench i per cent 

Shrinkage from racking bench to plat- 
form ^ to I per cent 

Total shrinkage for a large brewery 

from settling tank to platform 3% per cent 

Since 100 barrels of wort in the kettle give 92^{! barrels in the 
settlings tank, if the hops are properly sparged, and 100 barrels 
the settling tank yield 96% baTTc\s 3il tVi^ i;itV:\xv^\«xvR)cv. 



••» 



BREWING LOSSES. 839 

One hundred barrds of wort run out of the kettle should give 
about 89 barrels of b«er at the racking bench. 

= 89+. 

100 
One hundred and twelve barrels of wort run out of the kettle 
should give 100 barrels of beer. at the racking bench 
100 X 100 

= 112. 

S>6HX93.5 
Where the brewery cooperage is quite small, this loss is in- 
creased. If hops are not sparged, the loss is 3 to 4 per cent 

Excise regulations demand the entry of the number of bar- 
rels of finished beer obtained from each br<w, and not the num- 
ber of barrels of wort obtained in (he cellar. It is, therefore, 
necessary to make the proper deduction from the amount of beer 
in the kettle or from the amount obtained in the settling tank, 
before making the entries. The above figures will serve as a 
guide in this respect. Notice should be taken that where the 
hops are not sparged the reduction is several per cent greater, ac- 
cording to the amount of hops used and the amount of sparging 
water employed. 



TREATHENT AND PRfyTBCTlON OP SURFACBS. 



The treatinent of the different nirfaces in the brewery can be 
cludfied u f(d1o«s: 
1. Qeaning opermtioiu. 

3. Varnishing wooden brewcrjr tcsmIi. 

3- Varnishing, lacquering and staining iron vessels. 

4. Pitching wooden casks, kegs and barrels. 

5. Covering surfaces for ornamental as well as protective pur- 
poses, inch as painting, calcimining, whitewashing and varnishing. 

CLEANING OPERATIONS. 

These comprise: 

Cleaning or scouring of floors, walls, ceilings, inside and 
outside of vessels, tubs, casks, conduits or pipes, and the removal 
of waste products. 

The importance of cleanliness in every department of the 
brewery cannot be loo emphatically impressed upon the brewer, 
especially the cleaning of vessels containing wort and beer, and 
the surroundings that can affect these. 

As remnants of wort or beer, when exposed to the air, soon 
become breeding places for germs and micro-organisms which 
are always present in the air, any vessel that has been emptied 
should be cleaned as soon as possible, for the longer these 
remnants are allowed to remain, the more they dry by evapora- 
tion, and the more difficult it is to remove them. (See "Micro- 
organisms.") 

Tile readiness with which a surface can be cleaned depends 
niainly upon tlie porosity of the material and ibe smoothness of 
its surface. Wood construction (or lloors. walls, beams, posts, 
cask supports, etc.. licing replaced in modern con. it ruction and 
otitlits more and more by tiling, cemtni. a«d aspliali. cleanliness 
•' tacilitaled m proportion. 



TREATUENT AND PROTECTION OF SURFACES. 84 1 

On bard and smooth impervious surfaces any impurities or for- 
eign matters merely adhere, and can be readily removed, but on a 
substance of a porous nature these impuritiei, especially if they are 
liquid, will sink into the pores from which they can be removed 
only by tedious and lengthy operations of cleaning or scouring. 

As aids and accelerators to the brush and hose in the different 
cleaning operations, various substances may be used that may be 
classified as antiseptics, solvents, corrosives and abrasives. 



Before mentioning the various antiseptics employed in the 
brewery, attention should be called to the danger that can arise 
from (heir improper use. 

Caution. — Wort and beer are very sensitive substances, and 
readily take up foreign odors and flavors. Therefore, the brewer 
should well consider, before he uses any chemical, whether it 
can impart any flavor or odor, and also reflect upon the prox- 
imity of any open vessels containing wort or beer that might be 
affected. Furthermore the ventilation of the room in which 
these chemicals are employed must be taken into account. 

The chemicals generally used are the following: 

Lime or milk of Hme is the most universal and at the same 
time one of the cheapest and safest antiseptics now in use. and 
is most effective when freshly prepared. It is made by slaking 
ordinary builders' lime, (hat ii, by placing the lime in a shallow 
vessel and pouring over it one-half to three-fourths its weight 
of water. In a short time the lime becomes heated, emits vapors 
of water, swells up and finally crumbles to a white powder. 

This powder, or slaked lime, is then stii red in nater to a 
creamy consistency and the mixture passed through a fine sieve, 
in order to remove the particles of limestone always present, 
whereupon it is ready for use. 

This milk of fime can be used anywhere in the brewery, ex- 
cept upon the ceilings over open fermenting vats, since the time, 
if used there, might drop into the wort or beer. 

Chloride of lime, Ueaching powder, chlorinated lime, calcium 
hypochlorite, as it is variously designated, made by saturating 
slaked lime with chlorine gas, Is a cheap and powerful antiseptic, 
but ihoHld not be lued in cellart as \\» tfttCCwe^fVi *ir.'j«l'^*^'^ 
apon the action of the liberated cWoiVnt, ■«Vi\'Av\ta.i ,1 ijtT^tVii.^N---'* 
disagreeable odor. 



842 TSBATMBNT AND PSOTECTION OF SURFACES. 

Chloride of lime csn be used in the mtlt house, wash honse, 
stables, in fact, in any place not containing wort or beer or near 
enongh thereto to affect it 

Bisuiphite of lime, a liquid made by saturating a thin milk of 
lime with sulphurous add gas, or sulphur dioxide, has also 
found an extended use in breweries, in fact, it ranks seoMid to 
milk pf lime in popularity. It emits a pungent odor of burning 
sulphur when in a concentrated state, but when diluted can 
be safely used in the same manner as milk of lime. 

Acid Auoride of ammonia, or "antiseptic salt," is also very ef- 
fective as an antiseptic agent It attacks metal and glass strongly. 

One pound dissolved in jo gallons of water can be used in 
place of bisulphite of lime of ordinary strength. 

Antinonnin is a creosote derivative, made in Germany, and in- 
troduced into this country with good success. The method of ap- 
plication is not complicated, and since the product is used in a 
greatly diluted state, which adds cheapness to its commendable 
properties, it can be considered a good paiasiticide and disin- 
fectant for brewery use. 

Antinonnin can be used with water or whitewash; the latter 
is perhaps preferable. (See "Whitewashing.") 

Formalin has of late become a much used and effective anti- 
septic agent in packing houses and other industries, and is being 
recommended for brewery use in Germany, having, however, 
found little application, if any, in American bre^^eries. 

Formalin consists of a 40 per cent solution of formaldehyde in 
water and, in its concentrated state, has an irritating, pungent 
odor. It is a powerful antiseptic, more so than bisulphite of lime, 
which it resembles in many ways, excepting that it is more 
costly. 

Commercial formalin should be diluted before use to such an 
extent that the odor of formaldehyde is faintly perceptible above 
the vessel containing it (diluted about i-iooo). As there are at 
present no reliable data at hand as to the effect of formal- 
dehyde, if absorbed by wort or beer, great circumspection should 
be used in employing formalin in fermenting cellars or poorly 
ventilated rooms. 

Permanganate of potassium, or a solution of this salt, is one 
0/ the most powerful antiseptics and oxidizing agents known. 



TREATMENT AND PROTECTION OF SURFACES. 843 

It will, however, not find an extended application for treating 
large surfaces in the brewery on account of its great cost. 

It forms with water a purple solution, which has neither odor 
nor pronounced taste and can, therefore, be used in every de- 
partment of- the brewery. Its principal effectiveness is in purify- 
ing or removing concentrated or neglected results of uncleanli- 
ness, such as in stables, urinals or catch-basins of sewers. To 
be most effective for these purposes the solutions should be made 
slightly alkaline by an addition of a small amount of caustic pot- 
ash or soda. 

SOLVENTS. 

Carbonate of soda, either in the form of soda crystals and then 
ordinarily termed "soda." or in the form of a powder and then 
termed "soda ash," or "calcined soda," which is more effective 
than the crystal form, is especially effective in cleansing opera- 
tions where organic substances are to be removed, on which it 
acts as a solvent, for instance: 

Incrustations in vessels, like kettle or surface cooler, cooler 
pan, pipes, pumps, on attemperators, or remnants in bottles 
which are treated with a solution containing from i to 5 per cent 
of soda, according to circumstances. 

Softening coatings of shellac or pitch, the precaution being 
used, however, not to dissolve the coating entirely if the vessel 
is to be recoated since the soda would penetrate the wood and 
create difficulties in revarnishing or pitching. 

Dissolving resins and other organic matter from wood. It is 
therefore useful in treating ale packages and chips. 

Caustic soda, or soda lye, is still more effective than soda ash, 
and is used hot for cleansing pipes, five to ten pounds per barrel 
of water being employed. 

Ammonia. A solution of ammonia mixed with whiting or 
chalk, as a distributor, gives good results for cleaning and polish- 
ing copper and brass. 

CORROSIVE SUBSTANCES OR AaDS, 

Sulphuric acid and muriatic acid, properly diluted, are often 
used in connection with some abrasive substance like emery or 
pumice stone, or some distributing material, than which there is 
none more effective than fresh yeast. The acids aid in cleansing 
by dissolving the oxides of the metals th^t Vvv*^ \^\xcvr.^Ns^ ^'^'^- 
tact with air, like iron rust or veTd\|^T\s. 



844 TBBATlfEHT AND VMmCTiOIf OF SURFACES. 



Emery ii a gntyub-brown crTttxlliiie sabsUnce, possessing 
graat hardncH, and is tberefoK lucd ms * gmiding and polisbing 
material. It comes on the market in different d^rees of fineness 
so as to be used for Tariou poiposcs. Emery is used* almost en- 
tirely upon rongh metallic rar&ces, bot shcnld not be used on 
smooth polished metals, being too gntty and caosing sctatchcs. 

Pwmke Stont is a gray, poraas stone found in the nn^borliood 
of volcanoes. It is very porons, similar to coke, and is used as 
an abrasive similar to emery, being, however, better adapted to 
smooth metals, as it is not so hard or gritty as as emery. 

I*fntoHai Earth, or Kieulgtdnr. is a chalk-like substance con- 
usting of the skeletons of diatoms. It is of a siliceous character 
and on acconnt of its comparative softness can be used on smooth 
surfaces. 

Sand or Cindtrs. For scouring metals the hairs of a brush 
are too toft to be of much effectiveness, and for this purpose 
sand is used in connection with them. The sand for this purpose 
should be clean, that is, not mixed with clay or other soft and 
smooth substances. 

Cinders are in universal use because they are always at hand, 
but before use should be sified and only the finer particles used. 

Proprietary cieanert now on the market, usually sold in tin 
boxes or cans, consist mostly of different abrasive materials, 
such as emery, tripoli, rotten stone, crocus or rough mixed to 
a paste with some fat or wax or, if liquid, with gasoline or oil 
as a vehicle for spreading. These ckaners are usually intended 
for nickel, copper and brass, for which purpose they generally 
give good results. 

CLEANING OF BREWERY FLOORS, W.-\LLS, VESSELS 
.A.ND UTENSILS. 

MILL AND BREW HOLSE. 

Mill House Floors. Sweeping the floors with wet sawdust 
readily takes up the flour and dust adhering to it. 

Mall Mill. Cleaning th: malt mill is an ea.^y operation if it 

is kept dry. All that is then neccs^ry is to use a stiff brash and 

scraper for the comers and crevices. \Vl\ci\ there is a stationary 

connection betn-cen mill and maah-iun \x \\aw*^^ ^^eoiiw&i iCeMl 



•, TREATMENT AND PROTECTION OF SURFACES. 845 

I the slide in the spout was not closed after the discharge of the 
ground mall, causing the vapors from ihe mash lo find ihcir way 
into the malt mill, moistening and softening the malt flour re- 
taineii therein. In such a case nothing but a thorough cleaning 
of the mill, after taking it apart, will answer. 

Brev! House. The walls and ceiling should be kept in proper 
cleanly condition, the frequency of washing depending upon the 
finish of their surfaces. (See "Painting, Whitewashing, Etc.") 

The floors around the cooker, mash tub, kettle, etc., should he 
thoroughly scrubhed whh water and broom after each brewing, 
provided the floors are of waterproof construction and have the 
proper drainage. 

When washing wooden floors the addition of bisulphite of lime 
is advisable. 

Hot water tanks are- subject to the same trouble as boilers, 
namely, deposits of scale or incrustation of lime salts upon their 
inner surfaces, but to a less extent. If cleaned regularly with a 
steel wire brush they can readily be kept clean, but if neglected, 
require the same chipping and scraping as docs a boiler. 

Cold water tanks accumulate a slimy coating which can be 
readily removed by using a bristle brush, together with sand or 
cinders. 

Cooker, pressure cooker, mash tub, hop-jack and surface cooler 
or beer tank should be cleaned as soon as possible after they arc 
emptied in order to prevent souring of their contents. (See also 
"Varnishing and Staining Iron Vessels.") 

They should be cooled before cleaning, and a man, working in a 
normal temperature, can do many times the amount of work he 
can do in a superheated one. This cooling is readily accomplished 
by spraying the inside walls and bottoms with cold water from a 
hose — in the mash tub and h<v-jack running cold water through 
the over- sprinkler or sparger— whereby the vessels and contained 
air are quickly cooled. 

The cooker and pressure cooker are readily cleaned by means 
of a brush and stream of water from a hose, the remnants of 
brewing materials being easily flushed through the sewer opening. 

In the mash tub, cleaning is a more laborious operation. After 
the grains are thrown out by the machine, ot ^ \\aTii ■j^iti-J*, "C^vt 
false bottom or itrninei is sprinUed ■w'\v\v co\4 -wW-t^ ■^'^^ '^^ 
the damps unscTCfteA and the segmenla TtrooNeA. ^^- '^^ "^ 



846 TBKATMENT AHD FSOTRCnON OF SUSFACBS. * 

nsuallj totati that the real bottom U covered *jtb ■ considenble^ 
unotmt of what is styled "anderdoitgh." a pasty mast with coo-N 
rideraUe adheuon to the tnb bottom. This mass most he thor- 
Otighly and completely removed, since it consists largely of rtaich 
and albuninoids especially prone to decay and pntrefKtioiL 
This nnderdoush requires for its removal a most energetic ap- 
plication of water spray, both hot and cold, and of the action of 
m bnash or broom. 

This same procedure also ^^lies to the hop-jack. 

The segments of the false botbnn or strainer are then washed 
and scrubbed, and attention is hci« called to an extra manipnla.- 
tlon not generally carried out. It it well to hold each of tbeae 
Use bottom segments against the light in order to see if 
all the holes are open, and if any are clogged up, to remove the 
abstractions with a wire or pin before- relaying the bottom for 
the next brewing. It requires no explanation that as the holes 
become stopped up the running of the wort and extraction of the 
grains must become correspondingly sluggish. 

II the inner surfaces of these vessels became crusted or coated 
with solid particles from the wnrt, which should not happen if 
regularly cleaned, such matters can be removed by scraping or 
with a steel wire brush and sand. After such treatment such 
vessels as were varnished should be revamished. 

Brem Kettle. In cleaning the kettle the nccW should always be 
cleaned before the kettle proper. For this purpose a ladder is 
placed upon a scaffolding in the kettle, barely reaching into the 
opening of the neck. 

For cleaning the kettle the brewer has a good agent which 
costs him nothing, by taking the beer yeast, of which about three 
gallons are mixed in a wooden bucket with about two gallons of 
finely screened light ashes or cinders. After the mass has been 
well mixed about one (o one and one-half fluid ounce of com- 
mercial sulphuric acid or oil of vitriol should be added, and the 
mixture be again stirred thoroughly. An excess of acid will 
attack the copper too much and cause it to turn blue and lose its 
lustre. 

After the entire upper part of the kctlle has been nibbed 
bright, the yeast tnixiure is washed off with water and brooms 
mad the whole surface spread over w'a^v a vnv^vvi^t of yeast and 
r Bmall amount of ashes, but withouV atv-j ac\i, 4 l^csV « -«nAe&, 



TREATMENT AND PROTECTION OF SURFACES. 847 

broom to spread the preparation being used, and the entire upper 
part once more rubbed down thoroughly. The yeast mixture is 
then left on the walls, the scaffolding removed from the kettle 
and the bottom part of the kettle treated in the same manner as 
the upper, that is, first treated with the thick yeast mixture ^ith 
acid and afterward with the thin mass without acid. Finally, the 
mixture of yeast and ashes is scrubbed from the walls with wa- 
ter and brooms, and the vessel well rinsed with clear water. The 
interior surface should, after this treatment, be bright and 
smooth. 

To clean the exterior surface of the neck and hood of the 
kettle a similar mixture of yeast and screened ashes, but without 
acid, should be used. The mass is spread on the surface ^ith 
a brush, and rubbing kept up with the brush until the whole 
surface is bright, whereupon it is rinsed off with cl^ar water 
and a fresh clean brush. For cleaning the brass ornaments that 
are attached to most kettles the ordinary metal polishes may be 
used. 

Baudelot or Pipe Cooler. The first and most serious danger of 
infection that the wort is subject to commences as it passes over 
the pipe cooler, since the wort, previously hot, remains to a cer- 
tain extent sterile. Any infection the wort receives on the cooler 
it retains through all subsequent stages in the brewery, even un- 
til finally marketed and consumed. The cleaning of this cooler, 
therefore, must be doubly thorough. 

The straight tubes are readily cleaned, but this is not the case 
with the joints where the tubes enter the headers or return bends, 
and extra care and labor should therefore be expended when 
cleaning these joints. 

The copper tubes, etc., are cleaned in extreme cases with the 
same mixture of yeast, cinders and acid used in cleaning the 
kettle, but the iron pipe lower part for ammonia should not re- 
ceive any of this treatment as it would injure the black coating. 
The ordinary way for cleaning this cooler is to use a soda solu- 
tion about 5 pounds per barrel, and allow this solution, while 
warm, repeatedly to run over the cooler until all sediment is loos- 
ened, when the cooler should be scrubbed with a brush and water. 

The cooler pan, if of copper, is treated the same as ibA. Vs^^^ 
kettle. If of iron, it should be meie-Vv >aiM^\v^^ ^xv^ \\tv^^^. 



848 TEBATMENT AMD PBOTCCTIOM QP 6USFACIS. 



CELLAB TEMTILAXION AND CLBAN8I1IG. 

The greatest difficulty in keeping cellars and their cootained 
vessds in a clean and sweet condition is met with where the ven- 
tilation is inferior. 

The cheapest and at the same time the most powerful anti- 
septic or germicide at our disposal is the absence of moist- 
nre or the dryness of a substance, since micro-organisms 
require water fpr their sustenance and propagation. This 
resistant property of dried substances is best illustrated 
to the brewer by calling attention to the length of time wet grains 
will keep as compared to the keeping quality of dried grains, or 
the time required for moist leather (boots and shoes) to ac- 
cumulate a covering of mould when placed in a moist, dark 
closet, as compared to when they stand in the open air and sun- 
light 

Ventilation, or a current of fresh air replacing stagnant or 
moist air, has a drying effect and is therefore a purifier or anti- 
septic by itself, and it furnishes a cheap and efficient method that 
saves much labor and chemicals which are otherwise necessary. 

In newly built cellars the proper ventilation ducts, etc., are 
generally supplied, but in older constructions these are very often 
lacking. Proper ventilation can be obtained in the latter by in- 
stalling blowers or fans and blowing or forcing air through the 
cellar from time to time, or by drawing the air out by means of 
an ejector. 

Attention should be called, however, to the necessity of having 
pure air for ventilation, since air that has previously passed over 
decaying matter or that contains dust from city streets may be so 
laden with micro-organisms as to cause the opposite of the effect 
desired. In summer the outside air forced through the cellars 
should therefore be filtered and also cooled, which can be readily 
done by passing the air over and through water. 

The floors of the cellars should be scrubbed from time to time 
with milk of lime (above described), allowing this substance to 
remain upon the floor for some time before scrubbing and final 
removal by flushing with water. This is especially necessary in 
the corners and along the walls, also under the vessels or other 
out of the way places where the milk of lime should be liberally 
applied and alioHcd to remain aiv ex\ru ^etv^th of time. 



TREATMENT AND PROTECTION OF SURFACES. 849 

treatment with milk of lime goes far toward keeping the air in 
the cellars in a sweet condition. 

Wooden floors are a source of constant annoyance to the brewer 
if he wishes to keep them in clean condition. Any yeast, wort or 
beer, if allowed to remain on a wooden floor too long, soon sinks 
into its pores and renders cleaning more difficult. Such matters 
should, therefore, be removed immediately by scrubbing and 
flushing. i 

Starting and Fermenting Tubs. — As these and subsequently 
described wooden vessels are usually varnished,, excepting for 
ales, care should be taken that ladders with sharp edges or boots 
with protruding nails, etc., do not come in contact with their 
inner surfaces on account of the danger of piercing the coating of 
varnish. 

Fermenters should be cleaned as soon after the yeast has been 
removed as possible, by using hose and brush freely, the tub 
being first flushed to remove the loose yeast. The most difficult 
part to clean is the top that contains a ring of dried-up yeast, 
albumen, etc., thrown off by the Krausen foam during the early 
part of the fermentation. This is usually a dried resistant crust, 
clinging to the top and sides, but can readily be s»:)ftcned by 
smearing moist yeast over it. This soon softens the rmg so thai 
It can be removed by flushing and scrubbing with a brush, and 
usually not "requiring scraping, which may injure the varnish. A 
paste prepared from not too finely ground stone or pulverized 
chalk, some milk of lime and water, when applied to this scum 
and then brushed, has given good results. 

Attention should also be paid to the tapholc, so that it does 
not retain any yeast that can come in contact with wort sub- 
sequently contained in the fermenter. 

The water that remains upon the bottom, due to the latler's 
warping, should be removed by means of a sponge. The out- 
side of the tubs should also be flushed and brushed, as it often 
happens that some of the Krausen foam runs over the outside. 

If a fermenter has been out of use for some time, even if it 
was properly cleaned when empty, it should be again flushed 
and brushed before use. 

Vessels that have been out of use for a long time, es^ecvjJvV^ 
if they stood in unoccupied or unused xoottv^, ^JftsivX^ \«. vc^'^^^^ 
with milk of lime or bisulphite o£ Ume «ad ^ea.tv.^^ •^^^v^• 

54 



850 TBKATHKNT AND PBOTBCTION OF SURFAOIS. 

The waler tued for rinsing any vusel conuining wort or beer 
should be of good puriiy. When such cannot be obtained the 
vats must be thoroughly sprinkled after final rinsing with 
bisnlphite of liffle or another bamdess antiseptic solutton, and the 
vat thorou^y drained before use. 

The scratch iron should not be used on varnished vessels, ex- 
cept as a final nieani when the above cannot be made to answer. 

AlteMperators, whether of copper or iron, are cleaned In the 
same manner as the Baadelot cooler tnbes, if nnvamished. If 
varnished they shonld be brushed only, softening any adhering 
incrustation as above. 

Acctttoriet, such as yeast storage tubs, puis, deves, dippers, 
should be cleaned directly before use and afterward. Those 
made of wood should be varnished. 

Cleaming or Walking Ckip-Cotkt and Chips.— Mta empty- 
ing the cask, the chips are gathered by a workman by means of 
a hook and a chip box, and carried to the chip washer. The 
chips should be distributed evenly through the drum and the 
vessel not filled to its utmost capacity in order to afford an 
opportunity for the chips, as the drum revolves, to drop and 
be subjected to friction, and expose all parts of their surface to 
ihe water. Nor should the jet of water be too powerful so as 
to prevent the dirty water from draining oS properly. The 
drum, which may be operated either by liand or power, should 
be revolved continuously until the drain w3ler runs off dear. 
The chips are then taken out and relumed to the cask. The chips 
are first flushed with cold water, then with hot water, and finally 
ivilh cold water to cool them. 

While the chips are being washed another workman should 
'ii; washing the cask, both inside and out. by throwing a weak 
jet of water from a hose. 

A cask broom is then used and the cask well scrubbed, both 
lengthwise and crofsn-ise, special attention being given to the 
i^pcnt yeast near the bung-hole. It should not be forgotten to 
. rub off the iron bars or slay-bolts that run through Ihe cask. 
The wawr is then swept out. the cask rinsed, this water again 
'v.f-' '■■; ?"•' -"v liquid seltling in depression? removed by 
-■-■.t-.'-o _. .: -r-.-o-. One ttorkmai] should ihtJii tlirow in the 
clean chips, which the other man vi^ki wma™ ™ the cask dis- 
Inbutes evenly over the bottom. Tta ifaot "« i>i3Q<A. ww^ 



TREATMENT AND PROTECTION OF SURPACES. 851 

;iff , A„ - ■ 

the edges with tallow, and closed, and the cask thus made ready 

to be recharged. 

In an emergency a cask may be charged two or three times 
without washing, but this is not rccomtnended for a variety of 
reasons, and the proper procedure is to wash the cask each 
time after emptying. A separate cask for the residues is not 
necessary. These residues, together with the beer spilled at the 
racking bench, can be returned to the newly-washed cask. 

Slock or Ruh Casks arc cleaned in about the same general 
manner as chip-casks, except that it is necessary, in large ones. 
to erect a scaffolding in them in order to get at the top and upper 

Pipes and Conduits. — The most important consideration in 
erecting or installing pipe lines is. next to their being light, to 
have them have perfect drainage. Pipes that are horizontal or 
curved retain wort or beer, which soon dries and becomes a 
source of infection. 

Pipe lines with proper drainage are readily kept clean in the 
brew house by repeated flushing with hot water and steaming 
after each brew. Tiiough the temperatures in the cellars are very 
low, an infection may readily take place if the pipes and conduits 
arc not kept scrupulously clean by repeated rinsing and brushing. 

In both places the pipes, besides the hot water and steam 
treatment, should be occasionally filled with a hot 5 per cent 
solution of caustic soda, which should remain in the pipes for 
some lime, and then be removed completely by repeated flush- 
ings of the pipes and with both warm and cold water. This 
application of soda solution should be repeated, if necessary, until 
the pipes are thoroughly cleaned. 

Rubbfr Hose is cleaned in the same maimer as pipes, except 
that the soda solution should not be over 2 per cent (5 pounds 
per barrel) strong, nor used hot, but only warm, since a strong 
hot soda solution has a tendency to soften rubber. The more 
BO is this the case, the more impure the rubber is made by addition 
of mineral admixtures. 

Rubber hose should not be steamed, especially not the ordi- 
nary grades, but should be flushed with warm water only. 

A precaution to be observed when passing Vvtit -h-jA.w ^t -wAa- 
solution through a rubber hose is to \av rtw \««a ^Vtw^v "w^*^ 
#0 doing, since il bent or "kinked" whi\e -warKi, Xiv-i t'i*J'^^ '^" 



852 TREATMENT AND PROTECTION OF SURFACES. 

soften and confonn pennanently to this shape. A spiral holde 
brash can be draibii throngh the hose with good results, and cold 
bisulphite of lime can be run through for disinfecting it Rob- 
ber hose should be stored in a cold place, preferably kept wet 
or moist, and laid out straight upon a floor or wound in coils 
of large diameter. 

Iron pipes, after cleaning, should be stained with a tannic 
acid solution. (See "Varaishing, Lacquering and Staining of 
Iron Vessels.") 

REMOVAL OF WASTE PRODUCTS. 

(See also 'Utilization of By-Products.") 

The waste products in a brew^ery are yeast, wet grains and 
spent hops. 

YEAST. 

Yeast in the cellars should not be allowed to remain upon the 
floors, as it will quickly form a resistant coating di£^ult tc 
remove, and should, therefore, be flushed or washed oflF as 
soon as deposited. 

WET GRAINS. 

Wet grains are very apt to sour, and should be removed 
from the premises immediately if no grain dryer is installed. 
(See "Grains.") 

SPENT HOPS. 

Spent hops from the hop jack should be removed as soon 
as |K>ssiMe, as ihcy contain considerable albumen ("Trub," dregs 
or sediment from the wort) that is liable to putrefaction. 

Spent hops are usually burned under the boilers. A German 
brewer uses his spent hops, after partial dr>'ing, as a bedding 
for his horses, and reports that on account of their aromatic 
odor they are well liked by the animals. 

VARNISHING. 

The varnishing of wooden vessels used in the brewery is done 
for the purpose of preventing the beer from coming in contact 
with the wood and thereby dissolving the extractive substances 
it usually contains, which would tend to impart to the *beer m 
rank taste. 
Another purpose of vaTu\s\\\T\s \e?>>»t\% x'a vo prevent the 
from penetrating the pores oi W\t viooCi, vi\\<.T^ \\. ^^^^^ 



TREATMENT AND PROTECTION OF SURFACES. 853 

or putrefy and infect, or detrimentally affect, the beer that would 
be subsequently contained. 

The process of varnishing may be divided into the following 
manipulations : 

1. The preparation of the varnish. 

2. The preparation of the vessel and application of the 

varnish. 

3. Precautions during the work. 

4. Treatment after varnishing. 

PREPARING THE VARNISH. 

The preparation of the varnish requires some skill and is quite 
a tedious and lengthy operation, on account of which it is, per- 
haps, preferable to purchase the varnish from a reliable manu- 
facturer. 

A good brewers' varnish consists of from 3^ to 4 pounds of 
pure shellac dissolved in a gallon of alcohol. Formerly only 
grain or ethyl alcohol was used, but recently ''Columbian Spirits," 
consisting of practically pure and deodorized wood or methyl 
alcohol has also come into use as a solvent. 

Grain alcohol varnishes are much higher in price than those 
from wood alcohol, on account of which the latter are being 
used to some extent. But the former are considered superior 
by many brewers on account of their slower drying qualities, by 
which it is claimed a denser and more resisting coating is ob- 
tained. Others, however, prefer wood alcohol varnishes on 
the ground that they are more rapid in drying, and consequently 
shorten the time required for varnishing. 

In making varnish, the solution of the shellac is readily accom- 
plishe'd by placing the vessel containing the alcohol and shellac 
in a warm place (about 80° to lOo"* F.) and occasionally agitat- 
ing it to hasten solution. Care should be taken to keep this 
vessel closed to prevent evaporation of the alcohol. 

Various admixtures of other gums have at times been advised, 
but experiments of this kind are not to be recommended, since 
it has been found that if shellac of a good quality is used the 
desired results are obtained, provided the varnish was properly 
applied. 

Attention should be called to the fact that it is very poor 
economy to use cheaper and inferior makes of m^^tcw^Vs. ^vsx^*^ 
the value of the varnish, as compared Vo VVv^ N?\>&fc qV\na -^^o^^^ 



8 




TRBATM&NT AND PKOTBCTION OF SURFACES. 



M 



services, is infinitesinitny smsll, «iid the cost of labor to apply m 
poor and a good varnish is the same.- 

For compositioii aod prop erti es of shelfau varnish see also 
"Varnish/' under "Brewing Materials." 



PRKPABUfG TH£ VESSKL. 

In the preparation of the vessel to be vambhed the first 
manipolation necessary is to dry it, whidi is nsoally done by 
means of a charcoal stove placed inside. The varnish is then re- 
moved by scraping and sandpapering until a smooth surface is ob- 
tained, the vessel again heated for a short time, cooled off and 
the varnish applied with a brush. 

Overheating the wood before varnishing is to be avoided, as 
it is then difficult to apply the varnish evenly. The tempera- 
ture of the wood should be such as to allow the varnish from 
each stroke of the brush to unite with each former one and not 
to overlap it, which would occur if the varnish "set" imme- 
diately^ due to overheating or to the varnish being too thick. 
This immediate setting would also cause the varnish merely 
to cling to the surface of the wood and not allow it to enter the 
pores. 

In order easily to remove the old coating of varnish and 
thereby avoid the laborious manipulation of scraping, chemicals 
or "varnish removers" are sometimes used. These generally 
consist of a mixture of caustic soda and quicklime, ^ith enough 
water to form a paste. This mixture is smeared upon the var- 
nish and left there for a certain length of time until the varnish 
has softened to such a degree that it can be easily removed with 
a stiff brush and a spray of water from a hose. These varnish 
removers would be all that could be desired if, from a practical 
standpoint, it were possible to determine the exact time when 
the chctnicals had penetrated the varnish only and not the wood 
underneath. The danger in using chemicals for removing v^t- 
nish lies in the fact that the coating, even if wcU applied, is 
always more or less uneven, and that the thicker parts of the 
coating require a longer application than the thinner ones. This, 
with the usual occurrence that the remover is left on too long 
anyway, causes the chemical to enter the pores of the dry wood, 
which readily absorbs it and from which it can be removed 
nnfy by n tedious method oi soaV.\T\^ and subseqtient drjring of 
the wood, li the chemical V\as etW^Tc^ \V^ vic^o^ ;sx^^ ^i^ 



TREATMENT AND PROTECTION OF SURFACES. 855 

vamish is applied over it, (he chances are that it will work back- 
ward and remove, or at least soflen this coating, the effect of 
which needs no further explanation. 

When varnishing old vessels one coating may be sufficient, al- 
though it is advisable to apply two, since two thin coats are 
better than one thick one. 

New vessels require three coats. The first one should be ap- 
plied with the varnish rather thin, 50 as to allow it to 
penetrate the wood as deeply as possible. After the first coal 
ihc wood will be fojind to be rather rough on account of the 
fibers warping or rising, and it should, therefore, be sandpapered 
to smoothness. 

The second coat should not be sandpapered too briskly, merely 
enou^ to smooth down the ridgrs, as otherwise the varnish 
would be rubbed off at the high places and the wood underneath 

Each coaling of varnish should be allowed to dry for at least 
forty-eight hours, and first coats on new vessels for twenty- four 
hours longer before the succeeding coat is applied. 

At the expiration of 48 hours, after the last coat was applied 
a vessel that has been properly treated can be rubbed with a 
decoction of hops, with which a little yeast has been mixed, and 
within a few hours washed with water, after which it Is ready 
to be pttt into service. It is hardly necessary to soak it with 
water where this treatment has been applied. 

It may happen (hat the varnish turns white or grayish, which 
can usually be traced Co the following causes; That the shellac 
used was of an inferior quality ; that the wood of the vessel was 
green or was not thoroughly dry; that a coat of varnish was 
applied too soon, the under one not being dry; or that the 
vessel was filled with water or beer before the varnish had 
dried perfectly. See also "Varnish," under "Brewing Materials." 



i DUUHC VA>NISHTNG. 

Besides the mechanical precautions above mentioned during 
varnishing there arc two other and all-important ones to be 
observed, viz.: the prevention of dangerous results by an ex- 
plosion, or the inhalation of the vapors by the workman. 

The frequent accidents by explosion happening while varni.ih- 
ing casks, which are sometimes attended v.UV\ Vo'b^ o\ ^-^-^ =>' 
injuries to workmen, are generally due t'vVWt \o c.ai'i\'i^v.\es.'>- «>■ 



856 TMATMBNT AND FBOTBCnON OP 8USFACE8. 



to lack of knowledge 00 the pirt of the workmtn or snperin- 
tendent Thcj are caused bj the vapors of the alcohol or other 
solvent of the varnish mixed with air and brought in contact 
with a flame. Vapors of alcohol, benzine, illuminating gas, etc^ 
when pure, will bum only at their line of contact with the air, 
and a closed vat or barrd, when filled with these vapors only, 
would not be dangerous, in ^Mt, the vapors would eactinguish 
any flame suddenly immersed into them. The liability to cx- 
pkMion lies in the fact of these vapors being mixed with con- 
siderable quantities of air, forming i highly explosive mixtore. 

The means of preventing these explosions must be looked 
for in either of two methods — namely, in avoiding all possi- 
bility of any flame coming near these mixed vapors and air, 
or in keeping the amount of vapors in very small proportion to 
that of the air by means of draft or forced ventilation, as a 
trace of these vapors in a large volume of air is not explosive, 
but becomes so only when larger quantities are present 

One of the most common methods for illuminating the in- 
terior of casks, etc, during varnishing is by means of an incan- 
descent electric light variously protected from breakage. But 
breaking may, and has, occurred, so this method cannot be 
considered very safe. 

The second source of danger to the workman results from 
inhaling the vapors of the alcohol of the varnish. This has 
caused serious disablement, even death, and most of these detri- 
mental or fatal results may be ascribed to the breathing of 
vapors from wood alcohol, especially if it was more or less impure. 

Commercial viood alcohol contains substances of a more in- 
jurious character than the alcohol itself, principally acetone and 
aldehyde. 

Grain or ethyl alcohol, owing to the manner of its produc- 
tion, is obtained in purer form, and its higher boiling point 
makes it easier to free from more volatile admixtures. 

When a comparison is made between the effect of the vapors 
of the two alcohols, freed from all impurities, on the human 
system, it is found that grain alcohol simply intoxicates, and, 
a inhaled in large quantities, stupefies, leaving behind no aerir 
ous after effects— at least, with ordinary care. Wood alcohol, 
on the other hand, has a more toxic influence, the vapors pro? 
ducing nausea and vomiting. 



TREATMENT AND PROTECTION OF SURFACES. 857 

The methoda and appliances in use for preventing the dan- 
gers above described are principally of three kinds, viz.: i. To 
place the light, in form of an isolated lantern, etc., outside the 
cask and illuminating the inside through the manhole; 2. to 
supply the workman with a mask or hood, similar to a diver's 
helmet, and introduce fresh air through a hose leading to the 
helmet; and, 3, to ventilate the cask so that the amount of 
inflammable and injurious vapor is always below the danger 
line. 

The first precaution removes the danger by explosion, but 
not the danger of poisoning the workman; the second protects 
the workman from deadly fumes; but does not prevent explosion, 
while the last guards against both contingencies. The second 
can, however, be easily made to cover both contingencies, as the 
cask can readily be ventilated by a branch from the air hose to 
the helmet. Ventilation of the cask has the further advantage 
of causing the varnish to dry more rapidly by removing the 
air saturated with the vapors of the alcohol. 

ACCI]»NTS. 

If, despite all precautions, an accident should happen in var- 
nishing — which is scarcely to be expected, however — the first 
attention should be given to the injured persons. If the man's 
clothes have caught fire those who appear first on the scene 
of the accident should not waste time by senseless lamentations, 
but be ready with active assistance. If the victim tries to rup 
around he should be thrown to the ground by force, if neces- 
sary, and the fire smothered with blankets or clothing. If the 
person has suffered serious burns take him to a suitable place 
and apply a mixture of limewater and linseed oil, putting it 
on the burns and covering them afterward with cotton. In 
case of slighter injuries, dip cotton cloths in a strong solution 
of alum, or mix scraped Castile soap with water to a thick mush 
and spread on linen or cotton cloth, and apply to the burns until 
a physician can be had. 

If the noxious gases have been inhaled the person should 
be undressed at once and cold water poured over him. Then 
lay him down on his face, turn him over carefully on the side, 
then back on the face, and so on back and forth. This sKovxld 
be done quietly but steadily about fiilttti X\tw^^ ^ tcvvcs^o^^. Tknr- 
object is this: While lying on t\\e i^^c^ X\v^ ^V^^'^ ^^ "^"^ '^^'^ 



858 TSKATKBNT AND IBOnCTION OP 8USFACBS. 

will be pressed bf the weight of the bodj, wliicb promoCes ex- 
halation; mhen he is turned 00 the side the pressure will be 
relieved and inhalation accelerated, and the noxioos gases be 
thus thrown oflF. 

PAKAFmUHG. 

Paraffincb as a material for covering the inner surface of brew- 
ery vessels, has nai^ advantages over shellac varnish. It is 
cheaper than shellac, it is easier and safer to handle, it is a 
perfectly neutral body, not easily affected by chemical com- 
pounds. Parafline mdts to a very thin fluid, which penetrates 
deep into the pores of the vessel and at the same time forma 
only a thin coating on the inner surface of the vessel. 

The vessel is prepared for paraffining in the same way as 
for vamisiung — that is, the old vanfish is removed first and the 
vessel heated. 

The best kind of paraffine to be used for coating brewery ves- 
sels is that which melts at 133** F. (45*" R.)- It is advisable to 
heat the dried vessels to be paraffined slowly to a. higher tempera- 
ture than for varnishing (abont 190' F. or 70° R.). The paraffine 
is heated to about 176** to liW*' F. (64** to 72° R.), but not hig^r, 
else it will spoil the brush. It is applied in the same manner as 
varnish. It is, therefore, best to use a thermometer for regulating 
the temperature of the paraffine, which may be heated on direct 
fire. 

The operations of coating the inner surface of the vessel must 
be repeated as long as any paraffine is absorbed by the pores. 
Usually three or four coats are sufficient. The paraffined vessel 
is allowed to cool and the superfluous paraffine carefully removed. 
Tlic vessel is soaked with water for a few days, flushed with 
warm water, not above 122* F. (40° R.), then cold water, after 
which it may be used. 

Charles Buehlcr, in an address delivered on April 3, 1896^ 
before the Brewmasters' Association of Pittsburg, pointed out 
the advantages of paraffining. He claimed that a paraffined vat 
is easier to keep clean and keeps longer than a varnished one. 
*'If, for instance, wc use one gallon of varnish for coating a 
fermenting vat, its cost amounts to about $3. while 10 pounds of 
paraffine at 8 cents a pound would be necessary for the acoom* 
plishment of the same purpose, a saving of $2.20 for each 
"a/." ^American Brewers' Review. i%9f7»^- 1^-^ 



pa III i|.iimn 

T!(ttAtlWWT AND raOTECTION OF SURFACES. 859 

One of the causes why paraffining docs not gain popularity 
with the brewers may be due to the appearance of the surface 
of paraffined vessels, which feels slippery and is of an unsightly 
gray color. These are signs of uncleanliness in varnished ves- 
sels, but^ in case of paraffined vessels, do not indicate anything 
of that kind. 

In case of paraffined vessels, as well* as in varnished, the 
workmen cleaning them ought to be supplied with rubber boots 
in order to keep the film of paraffine on the inner surface intact. 

VARNISHING AND STAINING IRON VESSELS. 

It is an iron-clad rule that no surface in the brewery that 
comes in contact with wort or beer should be painted with a 
linseed oil and pigment paint. Vessels which are to hold those 
liquids are, therefore, either coated with a gum dissolved in a 
volatile solvent, or stained with a substance that forms an inert 
combination with the iron of iron vessels, if such are used. 

Iron brew house vessels, such as the rice tub, mash tub, hop 
jack, surface cooler, beer tanks, also the iron part of Baudelot 
cooler and cooler pan, can be varnished v^ith a shellac iron 
varnish ; but as these vessels are used ddly and their cleaning 
necessitates daily scrubbing and brushing, such varnished coat- 
ings must necessarily be frequently renewed, and varnishing is, 
therefore, impracticable. The method for protecting the sur- 
faces of these iron vessels that has given the best results is to 
stain them with tannic acid, the combination being tannate of 
iron, a black, closely-adhering film, inert to wort and of great 
resistance to frictional cleaning. 

The cheapest manner of obtaining this coating or stain is to 
make, in a new brewing outfit, a blind brew with a boiling de- 
coction of about two pounds of hops (old, worthless hops) to the 
barrel of water, allowing this hot decoction to remain in cnch 
vessel for at least an hour. It goes without saying that these 
vessels should be first thoroughly cleaned with a steel brush and 
soda solution in order to remove any iron scale, rust, grease, etc. 

Instead of a decoction of hops, a hot solution of commercial 
tannic acid will answer, but this is a more expensive method. 

Qjld-water tanks can be varnished with iron varnUK, -^.V 
though this is not absolutely necessary \i \\vej ^x^ -aN^^i-a.-^^ V^-^*^ 
fijjed \^hh water. 






86o TSBATMENT AND PSOTBCnON OF SURFACES. 

Hot water tanks cannot well be Tarnished, as the boiling water 
has a destructive effect npoo the varnish. 

PITCraNG. 

The covering of surfaces #ith pitch has been treated under 
"Outfit of a Brewery" page 6i& (See also '^tch'* under 
"brewing Materials.")^ 

PAINTINa 

By painting is understood the covering of surfaces for pro- 
tective as well as for ornamental purposes. 

Paint differs from varnish in the fact that it consists of non- 
volatile linseed oil, in which some desired body or pigment has 
been suspended, while varnish consists of a volatile liquid, in 
which some gum or combination of gums is dissolved. When 
varnish dries the solvent evaporates and leaves the gums in a 
thin coating upon the surface. The drying of paint is caused 
by the oxidation of the linseed oil, by iiyhich it is transformed 
from a liquid into a thin, tough, elastic skin, which readily resists 
the action of the weather and also moderate friction. 

Linseed oil varnishes consist of gums, etc., dissolved in lin- 
seed oil, and are really colorless paints. 

MATERIALS. 

Although the materials used in painting are of endless variety, 
the general basis for making them is linseed oil, while 
the pigments most commonly used are white and red lead, zinc 
white, oxide of iron, lampblack, yellow ochre and drying oil or 
driers. 

Linseed oil is pressed from flaxseed and is used either as raw 
or boiled oil. To produce boiled oil, the raw oil is heated in 
contact with oxidizing agents, such as litharge, peroxide of man- 
ganese, borate of manganese, etc., and then has the property 
of producing a paint that will oxidize or *'dry" more rapidly. 

Linseed oil is subjected to much adulteration with mineral 
oils and other non-drying oils, which greatly impair or render it 
worthless. 

Turpentine, popularly called "turps," is a volatile liquid ob- 
tained from the distillation of the sap of pine wood. Turpen- 
tine is also adulterated, generally with heavier products o{ 
petroleum distillation. Turpentine also possesses drying qual-, 
/ties, but to a much less degree vVvaxv Vvtvs^t^ ^^. 



TREATMENT AND PROTECTION OF SURFACES. 86 1 

Benzine is a product of the distillation of petroleum, and, as 
it evaporates completely, serves only to dilute the paint to 
which it is added. 

Both turpentine and benzine are of practically no value except 
to dilute the paint, thereby lessening the amount of linseed 
oil and hastening the drying of the paint. They also give the 
paint a greater covering power, thus requiring a less number of 
coats, as by their removal by evaporation the amount of color 
or pigment is proportionally increased, and, in paint used upon 
wood for the first coat, they cause the paint to adhere better, as 
the diluted oil will sink deeper into the pores of the wood. 

White lead is the corrosion product of metallic lead. It con- 
sists of a variable proportion of carbonate and hydroxide of lead 
with traces of moisture. 

White lead comes into the market ground in linseed oil, and 
there is probably no constituent of paint that is more subject 
to adulteration. The substance generally used for this pur- 
pose is barium sulphate, or barytes, or "Mane fix," a cheap min- 
eral that possesses the same color and almost the same weight, 
but is vastly inferior in covering power. 

White lead, when used as a white paint, has the drawback 
Ihat when subjected to sulphurous vapors, always more or less 
present in localities where soft coal is used, it soon becomes 
discolored or darkens. It also, in combination with linseed oil, 
soon loses its whiteness, turning yellowish in a short time. 

Red lead, or oxide of lead, is similar in properties to uhite 
lead. It has found extended application for painting iron ves- 
sels, beams and structural ironwork generally. 

Zinc white, or zinc oxide, made by the burning or oxidation 
of metallic zinc, has, in recent years, found considerable appli- 
cation in painting, especially as a white paint, since it is not 
affected by sulphur, and maintains its whiteness much longer 
than white lead. Zinc white is not nearly so poisonous as white 
lead, and is considered by some to possess a greater covering 
power and a greater carrying capacity for linseed oil. 

Oxide of iron has found extended use for painting 
ironwork, the same as red lead. It is cheap in price, has a good 
covering power and is not influenced by atmos^VvRxv:. ^^^^^vNA^'Wb- 

Lampblack, or "soot," is too wcW kno^iv lo x^^vt^ e^st'^'^^X^- 
t/on. It Is the color basis of most YA^cV. ^^vtVt^ ox Vox essce*.^^ 



I 



1 



I 



868 TREATMENT AMD PfUnVCTION OP SURFACES. 

tog the shade off light ones; It comes into the market groand 
in oil, as it is difficult to mix it with oil on account of its float- 
ing, "greasy" properties. 

Yeiiaw ochr€ is an impure oxide of iron, and, on account 
of its covering ponver and chei^mess, is used as a first coat or 
priming. 

Other pigments are principally umber,, chrome compounds, Ver- 
million, verdigrris, Prussian hlue and ultramarine. 

Driers. In order to hasten the drying or oxidizing property 
of paint, driers are added. These consist mostly of linseed oil 
boiled with, or to which has been added, such substances as 
dioxide or borate of manganese, litharge and sugar of lead. The 
addition of driers to paint is beneficial only in moderate amounts, 
and it does not follow that the more drier added, the faster the 
paint will dry; on the contraiy, an excess retards drying. 

Japan driers are practicalfy the same as the above with the 
addition of shellac or other gums to give a body. 

Black Japan is not a drier, but a solution of asphaltum in lin- 
seed oil varnish and is used for painting iron. 

Driers should not be added to paints that dry readily with- 
out them, nor when painting surfaces thai can be given sufficient 
time to dry. They should not be used in finishing or last coats 
of a light shade paint. They should be added to paint shortly 
before it is used. 

MIXING PAINTS. 

The belief that most of the ready-niixe<l paints upon the mar- 
ket are more or less adulterated has been greatly encouraged 
or even started by painters who. by mixing the paints them- 
selves, derive an extra profit. There is no doubt that the raw 
materials, linseed oil, \^hite lead, etc.. arc also adulterated to a 
very large extent, so that there is really little gained by this 
special mixing. 

The whole secret in obtaining a good paint is the payment 
of the price asked for them. Mixed paints are sold all the way 
from 75 cents to $2.00 a gallon for ordinary kinds, and up to 
$4.00 per gallon for paints for special purposes, such as for 
brewery use. These figures speak for themselves. 

}t is therefore advisable to buy a paint from a reliable manu- 
facturer and to use only ihe V\\gVvts\. ^T;iv.Wty, ■^u\ce, considering 
'he greater covering povfcr, vV\c s'^QaA.^T <iM\viV\\\vs. "Ow. ^\ssiS^ 



TREATMENT AND PROTECTION OF SURFACES. 863 

proportionate cost of material to that of applying the paint, and 
lastly, the anno3rance and disturbance of a painting operation, it 
is evident that the highest grade of paint cannot be too costly. 

Ready-mixed paints are now sold for almost every purpose, so 
that the brewer need not fear obtaining an unsuitable paint. 
These paints are made for brickwork, ice machine condensers, 
refrigerating pipes, inside and outside wood and metal work, 
floor paint, etc., all compounded to give the best service for the 
purpose intended. 

PREPARING THE SURl^ACES TO BE PAINTED. 

The proper mixing of the paint ingredients and the applica- 
tion of paints to different surfaces is a subject concerning which 
there is such a variety and conflict of opinions, that only the es- 
sential and princijpal directions, such as have been generally ac- 
cepted by painters, are given. 

Preparation of the Surface. — This depends upon the nature of 
the material to be painted. The two main points, however, to be 
observed are, freedom from grease or such foreign substances 
as will prevent the paint from adhering to the surface, and the 
removal of loose particles of the old coat of paint that, if cov- 
ered by the new paint, can fall or drop off and leave the sur- 
face exposed in places. 

Grease can readily be removed from old paint by scrubbing 
with soap and alkalis, such as soda or potash lye, also by 
addition of ammonia, care being taken that these chemicals are 
rinsed off and the surface allowed to dry thoroughly. 

Loose parts can be removed by scraping with a blunt instru- 
ment, like a putty knife, or with a steel brush, the ridges thus 
left being sandpapered to smoothness. 

APPLYING THE PAINT. 

Woodwork, such as wainscoting partitions, should be allowed 
to dry out for several weeks before painting, so as to prevent 
the formation of cracks in the paint caused by the contraction 
of the drying wood. 

Before painting new wood, all rough places should be well 
sandpapered and all knots and resinous streaks should be first 
coated with shellac varnish and allowed to dry before paint is 
applied. Nail holes and other depressions in the vjc»^^ ^^cvc^^:^^ 
be filled out with putty, but this shouVd \i^ dotv^ q\^^ ^V^^^ "^^ 
Brst coat oi paint has become dry, V>ecau?»^ \i ^\>^v^^ wv^"^^ ^^ 



864 TREATMENT AND PSOTfiCTION OP SURFACB& 

unpatnted wood the putty will lOon become loose or drop out 
entirely. This also applies to window sash or wherever i^ass 
is held in a wooden frame with potty. 

Iron surfaces should be scraped or brushed with a sted brush 
to remove any scale or rust, and then further cleaned of grease, 
etc., before painting. The popular belief that, since iron rust or 
oxide of iron is a constituent of some iron paints, the rust on 
the surface of iron need not be first removed before painting, is 
erroneous. It has been found that this nist, if considerable 
in amount, even if covered with paint, causes a further corrosion 
of the iron underneath. 

Refrigerating Pipes and Brine Tanks, — ^The chief properties of 
a paint for pipes, etc, are adhesion, elasticity and conductivity. 
As the pipes are likely to be covered with heavy deposits of 
ice, the paint must adhere tightly, as thQr are subject to ex- 
treme temperatures, causing contraction and expansion, the paint 
must be elastic, and in order not to reduce their cooling ca- 
pacity the paint should not be made from non-conducting pig> 
ments. 

The first t¥ro properties can be obtained in a maximum degree 
by using a paint made from absolutely pure oil, applied over a 
thoroughly clean and smooth surface and giving sufficient time 
for drying, the coats being applied thin and well worked with the 
brush. The last property is obtained by using pigments of 
high heat conductivity. Lampblack, graphite, asbestos, etc., 
would be, therefore, poor pigments to use for this purpose, but, 
on the other hand, excellent ones for hot-water tanks, etc 

Tin roofs should not be painted until the surface of the tin 
is roughened or slightly corroded by rain or dew. 

Shingles on roofs should never be painted as this would only 
hasten their decay by any moisture that might find its way un- 
derneath. Shingles can be stained with special preservative pr^a- 
rations now on the market for that purpose. 

DIRECTIONS FOR PAINTING. 

If ready-ihixed paint is used the thick sediment found at the 
bottom should be thoroughly stirred up and this stirring con- 
tinued at regular intervals, while pajnting until all the paint 
has been used, as, otherw^ise, at the beginning the painting will 
be done with the oil and at the etvA yj\\.Vv tVv<i ^i^nent, makiiig 
^n uneven job. 



J 



TajMiVMIKlfT ANP PROTECTION OF SURFACIlS, 86] 



If the paint is boiight grouh^; i" ^^il — that is, in thick paste 
form — it should be thinned with hnsced oil as ahovc. 

The paint should be well spread — that is, rubbed with the 
brush in all directions until the surface appears dead or "dry," 
and the last stroke of the brush should be in the direction of 
the grain of the wood. This requires more labor, especially if 
the paint is thick or "rich" with linseed oil, than if the paint 
is thinned with turpentine or benzine, which makes the paint 
cover easily. 

Another mistake may be made in daubing too much paint on 
a surface and then evening it out to a point where the paint 
will no longer drip or run down in streaks. This latter method 
requires much more paint, and it gives the painter an incentive 
to do such work if he furnishes the paint outside of his con- 
tract for the labor. There is, therefore, no better way to judge 
the ability of a painter than by the number of brushes he wears 
out in doing a job. The only place where this thinning and 
flowing is allowable is when painting plastered walls, as it is 
there desired that the paint shall penetrate and color the plaster 
as far as possible, so that in the event of scratching or chipping 
the white plaster underneath will not show. 

The priming, or first coat, on new wood surfaces should also 
be thinned somewhat, but never the second and subsequent 
ones. 

Painting should not be done out of doors in damp or rainy 
weather, or when the thermometer registers below 50° F. No 
painting should be done in excessively hot or dusty weather. 

The usual method of painting new work includes three coats 
only, one priming coat and two finishing coats, and the better 
and thinner the paint is brushed out, the greater will be the 
durability and the better the appearance of the work. These 
three coats should be of practically the same shade, although 
some painters prefer each succeeding coat to be somewhat 
lighter or darker in shade, so that it can be readily seen when 
the surface is covered, and "skipping" or overlooking of parts 
of surface prevented. ^ 

Each coat should be thoroughly dry before another is ap- 
plied over it. Under ordinary conditions this drying requires 
from five days to a week. This precaution is not generally 
observed, however, the usual test beiu^ to q.oxv%\^^x '^rj^vcv^ ^-^^ 
the moment it no longer "rubs ofT' wV\ttv XowOci^^Vj ^X^^ V"^"^^- 
6S 



866 TREATMENT AND PROXISCTION OF SURFACES. 

If it is desired to punt a snrface that has previously received 
one or more coats of whitewash, this whitewash mnst he com* 
pletdy removed. This is done t^ wetting the surface with water, 
scraping with a hlunt chisel or putty Icnife, brushing with a 
stiff brush and allowing the surface to dry. 

OIL nNISHING OK VARNISHING. 

Many hard woods, such as oak, show a handsome grain sur- 
face and are therefore covered with a colorless, transparent 
coating, consisting of either boiled linseed oil or linseed oil var* 
nish, both applied hot. For interior work, such as for the out- 
side of fermenting, storage vats or chip casks, this treatment 
has proved of excellent service and is extensively used in 
breweries. It can be applied after the interior of the tubs have 
been varnished with shellac and the wx)od is still warm. The 
iron hoops 'are, after such treatment, usually painted with ordi- 
nary pigment paint. 

Caution. — When wooden boards, brewery tubs, beams, girders, 
etc., are still in a somewhat moist condition they should not 
be painted or varnished (>*ith shellac or other varnish) on all 
sides, as they would be subject to dry rot. This is especially 
the case if this moisture is due to the original sap of the wood. 

ENAMEL PAINTS. 

Enamel paints have of late found extended application in 
breweries. They consist generally of a mixture of white lead 
and zinc oxide — the white enamels of zinc oxide alone — mixed 
with varnish, usually a Dammar varnish, instead of linseed oil, as 
in ordinary paint. 

The advantage of these enamels is that they furnish a harder, 
more glossy surface, which are therefore more readily kept 
clean. They are, however, more difficult to apply than paint, on 
account of their viscous consistency, and are used generally as 
finishing coats. 

The usual method of applying them is to paint the surface 
with two coats of ordinary paint of the same shade, in the 
usual manner, stopping up holes, etc.. with putty of the same 
shade, and, when dry, finishing vi'iih two coats of cnaniel paint. 
Over surfaces already painted, one coat of primary paint may 
often be found sufficient. 



TREATMENT AND PROTECTION OF SURFACES. 86/ 

CARE OF BRUSHES. 

When painting or varnishing is completed the brushes should 
be washed with turpentine or benzine. When the painting oper- 
ation is interrupted for several days in order to allow a coat to 
dry, the paint brushes can be kept soft and ready for use if 
suspended by their handles in water, but should not be allowed 
to rest upon their bristles. Before using again they should 
be thoroughly brushed over a clean board. 

This treatment does not apply to varnish brushes, as they 
will, even if brushed out as above, cause the newly- varnished 
surface to be covered with minute blisters. Varnish brushes 
should be dipped into the same varnish used, contained in a can 
or small covered receptacle. 

WHITEWASHING AND CALCIMINING. 

Where it is not desired to use paint on account of the cost, or 
where surfaces are more or less moist, a coating of whitewash 
or calcimine can be applied instead of paint. 

Whitewash, or milk of lime, is used when rough surfaces, such 
as brick walls, are to be covered. It is cheap, easily prepared 
and easily applied ; in fact, machines for whitewashing arc now 
on the market. These consist of a pump, a hose and a spraying 
nozzle. The whitewash is contained in a barrel or other vessel 
from which it is drawn by one stroke into the pump and by 
the other stroke forced through the hose and nozzle from 
which it is thrown in a fine spray against the surface. When 
covering broken or uneven surfaces, such as open joist ceil- 
ings, these machines cover in but a fraction of the time re 
quired to do so by brush, and furnish, a better-appearing job. 

A good, durable whitewash can be prepared as follows: 
Slake one-half bushel of freshly-burned lime with hot water in 
a covered box or receptacle, so as to keep in the steam, and 
add 7 pounds of ordinary salt, previously dissolved in hot water. 
Then add 5 gallons of hot water, stir well and pass the mixture 
through a sieve to remove the coarse particles. This white- 
wash should be applied while hot. The addition of salt is to 
bind the whitewash better when dry. 

Before applying whitewash the surfaces should be well scraped 
with a blunt chisel or putty knife to remove loose gartvd^"?* 
or scales of old whitewash coating. I^^hi \i\V^ '«?^^.^ ^"^xv \5!^ 
prepared by brushing with a Stiff biusVv \.o*xww3s^ 'sa.-cv^^ ^'^'^' 






868 TREATMENT AND PROTECTION OF SURFACES. 

The former coating of whitewash on a surface can be more 
thoroughly removed if it is well moistened with water. The 
scraping operation especially is greatly facilitated thereby. 

All surfaces in the brewery can be whitewashed except ceil- 
ings over open vessels, as there is danger of the whitewash 
scaling off and falling into the vessels. Such ceilings should 
be painted. 

Calcimining differs from whitewashing in that it fur- 
nishes a smoother surface, and is, on that account, usually em- 
ployed for covering hard-finished walls, especially when differ- 
ent tints or colors are desired for ornamental purposes. 

Calcimine differs from whitewash in that whiting (Spanish 
or Paris white) is used instead of slaked lime, with the further 
addition of glue to prevent rubbing off. 

If the surface is new it should first be "sized" with a solution 
of glue in water, so as to render the surface non-absorbent, a& 
otherwise the calcimine, if applied over a surface of uneven 
porosity, ^%ouId dry in patches of different shades of color. 
When mixing colors to calcimine it should be taken in con- 
sideration that the color, when dry on the surface, will be 
lighter in shade and more brilliant than it was when mixed in 
the pail. 

If a white color for calcimine or for whitewash is desired 
a very small amount of blue color, such as ultramarine l)lue, 
should be added, enough to give a very slight bluish shade to 
the mixtures while wet. This, if applied, will dry out a bril- 
liant white, the blue entirely disappearing unless too much of 
it was used. 

Hydraulic cement UKishcs have of late also come into use. 
These are nothing more than calcimine, to which a form of 
hydraulic or Portland cement has been added. These washes 
or coatings go by different names and require a special method 
of application, differing with each one. They have been found, 
as a general rule, to give excellent results, and, although higher 
in cost than self-prepared whitewash or calcimine, are to be 
recommended on account of their uniform composition and gjen- 
erally satisfactory results obtained. 

It should always be remembered that the cost of materials, 
be it paint, varnish, whitewash, etc., is always but a small item 
compared with the cost oi tVve \a\>oT vo ^'^^Vn vt and the annoy- 
ance if a poor job has resuUed. 



UTILIZATION OF THE BY-PRODUCTS 

OF THE BREWERY. 



The important by-products of the brewery and malt house are 
screenings, skimmings, malt sprouts, underdough, spent grains, 
spent hops, dregs ("Trub"), yeast, carbonic acid. 

SCREENINGS AND SKIMMINGS. 

If the screenings from the barley cleaners contain much dust, 
this is screened out, and the undersized, light and broken kernels, 
of which the screenings are composed, are sold as chicken or cat- 
tle feed, after being mixed with the floaters from the steep tank 
which arc either gathered by skimmers or carried from the steep 
tank by a current of steep water through an overflow pipe 
(see "Malt House Outfit") at the top of the tank into a tank 
provided with a perforated bottom. This wet grain is dried on 
perforated plates or in a regular kiln. 

MALT SPROUTS. 

Malt sprouts contain a very large amount of nutritive sub- 
stance, and may be considered a concentrated foodstuff for 
cattle. They are especially valuable as a feed for milch cows 
on acount of the large amount of easily assimilable nitrogenous 
substances. 

Thausing gives the following analysis of ten samples of 

sprouts : 

Max. Min. Aver. 

Moisture 15.60 3.74 10.09 

Nitrogenous substances *. 28.94 20.21 24.18 

Fat ^ 3.0 1.43 2. 10 

Nitrogen free substances 46.0 37.06 42.11 

Wood fiber 18.50 10.61 14.33 

Ash 9.7 5.10 7.ig 

The sprouts should be mixed with other feed, Ukc Vv&>; , -^^ "C^^^ 
are too concentrated a food to be taken a\oT\e, ^tv^ '^^'^^ N^^c^'^'y^*^ 
they arc apt to be refused on account oi tVve VxVVex X.^^^^, ^^ ns'cwOcv 

869 



870 UTILIZATION OF BY-PRODUCTS. 

cattle, hoi»ever, gradually become accustomed. The value ol 
malt sprouts, as feed, is calculated, on the strength of the analysis, 
to be about five times as great as that of hay. They are not 
however, paid for to the full of their value. 

If they cannot be utilized for feeding purposes they may serve 
as an excellent fertilizer on account of their nitrogenooa ooa- 
ponents, and the ash whidi is almost entirely made np of {Aos- 
phoric acid and potash. 

The amouqt of malt sprouts is about 3 per cent of the weight 
of the malt produced. 

BREWERS' GRAINS. 

Brewers' grains are now recognized as a valuable cattle feed, 
and are especially appreciated in this respect in Germany, tc 
which country large amounts of the grains from American brew- 
eries find their way in a dried condition. 

Settegast (Futterungslehre, Breslau) says that brewers' g^rains 
take the first place among the feed b>'-products of agricultural 
industries, considering their wholesoniencss. especially in the 
case of cattle and swine. They affect to a high degree the fio^ 
of milk, on which account they deserve preference for feeding 
milch stock, and one need not hesitate to cover as much as hall 
of the feed demand by brewers' grains. 

In a report of the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Sta- 
tion, 1893. relating the results of feeding experiments with horses 
E. B. and Louis A. Voorhees state that "by actual trial a pound 
of dried brewers* grains was shown to be quite as useful as i 
pound of oats in a ration for workhorses. A comparison of th< 
composition of the feeds indicates that the reason for this resull 
lies in the fact that the dried brewers* grains furnish more of th< 
valuable digestible nutrients than the oats. . . . The sub- 
stitution of dried brewers' grains for oats resulted not only in a 
maintenance of the weight of the animals under equivalent work 
but in a saving of 4.9 cents per day per horse, or 25 per cent oi 
the cost of the ration." Dried brewers' grains, they say, at $2^ 
a ton would be as cheap a feed as oats at 36 cents a bushel. 

Such opinions leave no room for doubt as to the value oi 
brewers' grains, and $10 a ton for the dried product seems tc 
cover only about one-half their intrinsic value. 

The brewers* grains as tV\ev ait d\scVv3.r^ed from the mash-tun 
are also fit food for catl\e \tv V\ve wtV coTves:\V\oTv Vcv HtVveei >S»s 



UTILIZATION OF BV-PRODUtTTS. 87 I 

coDtain from 75 to 81 per cent of water. On account of this 
high percentage of moisture they are liable to feniicTilaiioii ami 
putrefaction, in which slate they are no longer available for 
feeding purposes. They cannot be kept for any length of lime in 
this condition, and experiments at ensilage, that is, storing llx'in 
packed away in bulk, mixed with some saU, have not proven suc- 
cessful, as they have been known lo sour quite frequently. 

It pressed they will keep somewhat longer in ensilage, /i^s- 
periments made as between the nutritive value of wet and dried 
grains have shown that ihe digestibility is but slightly in\[iairLil 
by the drying process, and little differences in milk flow will fol- 
low the substitution of the dried grains fur the wet. 

Dried grains at $15 a ton are equivalent lo moist grains at 
from 10 to II cents per bushel. One pound of dried grains con- 
tains on an average as nuich nutriment as four pounds of moist 

HESVI.TS WITH CR.MNS IIRIKHS. 

Drying grains is now done regidarly in some of our largest 
brewing ]i!ams, and the following information can be given 
from tesis made and figures ohtaizied from n grains drying vx- 

A machine with a capacity of 1,500 bushels dry mash per day, 
floor space 5 feet 2 inches wide by 14 feet high by 22 feel 8 inches 
Inng. price S3„';oo. Power lo run. 8 horseiwiwer, took one-quarter 
to onc-lhird pounds of coal to produce one pmind dry graini 
ciHitaining 6 per cent moisture, using new steam made for the 
purpose specially. Where exhaust steam from a large plant is 
used this expense is considerably reduced; one man can attend 
to three machines when doing nothing else. 

Steam pressure in upper drums. 10 pounds exhaust steam, or 
10 pounds live steam reduced. 

In lower drums, full boiler pressure in stirrers, upper stirrers 
40 revolutions, lower stirrers JO revolution.s. 

One pound dry grains — about four and one-half pounds wet. 
on an average. 

One pound dry grains — about four poimds dry mash (ma- 
terial). 

In large plants using this dryer the following was found: 

One brewery dries wet grains from ;0.OOO poundi wvi=.'^ ^ i^ 
hours regularly. 

Another brewery on a trial run divtd nJ&» V^^^"'^*'i vlvt.-^ 



872 UTILIZATION OF BY-PRODUCTS. 

nine hours, bat this aniomit is not advisable for regular opera- 
tion. Power, 8 to 10 horsepowier to run %ben properly fed, but 
there should be at least a 15-horsepo^er cnpaLcity of engine, as it 
has happened that a man filled the machine too full, and it then 
would require increased power. 

A third brewery dries grains from 15,500 lbs. mash in 7% 
hours, using power and steam to the value of $2 for that 
amount. This is figured on a basis of a cost of 10 cents per 1,000 
pounds of water evaporated. These 15,500 pounds of mash give 
3,800 pounds dry grains. Power to run machine about nine horse- 
power. They use 13 horsepower, but this includes power to run 
the blower for the dry grains. The dividing price for wet grains is 
$1.50 per ton. When the market is higher they sell grains wet, 
if lower they run the machines. 

At a fourth brewery a test was made on an eight-hour run, with 
steam at 9% cents per 1,000 pounds water evaporated. 

Steam used in drying, 5,950 pounds $ -47 

Steam used in power, 3,295 pounds 26 

Labor, eight hours 1.17 

$1.90 

It thus cost $1.90 to produce 4,000 pounds of dry grains. In 
this plant they used 13% indicated horsepower to operate. This 
included povrer necessary to convey the wet grains across an 
alley to the dryer, and operate a machine for packing the dry 
grains in sacks. The machine alone used 9 to 10 horsepower. 

Brewery No. i dries wet grains from 2,^;^^^ pounds dry mash 
(material) per hour. 

Brewery No. 2 dries wet grains from 2,755 pounds dry mash 
(material) per hour. (Crowding machine.) 

Brewery No. 3 dries wet grains from 2,214 pounds dry mash 
(material) per hour. 

Brewery No. 4 produces 500 bushels dry grains = about 2.000 
pounds dry mash (material). 

Wet grains weigh 60 to 65 pounds per bushel, dry grains 25 
to 30 pounds per bushel. It takes 45 minutes to run them through 
the machine. 

The higher percentage of protein or albuminoids contained in 
.-American grains, as compared with German, is due to the fact 
that practically all of the a\b\imet\ ol \3Lwtualted cereals, which 
are used in America to the atnoutvt oi ?Xjo>xV -i^ ^^ \^ \«k ^«clV 



imLTZATION OF BY-PRODUCTS. 873 

passes into the jfrains. whereas of the albumen containei' tit tnaU, 
about one-half is dissolved duririR mashing. 



■rarage ornOrian 



1 

li 
IP 

Ol.JTO.W 


1 
1 

MM 
3.13 


■n.Wi.tw 

4.50 0,07 


If 

i 


1 

i 
IS 



Minimum.. 



The aiiiouiil of wet grains obtained from a certain amount of 
material employed in a brew varies somewhat, but is on the av- 
erage about 16 per cent higher than the weight of the brewing 
materials. 

In two different breweries the following tests were made by 
VVahl and Henius: 

Brewery I. Brewery II 

Materials used— cleaned malt 6,200 7,638 

MslcriaU used — grits 6,200 7.?oo 

Total materials 12,400 i5-ij8 

Wet grains 



Moisture in grains 

Commercial dry grains (wiih 6 per 

cent moisture) 

100 lbs. muterial gave, dry grains. .. 



26.7* 

8t.2< 



78.(it 



874 



UTILIZATION OF BY-PRODUCTS. 



The foUowtiig taUe gives the amounts of wet grains actually 

obtained from the corresponding amounts of brewing material 

and the increase in per cent : 

Percentage showing 
increase of weight 
Pounds of material Pounds of wet grains of grains over 



used in breweries, received of brevreries. 




;i>345 
)S 

440365 

573.675 
465,510 

397,990 

497,795 
531,420 

524,440 
492,090 
458,025 
536,600 
488,425 
480,770 
528,725 



642,600 

556,550 

553.170 

480.090 

020,960. 

546,^60 

476.730 

603,510 

610,760 

607.450 

598,130 

520,880 

629,880 

566,150 

565,660 

617.630 



material. 

16.55 
13-71 
13.16 

ao9 
9.81 

17.39 
19.80 
21.24 

14.1 
ii.« 

21.55 
13.72 
17.38 
1590 
17.66 
16.82 



1585 



Total. . 7,945.970 9.205,610 

♦Average increase per cent. 

In another test made the amount of dried grains obtained from 
4,400 pounds of grits and 4400 pounds of malt was 2,017 pounds 
of dried grains with 5.92 per cent moisture, or about 23 per cent 
of dried grains. (See G. Thevenot, Drying of Brewers' 
Grains, American Brewers* Revie^\, IX, page i.) 

UNDERDOUGH. 

After removing the grains, the underdough should be taken out 

as soon as the mash-tun is properly cooled, and mixed with the 

grains. 

DREGS C'TRUB OR SEDIMENT'*.). 

The substance remaining in the sediment bags contains a large 
quantity of protein. Its proper place after draining the wort from 
the dregs ("Trub") is in the grains box. It should preferably be 
thrown into the mash-tun before the grains ar* removed, so as 
to insure proper mixing. 

SPENT HOPS. 

There seems to be no value attached to spent hops, properly 
sparged. They contain some nnu\etvx s\\\isv^ivct'a,\MX^<iV\3Ev^>affl^-- 



UTILIZATION OF BY-PRODUCTS. 875 

dent qnantities to warrant drying tlicni. Cattle do not take kindly 
to them on account of their bitter taste They have been nsed 
with good results, after drying, for liorse -bedding, and sn-iii to 
be preferred by the animals to straw. If not «?ed otherwise iliey 
should be disposed of under the boiler 3S quickly as possible. 

UTILIZATION OF WASTE YEAST. 

Considering that yeast during ihe process of fcrmcnlation. 
while growing in the wort, takes nil such valuable iiigrodieiUs 
from the wort as phosphates of potash and other ininiTal .sub- 
stances, and the amides and ptploiics of the wurt, wilh which it 
sustains "l^elf and builds up the brdj' of its progeny, it is rather 
strange that a .substance coulaining such valuable ingredients 
should have been cillowcd to run lo waste so long. Tiic crop nf 
yeast that is relumed 10 the brewer during and after the principal 
fermentation is nuicli larger than the ipiaiitity which is added 10 
the wort in (he first instance io start fermentation. Allowing for 
variations due 10 favorable or unfavorable condiliona of growlh. ii 
may be assumed that the nuantity of yeast which is allowed to 
run lo waste in the brewery will reach, generally speaking, from 
one to two ]>ounds per barrel of beer brewed. 

WUh a view of recovering the many valnable substances that 
the via--i contains and m.iking them serviceable for practical U'es, 
R. Walil and M, HcniiK of ChicaRo. during ihc last (in ycirs. 
jointly coiiducicd a numlicr i.f experinunis which culminated in 
iht successful tsiracticm of the yeast, ridding it of those foreign 
substances which impart to Ihc cMraol a had flavor or o(licrwis<> 
deleriomte the prodnct. The process consists in washing the 
yeast wilh wuler. heating the cleaned yeast, rupturing the mem- 
branes, and bringing into solution the valu.ible mineral and albu- 
minoid substances of which the protoplasm of the yeast is mainlv 
built up, separating the membranes from the soluble parts by 
fillration, decantation or otherwise, and condensing the extract 
to a syrupy or solid form. 

Analyses of this extract show thai it contains essentially the 
same substances that are found in meat extract. 

Besides serving as a tonic in the place of extract of beef, the txcv, 
vegetable extract from yeast can be employed with good results in 
the brewery for nourishing ytasl, as it contains the very products 
that the yeast requires for food, since it U t^wft^w-i. lAxVt'-A'sMi^- 
cal albiintinoids and mineral swbslanct^ wVvvcV \.V\t -jti^^V wwv=™s.f 



f/ 



876 UTILIZATION OF BY-PRODUCTS. 

This new yeast product (patented Jnne 4, 1895) can be easily 
evaporated to a pofectly dry state, in which it is an easily pow- 
dered, lustrous mass of a light brown color. This mass readily 
dissolves in hot water, leaving it perfectly clear, and the solid 
products as well as the hot aqueous solution have the odor and 
taste of a freshly prepared extract of meat. 

Following is a comparative statement of analyses of the re- 
spective substances: 

Liebig's Armour Extract 

Ex. of Beef. Ex. of Beef, of Yeast. 

Moisture 15.26 15.97 IS.32 

Mineral substances 23.51 29.36 25.77 

Of which phosphoric acid and 

potash (72.5^) (52^) (65^) 

Albnmoses 2.01 1.75 S5 

Peptones 8.06 5.13 15.0 

Meat bases 29.32 41.12 21.3 

A comparison of these analyses shows that yeast extract con- 
tains a higher quantity of the most valuable, readily digestible, 
and nutrient albumoses and peptones, on which the importance 
of the extracts depend, than even meat extracts. (See Allen, 
Commercial Organic Analysis, 1898, Vol. IV, page 310.) 

UTILIZATION OF C.\RBONIC ACID. 

The amount of carbonic acid escaping from the fermenting vats 
of a brewery during the principal fermentation is very large. 
For every pound of sugar that ferments one-half pound of car- 
bonic acid is formed. The wort or beer is able to retain only a 
small fraction of the carbonic acid generated, about three-quarters 
of a pound per barrel, the remainder escaping. Of the sugar con- 
tained in an ordinary wort about 7 per cent ferments, or about 
17% pounds per barrel,,. producing 8% pounds carbonic acid, 8 
pounds of which escape, or, for every 100 barrels of beer brewed 
there is a loss of 800 pounds of carbonic acid. 

Of late this carbonic acid has been successfully collected in 
some large brewery plants and is employed for charcifing the beer 
of the brewery in its final stages with carbonic acid, or. it is 
purified and compressed into drums and put on the market for 
charging beer and other beverages, displacing the liquid carbonic 
acid produced from other sources, tuxvmly marble dust and sul- 
phuric acid. If properly purifted \l cen;i\T\\^- <\e'^^TN^s ^\«5\^\^xv5:fc 



UTILIZATION OF IIY-I'KOOUCTS, > 

over carbonic acid from chemicals, and is readily di>:iiLiKiiislii 
from such by ihc mild, "cit'ati" ta^tu of the charRcd licvoi; 
whereas water charged with marble dii!>t. gas has a peculiar lla 
not relished by a sensitive palalc. 

In order to collect the gas the tcrmcntiiis vals are ]>ri)vii 
with hoods. The carbonic acid escapes through a kind 
parachute, and is conveyed by means of a pipe that conu! 
with all the hoods, to the piirilicr, where the gai h washed 
means of water and sulphuric acid, which remove all the arom 
ingredients like ethereal oils. It is then passed through a ^i 
tton of permanganate of potash and carhnnate of soda, 
remove all traces of acid, and then dried and compre^-^icl t< 
liquid, if desired. In most cases, however, the gas is wiihdr? 
from closed fermenters, washed and compressed. 



THE BOTTLING DEPARTMENT OF A 

MODERN BREWERY. 



There are few departments that have received less special 
attention by brewers than that concerned with the bottling^ of 
their product. Formerly this department was considered by 
most brewers, especially by those having smaller plants, as a 
necessary evil, and was often installed simply because the brew- 
er's competitor had done so, or because a few good customers 
had demanded bottle beer, rather than because there was any 
hope of making this department self-sustaining or a source of 
profit to the brewery. 

This condition has changed, as the demand for bottle beer 
in private families, hotels, railroad trains, and even in saloons 
is steadily on the increase, and a first-class bottling department 
is considered a necessity with many a modern brewery plant. 

When special attention was given this department it was found 
that the old shed used as a bottle shop, with its meager appli- 
ances, would no longer answer, and the deficit in the depart- 
ment due to breakage and loss of bottles and boxes, and the 
loss of time of the men by "soldiering" or otherwise (because 
it did not pay to employ a competent special foreman to keep 
track of them), could be avoided by improving and properly man- 
aging the department. In fact, there are to-day a considerable 
number of brewers who reckon on their bottle trade returns as 
no small portion of their yearly re\'enue. 

To accomplish this requires economical arrangement and the 
most improved appliances and machinery. 

REQUIREMENTS OF BOTTLE-SHOP MACHI.NERY. 

The reguirements of bottle-shop machinery are of the most 
rigid order. They must operate not only economically, but very 
^^oroughly. For instance, a soaking dev\ct \VvaX do«. x^ax. v»fiL 

87» 



BOTTLING DEPARTMENT. 87O 

a battle properly does not soak it at all ; that is, the boltle must 
be run through again, and the time retiurred in handling it dur- 
ing the first operation is time practically wasted. .\ detect 
becomes still more costly in the pasteurizing or steaming tank, 
for if it does rot furnish an even, gradual rise or fnll of tem- 
perature it is likely to cause breakage of bottles and loss of 
contents. What is still more detrimental is to not give an even 
temperature throughout the lank, so that som« bottles never 
reach the final pasteurizing temperatures. This may result In 
their spoiling afterward, while in the possession of the con- 
sumer, which may mean not only biss of time and material, but 
possibly loss of trade besides. Similar defects are liable tn 
occur at nearly every stage of the process, and will he detailed 
more fully under the separate descriptions of the machinery and 
devices employed at each individual step of the work. 



One of the first points to l>e considered is ibc general arrange- 
ment, which is as important in bottle sliops as in Ihc brew house 
and cellars. The arrangement sliould be such that there is abso- 
lutely no useless or double handling of any bottle or case, and 
benches or tmichines should be so placed in relation to each 
other that tliey form an unbroken line from the dirty returned 
bottle to the capped and lalieled bottle in the case for delivery. 

The bottles should first he placed in the soaking device (tank 
or wheel), from which the man should, when all labels, tin foil, 
ct''.. arc rtiuoved. place them directly on the rack at his side 
and between him and the bottle-cleaning machine. From here 
the man at llic machine takes them, runs them through the ma- 
chine and places the rack on a bench at the opposite side of the 
machine, where a boy takes out the bottles, examines them as 
to cleanliness and places them on the adjacent rack next to the 
man operating (he filling machine. This operator places the 
empty bottles in the machine with one hand and removes filled 
ones with Ihc other, placing them on a bench, where they 
are either closed and examined, if patent stopper bottles, or 
taken l>y the man who operates the stopper machine. When 
closed, they arc again placed on a bench, where they are like- 
wise cxaniined, clamped or wired, and put in a crate previous 
to going into the pasteurizing tank. Mxt ^^11% ^'wa.tft.t.^ '&«:4 
are JabeJed and capped with tin foW, etc. 



88o BOTTUNG DEPARTMENT. 

It is imporUnt alwmys to observe the same economy of hand- 
linf» each bottle going from hand to hand, and avoiding the 
laborious operation, frequently necessary in poorly-arranged 
plants, of stacking the bottles one by one on a truck and hanling 
or carrying them to the next machine or operator, where they 
are again unloaded and placed ready for use. 

It may be of importance to call attention to a circumstance 
occasionally met with and which applies to the operation of 
machinery of any kind. It will happen that a certain machine 
or appliance has been found fault with, or, in some instances, 
totally discarded, because it would not do the work claimed for 
it, while in other plants the same style of machine seemed 
to work to perfection and gave the best satisfaction. In such 
instances the fault can be usually located either in a mechanical 
defect in some minor part of the machine, such as in a valve 
or cock, etc., or, which is more often the case, in improper physical 
conditions in the operation of the machine, such as pressures 
or temperatures of water, air or steam. An example of this 
would be, for instance, if in bottle-washing machines using shot, 
the rinsing stream of water did not discharge with sufficient 
force to dislodge the shot, allowing it to clog the neck of the 
bottle and necessitating the shaking of each bottle for its re- 
inoval. or if, in back-pressure filling machines, there was too 
little difference between the initial and the back pressure, the 
beer would run too slowly, and in both instances make the ma- 
chine quite worthless from the point of view of economy. 
Neither of the defects mentioned would be due to the con- 
struction of the machine, but to the handling of it. Neverthe- 
less, the machine would in all probability get the blame for it 

BOTTLE SOAKING. 

The object of soaking bottles is either to dissolve the dirt, 
sediment, etc., contained in them, or to soften these sufficiently to 
be easily removed by the washing machine, and further to wet 
the labels to such an extent that they either drop off the bottles 
or are easily taken off afterward. 

The substances to be removed from beer bottles by soaking 
and washing usually consist of dried beer remnants, which in- 
variably contain countless numbers of wild yeasts and bacteria 
that have found their way into the bottles, and there multiply 
rapidly, the beer remnants iumishing xV«m \«>3ltvn:\\x\ Tisraanahr 
eat. 



BOTTLING DKPARTMENT. (S8l 

The soaking, then, becomes a most important part of the 
bottling process, as it may liappen that the spores formed by these 
wild yeasts, etc., are not completely removed during the soak- 
ing and washing, even though the bottles may appear clean. 

These spores possess much greater vitality and resisia?ice 
than their parent cells, and arc not always destroyed at the 
temperature to which beer is subjected during the pastcuri/a- 
tion process, hence they may survive tlie steaming process, and 
in this case cause fermentation, cloudiness, abnormal taste, etc. 

It also occasionally happens that bottles, especially patent- 
stopper bottles, find their way back in the bottle shop contain 
ing remnants of varnish, oil, chemicals, etc., in which case it is 
advisable to throw them away rather than to attempt td soak 
or clean them. 

In order to hasten the soaking or softening procos*:. soda 
or other alkalis are added to the water. This addition has 
the further action of softening or dissolving substances that 
would not be affected at all, or very slowly, by water alone, 
such as fats and oils and some of the albuminous substances. 

BOnXK-SOAKlNG T.VNKS. 

The most common bc^ttle-soaking device in use is the sriaking 
vat or tank, consisting of a square or rectangular bnard re- 
ceptacle, or sometimes of half of an old chip cask, in which 
the lx>ttles are simply submerged in a soda solution and left 
there for a certain length of time. This method, however, on 
account of the bottles being knocked abcnit and against each 
other a good deal while floating or sinking, causes considerable 
breakage, and a large proportion of the bottles sink before being 
completely tilled, retaining air, which, upon the bottles ^rttling 
on their sides, is unable to escape and forms an air bubble at 
their upper part, preventing the soaking solution taking cffeci 
at that place. 

To obviate this annoyance the bottles arc sometimes placed 
or set in the empty tank, neck up, and the soaking solution 
poured or run in on them. This, of course, prevents the forma- 
tion of any air bubbles, but requires considerably more labor and 
time in handling the bottles. Furthermore, it is ditficult to 
place a second tier of bottles upon the lower one without some 
intervening board or grating. 

Soakiii}^ Tanks icith Inclined Bottoms. — ^'CVn\s ^^•sv.nkV^'^ ^*^-n^ 
be practically overcome, however, b-y qowsVx\\0\\\% "^^ \i^>»NX'^'^ 

56 



SB2 BOTTLING DEPARTMENT. 

on an incliiK or slaul; ot, as is generally done, high at thQ 
center and sloping to ihe sides of the lank. In this conslnifr- 
lion Ihc tank can be filled with slanttng layers of bottles wrthJ 
oul any inten'cning partitions or supports. Care should, bo«r* 
ever, be taken to have each layer consist of bott'-s of (he laoH 
size only, as mixing together pints and quarts in the same laref' 
would soon disrupt the tinifomiily of the whole ariangeitieaL 
B; running the soaking solniioii on the liotlle; in this positioM 
there will be no likelihood of their not filling completely. 

Portable Soaking Tantt. — h portable soaking tank which pos- 
sesses novel features is now on Ihe market. It is similar ttf 
general shape lo ordinary tanks, but is mounted upon swi*^ 
castors, and in addition to a large outlet for the soaking soltH 
lion has a smaller one that can be so adjusled that the sollli' 
lion will escape no faster than ihe twttles are taken out. Ttw 
lop layer is thus always visible to the operator, and any brokea 
bottles can be handled with the proper caution, which is ndF 
always the case in other tanks, where the operator, to take oul 
the bottles, must plunge his hand below the surface, often at- 
countering broken glass and suffering serious cuts. The lank 
also has movable racks or supports placed in the bottom so 
that the bottles can be stacked in an inclined position, allowios 
each to be completely filled. 

The principal advantage, however, claimed for this soakiii( 
tank is its portable character, which enables a boy to move tbe 
tank, when filled with bottles and solution, from place to place 
quiic easily, whereby bottles at different points in the shop csn 
be gathered up in much less time than would be necessary lo 
' bring them to a stationary tank. A tank filled with unosnally 
dirty bottles requiring longer soaking can be moved aside and 
out of the way. or if it is desired ihe tank can be used as a 
stationary one. and can even find use as a truck for moving cas«S 

Compartment Soaking Tanks. — In another soaking device tbc 
tank is divided into compartments. This tank is supplied wilh 
tin-foil remover and washing machines, conveniently placed, alKt 
a bottle conveyor. The system is operated as follows: The bot- 
tles are placed in the compartments in the evening and allowed 
to soak all night. In the morning ihcy are taken from the tanks 
aad pUccti on the conveyor, by which they are carried to the 
operators, who stand at the washing XanV- "^^^S ^^* **■ ***■ 



BOTTLING DEPARTMICNT. SH^l 

ties from the conveyor and place ihcm on the wasliiiiR ma- 
chines (and when necessary on the lin-foil remover) and fin:i1ly 
deposit them on the rinsers. By this method considerable 
useless handling and carrying around of bottles is avoided. It 
furthermore offers a check on the workmen, as one glance al 
■ shows the foreman whether the bottles are being 
r taken off with the usnal rapidity. 



The strength of the solution Lest adapted for soaking hollies 
in the different styk-s of tanks Is one that contains alii.nt 5 
pounds of soda to the barrel of water, making tt approximately 
3 per cent strong. This strength is sufliciciit to soak the bottles 
thoroughly, and not so strong as to injure the hands of the 
worktnen. As quite a few bottlers are guided more or less by 
guess work in making up their soaking solutions, the following 
instrtictions will help make the proper solutions and keep them 
uniform in strength. As most soaking tanks are square or 
rectangular, to find the number oE barrels they contain, divide 
contents in cubic ft'ct. tb:it is, the length in feet X width in 
feet X depth in feet, by 4 (strictly, 4,144). This gives barrels, 
and muliiiiiitd by 5 gives the nHml)er of iwiunds of soda to 
be dissolved. The temperature of the soaking solution should 
be from 110° lo ijo" F. Since the introduction of soaking wheels 
and such devices where the bmtles are not handled while wet 
with the -solnlion, caustic mda has found use. being a Ptronger 
alkali, and the solmion used warmer (150' F.). 

Soaking wheels are gradually roniing more into use, as they 
do away with considerable of the labor connected with a soaking 
tank. They furthermore shorten the time necessary to soak a 
bottle, as at each revolution every bottle is filled and emptied 
of its contents of soaking solution. This flowing in and out of 
the liquid not only causes friction against the inner walls of 
ihc bottle, which in itself hastens the cleaning process, but 
allows a fresh quantity of strong solution to act on the bottle 
at e.tch revolution. In a soaking tank the bottles are at rest 
and the same vohimc of solution remains in the bottle during 
the whole soaking period. If the bottles stand upright, and con- 
lain a considerable crust of dried-up beer, which ottt-^. Vi.'j^ctA 
ill bottles returned from sbipmenls VV\b,\ \\a,Nt \«Ktv ■a'^'-'^ "^"^^ ' 



884 



BOTTLING DEPARTMENT. 



1 ■ 



I 



long time, the ccmipleCe soaking may possibly be retarded* since 
the soaking solution, acting npon this sediment, dissohres part 
of it and becomes weaker at the line of contact, and, th e re f ore, 
being specifically heavier, may form an inert layer and prevent 
the further action of the stronger solution above it 

Another time-saving feature of a soaking wheel is that the 
bottles can be left in the wheel as long as desired, enabiiag 
very dirty bottles to remain longer in the wheel without dday- 
ing those requiring only a shorter soaking. The latter gener- 
ally represent by far the larger part of the total number of 
bottles treated. 

Another advantage of soaking wheels is in the fact that 
the soaking solution can be made very much stronger, there being 
nothing about the wheel to be injured by it. and there is less 
occasion for the solution to affect the hands of the workmen, and 
in some the bottles are not handled from the time they are put in the 
wheel, until discharged in pure water. Furthermore, the amount 
of soaking solution in the tank being so much larger in 
proportion to the amount in the bottles, it can be used much 
longer before needing replacing or strengthening, and can be 
used again and again until it becomes weak, thus saving soda 
and time of making up solution. Bottles in very bad condition 
may be left in the wheel while others are being charged and 
uncharged, thus saving time. 

Soaking wheels have a large daily capacity and are specially 
suitable for use in larger bottling plants. 

Gravity Soaking Wheel. — A soaking wheel of simple and 
inexpensive construction now on the market consists of an iron 
wheel hung in a wooden tank containing the soaking solution. 
The bottles arc placed on the wheel in iron pockets or holders 
with their mouths standing outward. By properly placing the 
bottles on one side and taking them oflf at the other side, thus 
overbalancing one side of the wheel, it revolves without power. 
The pockets arc so placed that the bottles enter the soaking 
solution with their nec,ks upward, thus filling, while they leave it 
in the reversed position and empty their contents automatically. 
The pockets are adjustable, so that different sizes and shapes 
of bottles can be inserted. 

Compartment Soaking IVhecl. — Another style of soaking 

ivbcc} contains compartments into which the bottles are placed 

ly/jj/c being soaked. This w\icc\ \\\ cotv?>vt\3iOa^w consists o^ 



BOTTLING DEPARTMENT. 88 S 

a wheel-shaped device, having pockets at its outer circumference. 
It is mounted on the top rim of a wooden tank, containing soda 
solution, thus causing the lower half of the wheel to run through 
the solution. The pockets are inclined so that the bottles may 
be put in while the wheel is in motion, and that they will 
automatically discharge themselves at the proper time. A sheet 
iron apron prevents the discharge from taking place on the 
downward movement of the pockets. At the back of the 'pockets 
are bars that hold the bottles in place while permitting them 
to fill and empty freely. The bottles alternately fill and empty 
during each revolution of the wheel, causing a vigorous cleans- 
ing action. 

Steel Plate Soaking Device. — Another soaking .device, similar 
in operation to the wheel, consists of a series of perforated steel 
plates, connected by two endless chains, the whole running over 
two pulleys or wheels placed at either end of a tank. The bot- 
tles arc inserted into the holes in the plates, where they are 
clamped and carried through the solution. 

Rod Soaking Device. — In another construction of soaking de- 
vice the l)ottlcs arc attached to rods and moved by the two end- 
less chains supporting these rods through a soaking solution. 
Coming out at the other end the bottles arc removed, the speed 
of the chain being such that the bottles are submerged for the 
desired soaking perinH. \n ])()ttles need he carried hack through 
the air, thereby saving time. There are two cfMiipartments - 
a large one for soaking and a smaller (»iie for <lrainiiig and re- 
moving labels. 

SOAKING DKVICK .\C(KSSOKIKS. 

r<)r the purpose nf removing the old tin foil from hotlles. as 
well as for extracting any corks contained in them, there shinild 
be attached to every soaking device an ai)paratus for that pur- 
pose. It should be conveniently placed for use before the bottles 
are soalced, and not afterward, as is quite often the practice. 

Tin-foil Removers. — As most of the bottles that were capped 
with tin foil are returned lo the bottle shop with the greater 
part of their foil still adhering to them, it is advisable to re- 
move the same before recapping, as otherwise the capping with 
new foil may not adhere properly, or, if so. the repeated layers 
may present an unfinished or rough appearance. Avs scn^vw^V**^"^ 
practically no effect on this old tin-ioW. \iec:;i\3LSt \\\<i 'r.o^w.sf^ ^"^^^^ 
tjon cannot penetrate through the Tt\e\;i\ Vo tv\o\s\v;w >an^ \>^ 



886 BOTTLING DEPARTMENT. 

ondeniealh, it must be removed or scraped oft bf i 
chanical means. 

The appliance most generally ustd for this purpose ( 
of a rotary shaft, aroimd which arc aiiached i-ighi fIcxiUc a 
cAch holding at its outer end a serrated wheel wtih cutter teeth 
On inserting a bottle between these wheels their teeth cut oi 
KCrape a furrow throuKJi the tin foil, and. by moving the bo(lI< 
inwar^ and outward, it requires but an instant 10 remove thi 
foil completely. The purpose of the teeth in these wheds is t< 
remove the foil in chips or in fine spiral ribbons so that the] 
will be dropped or whirled out, as, if the foil were scrt^ft 
ofl in the form of a sheet, it would ball together and soon di>| 
the machine. Surrounding these wheels is attached a bsdw 
of wire gauze for the purpose of preventing any chips froir 
being thrown about or in the face of the operator, and to for 
nisJi a means for collecting the waste, wbich is quite a profit 
able recovery, as it is salable, at 8 lo lo cents per pound, and 
about 6o per cent of the amount of foil originally used is t* 
covered by the use of this apparatus. 

Cork Exlraclors, — As quite a few bottles arc relumed ««■ 
taining a cork or a piece of it. which must be removed befon 
a<ain filling the bottles and preferably before soaking, aa theu 
presence is an annoyance during that pari of the process, t 
rapid-action cork extractor becomes an appliance of consider 
able economy. One which has found its way into general favoi 
consists of a tube containing several spring wire claw-hooks 
which, by one motion of a handle, arc raised into the inv«ne< 
bottle placed -over them, where they spread, surround and grasi 
the cork. and. by another motion of the handle, are lowered 
thereby extracting the cork, irrespective of its shape or si^re. 

WASHING AND RINSING. 

The next manipulaticD after soaking that is necessarr-in Orde 
to prepare the bottles for filling with the brewers' product i: 
that of washing and rinsing. 

Although this part of the process is often hurried, it beinf 
considered by some bolllcrs nccessitry only (o rinse the adhering 



portant. as m some mstances the washing machine i 
perform the work oi the soa\ui\i UtOk. \\ Wwcna i 
that hollies contain substances Vha^ mc wA two^Vii 



BOTTLING DEPARTMENT. 88/ 

or are entirely unaffected in the soaking solution. It then be- 
comes the duty of the bottle-washing machine to remove these 
substances by friction. 

The modem designs of bottle-washing machines are divided 
into two classes, viz. those employing revolving brushes and 
those using shot as a means of applying frictional cleansing 
action to the interior surfaces of the bottle. 

Brash Machines are those in which the washing is performed 
by the revolving and consequent centrifugal spreading of brushes 
of different shapes, or of the sections of a split rubber tube, or 
rod, or other shape differing with each style of machine. Brush 
machines have the advantage of rapid manipulation, and are of 
special service in washing bottles containing only a small amount 
of foreign matter to be removed, or such as contain it in a soft 
or jelly-like condition. 

Shotting Machines are those employing shot or sharp-edged 
small pieces of other metals or porcelain for the purpose of 
applying the friction in the bottle. In these machines the bot- 
tles are usually shaken or jerked in a forward and backward 
motion so that the shot is hurled forward and backward in a 
line similar to a figure oo. The bottle is also partly revolved 
after each stroke of the machine to make the shot strike a new 
portion of the interior surface of the bottle at the next stroke. 
Shot machines have been found to be especially effective where 
the foreign matter to be removed consists of a hard or tightly- 
adhering coating in the bottle, which would be removed with 
difilculty. if at all, by a brush machine. 

Shot machines, however, have a disadvantage in the fact that 
the necks of the bottles are- not subjected to the same vigorous 
cleansing action of the shot as received by the body of the 
bottle. This is due to the fact that the shot, when hurled toward 
the neck of the bottle, usually strikes the shoulder and rebounds, 
falling into the neck with greatly diminished force. This dimin- 
ished efficiency is also to some degree the drawback in brush 
machines employing rubber brushes where the full frictional 
action is not obtained until the rubbers have spread, which they 
do only partially while in the neck of the bottle. In using 
bristle brushes, however, with these machines the neck receives the 
sanu, or even a more thorough, scouring than the remainder c^^ 
the bottle, as the bristles are comptcsst^ V5\v\^ •^^'5»^vcs% •C^ev^.^>&.^ 
the neck, and, as the bristles depend, w^otv vV^\x ^^^ ^^"^xn*^ 



888 BOTTLING DEPARTMENT. 

ms much as upon centrifugal force for spreading, this oom- 
pression while in the neck of the bottle only tends to add to 
their eflBciency. 

A bottle- washing machine should be judged, however, prin- 
cipally by its efficiency in cleansing the body and bottom crf< 
the bottle, as it is here, especially on the latter, that the most 
stubborn crust of foreign matter is usually found, the necks 
being in most instances quite easily cleaned. 

Rinsing Machines are devices for the purpose of finally re- 
moving, by means of a spray or jet of clean water, such loosened 
matter a$ may still adhere to the inner surface of the bottles 
after the water used in washing has been emptied out They 
are either separate devices, upon which the bottles are placed 
for rinsing after they are removed from the washing machine, 
or else are attached to, and operated with, the washing madiine 
automatically. 

SINGLE BOTTLE WASHING MACHINES. 

The ordinary style of single bottle washing machine is to- 
day the most universally used machine, being installed in the 
majority of bottle shops, even in those using the more modem 
multiple washers, finding ready use on account of its rapid and 
convenient manipulation. 

This machine consists of a hollow revolving shaft or spindle, 
to one end of which is attached a brush made of different sub- 
stances, such as bristles, rubber, etc. This brush is surrounded 
by a ferrule or housing which keeps it from spreading by cen- 
trifugal force while revolving, and also has the purpose of keep- 
ing the brush compressed, so that it will readily enter the mouth 
of the- bottle. This housing is movable forward and backward 
in the line of the spindle, and is supplied with a Hanged or bell- 
shaped lip. so that when the mouth of a bottle is pressed into 
the same, the housing recedes and the neck of the bottle occu- 
pies its former po>ition. I'pon further moving the bottle for- 
v.-ard, so that its body surrounds the brush, the latter is released 
from any compression and immediately spreads and rubs or 
scrapes the inside of every part of the bottle. At the time when 
the brush leaves the neck and enters the bottle, a stream of 
I water is automatically turned on by means of an ann or rod 

J conncctiuf; with a cock in the water supply. This water passes 

^ through the iiollow revolving sV\'aU. iiw\*iTu\^ the bottle in the 

form of a jtt or spray, and, by l\\c o^V^^^^v^ \\\v:>\Av:ycv \yv TcxonsTis% 



BOTTLING DEPARTMENT. 88g 

the bottle, the water is shut off so that none escapes except while 
the bottle is being washed. 

These machines are constructed to supply almost any demand 
that bottle shops of different capacities may make. They are 
built to operate either by foot, steam or water power, and made 
with one. two or four spindles to each machine, in the latter 
kind all being driven from one countershaft. 

Another style of this machine has lately come into use. This 
consists of two horizontal brush spindles, operating as altove 
described, the economical feature being in the machine having 
two bottle holders or carriages moveable forward and backward 
by a screw revolved by power. One man can, therefore, do dou- 
ble the work he could do on a single machine. He need not press 
the bottles against the brushes, as the revolving screw accom- 
plishes this motion, the operator's work being only to remove 
washed, and replace by unwashed, bottles. 

MULTIPLE BOTTLE- WASHING MACHINES. 

Multiple Brush Machine. — A popular style washes i6 bottles 
at once. The operation is as follows : The i6 bottles are placed 
in a rack constructed to hold them at regular distances apart, 
which, upon being placed on the machine, allows the mouth or 
lip of each bottle to rest in a corresponding cup-shaped depres- 
sion. A lever is now depressed, which acts upon a plate and 
presses or tightens the bottles, so that they are firmly hold in 
position while washed. By lowering another lever at the side 
of the machine. i6 revolving spindles and brushes are raised 
upward an<l into the hottlcs, and. by their centrifugal spreading, 
the bottles are scrubbed in the same maimer as described in llie 
frperation of the single brush horizontal washers. In fact, the 
operation of this machine is in principle very similar to that 
of the single-brush machines, the main difference beinj? in it> 
construction. 

The advantages of this multiple machine over the horizontal 
single-spindle machine are the following: The bottles are not 
held in the hands of the workman while the spindles are re- 
volving, hence, any bottle that may be broken during wash- 
ing is not likely to cause any cuts or other injury. Furthermore, 
as the bottles arc in a vertical position, the dirty rinsing watw v?. 
continuously running out, and the brv\sVves, ^s \\\t^ vc\c>n;v:i >^'^- 
wnrri or flownward. are always being s^uvV^"^^^ '^VCcv ^^*^^ '^'^'^ 



Sgo BOTTLING DEfAHTMENT. j^' 

cle&n water, whJcli. in bottles comaining sediments ottf^ip' 
linoiis or soap; naiure, greatly faciliiatcj cleaning. 

MtiltipU Shot Machines. — AnothM style of multiple machint^ 
using shot, washes 12 bottles, 6 in 1 reel, at one operation. TU 
machine consists of a shaft carrying at each end 6 pockets hj^ 
bailies, to which is given a roUty and loneiludinal motion, I 
ing the shot against all pans of the inner surfaces of the bottkl 

Another type of multiple machine using shot is similar i 
operation, but of much larger construction and capacity i 
washes t8 bottles at one time. The length of lime th 
are scoured is regulated by the foreman changing a 9 
and is not left to tbc boy operating the machine. Once set. t 
machine will continue to make the same nnmber of vibratia 
and revolutions till set again by the foreman. Wbe 
the bottles are automatically inverted and rinsed wil 
clean water to remove any particles of sedimeni and impttrity 
adhering to the bollles. The botlle crate holds 18 bottles, and 
after rinsing, the crale of cleaned bollles is replaced by a crale 
of dirty ones in a few seconds. The capacity of this washer is 
from 150 to 180 dozen bottles per hour. It will wash quarts, 
pints or half pints, and boltles with any and every kind of 
patent stoppers. 

The shot or slugs used in shotting machines are genetatly 
made of steel, and in shape resemble a double pyramid with 
bases togeiher. The sides of the shot are also curved inward, 
so as to present as many points or sharp, edges to the glass as 
possible, thus increasing the abrasive or scouring action of the 
shot and also lessening their tendency to stick 10 ihe wet interior 
surfaces of the bottles, or choke ihe moulh in falling out 

Small steel punehings. about I<t6 inch in diameter, are aba 
nsed and give satisfactory results. 



miNG MACHINES. 

Comparing the different styles of washing machines wtlh each 
oiher, it is seen that different types have advantages peoiliarly 
iheir own, which may be summed up as follows 1 

Brush machines are practically noiseless in their c^»eration. 

The lime of washing the bottles can be lengthened or shortened 

JO suit the condiiioiis of the bottles, and they require com- 

paralivcly little power, as the spindles only are rcvolv«d «ad 

not the Jieavier bottles. They, \iowwm, Ttnjawi Awsbw 



IIOTTr.TNG DKPARTMKNT. 8t)l 

newal of the brushes if llie mnchines are lo work to the bfst 
advantage. 

Shotting machines are more vigorous in iheir cleansing action 
upon hard resistant crnsts, Ihc sliol is cheap and remains in 
good condilion for a long lime. Shot machines, on accnimt of 
their unbalanced motion, require a good foundation and make 
considerable noise. This very noise, however, according to some 
bottle-shop foremen, gives a control of the whole Ihie of work, 
as the bottles are placed in ihe machine in crates or racks, and 
the machine once started iiperales autom.iticiilly until the neces 
sary turns are made, and then stops, when it is the aitend.inl's 
duty to remove the crate, pnt in another and at once start the 
machine. Slinuld the machine remiiin silent loo long, which can 
bt- heard froni any pari o[ the bottle shop, the foreman knows 
that somebody is not keeping up with hi:i work, and invstigalcs 
the canae. 

After a Imitle ha? hcen serubhcd on the washing machine 
it generally eontaiiK. iidlieriiig to its inner walls, some of Ihe 
wash waiir in a more or less dirty condition. This water must 
Ik remi.veil li-'tme ihc bottle can he filled with I>eer, and to 
ainimiili>li ihU end ihe bottle is rinsed, or. in other wonls. this 
dirty Hater i- di>|ilaci d hy clean water, entering in tlie form 

v.itli everv part n"t the iimor'"surfaro of the bottle. 

In wa-hiuK machines, un which lK>tt!es are held in an inverted 
po-iii.in nilh tiii'ir nviittis downward, the washing -pray of 
waller also acts as a rinsing spray at the innmenl when the 
l.rushes eease revolving, or the shut h:i,^ fallen out of the bottle, 
lint in machines where the bottles arc held in a horizontal 
fiositi'in while being washed, this combination fealnrc cannot 
be applied. Here ihe bottles must \k taken from the washing 
machine and placed on a rinsing device, which involves another 
stparate manipulation. 

of upright tnbe!', each having a hole or iio?7.le at it< upper 
end for the cinission of the water spr.iy. Around each of 
tliese tubes is attached a Imllle siipiiort. consisting of a claw 
or ring, made to fit around the mouth of the Iwttlcs and placed, 
at such a distance below the upper «nA=. nK vVit V'&sf?. '^mj*- "^^^^ 
iaihT uill cvlrnd about haltway inVO \.\\e \\\\ct\.c4 ^»*.'^«-^ "^*^'' 



892 BOTTLING DEPARTMENT. 

over them. AH of ih«e tubes, whatever their number, are m- 
serled at their lower ends inio a connecting header, and thii 
header ii plac«d over, and attached to a plug of a slop cock or 
vslve in such a manner that, after the rinsing device is filled 
with bottles, it is given a quarter turn, whereby the water supply 
is tamed on. allowing the water to pass through the tubes and 
t>erfonn its rinsing duty. In order to prevent chipping of the 
mouth of the bottle, the supporting claws or rings are often 
made of or lined with rubber, because it happens that the bottle* 
are often quite carelessly placed upon the rinser. 

COUBINED SOAKING, WASHING AND MNSING DEVtCCS. 

Veiy convenient forms of combined outfit for bottle soaking, 
washing and rinsing are now on the market, and are well 
adapted for use in bottle shops where compactness is a desired 
feature. These outfits consist of a wooden soaking tank of cnn- 
venicnt size, to the sides of which are attached a horizontal 
single washing machine. 3 rinsing device, also 3 tin-foil remover 
and cork extractor, all of these being conveniently arranged, 
and the whole funiiuig a very compact outfit so that one man 
can handle the bottles without much loss of time in moving 

TAPPING OF BARRELS. 

In tapping barrels care ixmst be takrn not to lose any beer or 
gas, and for this purpose a special device is used. This consists 
of a tube reaching 10 the bottom of the barrel and having fide 
openings at its lower end (or the passage of the ln-er. This tube 
passes through a bushii;g, having a side opening with check 
valve, for passage of the uir pressure to the surface of the beer 
necessary to force the beer ihrouRh Ilie tube ai)d into the tiller. 
In practice several barrels are thus taiipcd ;it one lime, and their 
delivery pipes connected whereby a more even and long flow to 
the filler is obtained, and at the same timt' le^s lime i!i lost by the 
rilling opfraii'r waiting lor a new supply. 

One style of these tapping devices employs a special bush that 
must he screwed into the barrel ptTrtiaiu'iilly. Tliis has the ad- 
vaui.iRc that such a barrel will always be at the disposal of the 
hottliiig dfparimcnl. and not used for cit.stomcrs or shipment. 

\Vhcn feeding hack pressure bottle filling machines a divw- 
l>ack- ami annoyaiwv is ofton cxpeticnCiA -^Xwt* v^v^^a.ud mn- 
"'ag- a new barrel to the filler. Thvs \\3.WJ«^s -wVww. ■&« vb « 



BOrrLING DEfABTMENT. 8iJ3 

gas contamed in the connecting tube or hose is forctii tlirtiugli 
the filling machine, causing Ihe latter to "spnlter." In or'liT \:> 
overcame this defect there is now a device on ilie inarkti so con 
stnictcd that a new barrel can be attached without Ihc o|KT.itr)r 
taking notice of the change, and this is acccuiii>!i-ihed liy an ar- 
rangenient whereby several barrels are cross-cuniiL-flcd to a 
main header, or manifold, so that one l>arrel can be discninircU'il 
and another replaced without the flow of beer bL-ing inlcrrtipled. 

The essential feature of the device consists of a "l.inliTn"' or 
observation glass placed between Ihc barrel and ihe header. Al Ihi' 
lower end of the lantern the snpiily and discharge pipes are nl- 
tached, while Ihc upper is supplied with a bluw-nff cnck an.l llii 
opening closed or opened by means of a float or rulilier hall. 

The operation is as follows: When the beer is discharsiiii" 
the lantern is full so that the ball floats at the top and close-' 
the air cock. As the flow diminishes the lantern empties and al 
the same time the float descends to a point bi'Iow the ojifiilnB 
to the header, wht-rcujion the cock lo same is closed so as to 
prevent back pressure when the barrel is disconnected. The 
empty barrel is now replaced by a full one (ihc other h;irrels 
suppl.ving the Ikiw during the oper.ition) and as lonR as the air 
or gas from ihe barrel or lube passes inlo tlic lantern, «o luUK 
it passes over the lloai a.id out of the air vent. As soon as beer 
is discharged inlo the laiuern the tloat rises uulil it is pre.^sed 
again'tt the air cock, when the coek In the header is opened iiuil 
the beer Hows lo the fillinii maehine. and by plaeinij the barrels 
so thai they emi)ty Jillernalely a eonlinuou> flow is idilained. 

BOTTLE FII.LINI^. 

The bottles havinR nmv been properly prepared, ihe "e.M 
operation necessary in ihe Ijoltlin^i [process is tlie filling of the 
Iwltles with beer. 

The two principal preeaiiiions to be here observed arc, first, 
to guard against llic escape of the carbonic acid gas contained 
in the beer, and, second, to prevent an infection of the beer by 
foreign micro-organisms, while it is being transferred from 
barrel to bollle. 



The fiirm of bottle-filling device now in most common u 
IS the trough siphon filler. This consists <if aw tiW.is\\¥, vc>v\ 
shaped receptacle, wilh a covet fillips m«Tc «ji ^«.i>^ ^•>'^^'- 



894 BOTTLING DEFARTUBNT. 

supplied internally vrilh a float indicator so that the aarface of 
the beer, when in this filler, can readily be kept at the duircd 
lerel. Through one of the long sides of this filler are in- 
serted a number of siphon tubes, each bent in a shape similar ta 
a letter J. The curved pan of this lube is placed inside of the 
trough and the straight pari outside of same, the tube being 
attached to the walls of the trough and pivoted at the point 
where it passes through, in such a manner that its ends can 
be raised and lowered a few inches. The tube is open at its 
curved inside end except when this end is depressed, in whkk 
case the opening is closed by being forced against a rubber disc 
or washer. The outer straight part o! the tube is tapered at 
its end and closed, a small slot or opening, however, being cut 
a short distance above this end. 

The operation of this siphon tube is as follows: By placinf 
a bottle over its outer straight end and depressing it. the slotted 
opening is lowered and at the same lime the inner curved end 
is raised away from the rubber closing disc, which allows the 
beer to Bow or siphon into the bottle, the flow continuing until 
the surface level of the beer in the bottle has reached the same 
height as the surface level of the beer in the Irniigh. After re- 
moving the flHcd bottle the tube is again closed automatically by 
means of either a spring or a weight forcing down the inside 
opening of the tube against the rubber closure. In regulating 
the height of the level of the beer in the fillers allowance shonld 
be made for the quantity of beer displaced by the tube while 
in the bottle. This can be done by filling the bottle lo the brim, 
when, upon removing the lube, its displacenienl will usually equal 
the unfilled space dfsired in the bottle. This air space is of 
great importance, as it furnishes a cushion for the expansive 
force of the beer when subjected to a higher temperature 
than that prevailing at the time of bottling. In the event 
the botile were completly filled with beer, any such expansion 
would tend to expel the stopper or burst the bi>iile. and would 
certainly do so during the subsequent steaming prjcess wherein 
the Icmpcrnlure and pressure of the beer in llii' bottle become 
quite high. 

.4s the beer before il reaches the bottles is usually, during 
rA/s (r.iijsfer, brought more ot \ess m cowixct with air, whicb 
means a possible chance oi inlecl'ion \>:i lo^tv^tv TO\t^Q-tity Hw M», 



BOTTLING DEPARTMENT. 895 

all modem fillers are constructed in a manner tending to re- 
duce this contact to a minimum. 

Porcelain-lined or Enameled Trough Filler with Air Filter. — 
A neat and practical system for bottle filling employs purified 
air. This system consists of a trough bottle filler, which pos- 
sesses the novel feature of having its inside, with which the 
beer comes in contact, porcelain lined or enameled (making an 
easily cleaned filler), preventing the beer from coming in contact 
with metal surfaces. To this filler is attached an air filter for 
the purpose of removing any foreign substances from the air 
while the latter passes from the air reservoir, also a part of this 
system, to the supply barrels. 

BACK OR COUNTER PRESSURE BOTTLE FILLERS. 

The different styles of trough bottle fillers now on the market 
possess, as a class, a drawback in the feature that they allow 
more or less carbonic acid gas to escape from the beer during 
the filling operation. Since the quantity of carbonic acid gas 
that a liquid will contain or hold in solution depends partly 
upon the amount of pressure resting upon its surface, it follows 
that, when this pressure is reduced, a corresponding escape of 
gas from the liquid takes place. 

In order to overcome this loss of gas or reduce it to a minimum 
some styles of bottle fillers are constructed so as to operate in 
such a manner that the beer, during the time it is being filled into 
the bottle, is continuously subjected to a pressure sufficiently 
great to prevent the escape of any of its contained carbonic acid 
gas. The principle, however, by which the beer flows into the 
bottle, or by which this flow is started or interrupted, is that of 
the siphon above described, and not the employment of the force 
of any extra pressure, as this pressure is practically the same 
upon both the beer in the filler, in the reservoir and in the bottle, 
and any excess pressure, due to the displacement of the air in the 
bottle, is blown off automatically from the back pressure chamber. 

A disadvantage, however, of this form of back pressure bottle 
filler lies in the fact that the contents of bottles that may be 
chipped, cracked or partly broken during any of the different 
stages of the bottling process, and which contents may amount 
to a considerable quantity during the course of the dav. c.'&.-sxtvc^'v 
be returned or poured back into a filUug dt\'\c^, "Sis ^'a^'t\ ^^ ^<a^^ 
with the open trough style of bottle fiUer. 




BOTTLING D&FAKTHENT. 



The most universally ased o( this kind o( bottle fillers operattni 
upon the back-pressure system consists of a stand supporting two 
air-tight brass tubes or cylinders. The lower and larger one of 
these is used as the beer reservoir, corresponding to the trough 
ot the trough filler, and has attached to it the siphons, bottle- 
bedding clamps and shut-off valves or cocks. The upper or b>dc- 
prcssure reservoir is coonected with the bottles to be filled and 
is used as a receptacle for containing the pressure producing air 
or gas; it is supplied with a diaphragm by-pass or blow-off 
regulating valve for the purpose of automatically regulatiog the 
back pressure and blowing off the displaced air from the bottles 
after they are filled. The siphons operate similarly to those of 
the ordinary trough filler described; the bottle-holding claws and 
the beer and pressure shut-off valves are so constructed that, 
when the siphon tubes are raised, the claws open and release the 
bottles, and, at the same time, the shut-off valves dose and 
simultaneously interrupt both the flow of the beer and the back 
pressure, so that the bottles can be removed without loss of either. 

This filler is also made of a round revolving pattern, offerit^ 
the advantage of compactness and requiring less moving about 
on the part of the operator. 

Another style of rotary back-pressure filler is fed from below 
and has a glass lantern, containing a Hoai ball, to regulate the 
liow and back pressure. 

BOTTLE CLOSING OR STOPPERING. 

After the bottle has been filled with beer, the next operation 
necessar}' is to close the bottle as quitkly as possible. This has 
in view a double purpose— namely, to prevent any escape ot 
carbonic acid gas and to avoid subjtciing the beer to the chances 
of an infecliun by germs floating in the air. 
t:oRKS. 

The oldest form of bottle closure is the cork, which still main- 
tains its standing at the present liiiic. and which is too well 
known lo reqnire description. The cork, however, has the fol- 
lowing disadvantages : That it is often diliiculi lo extract the 
cork from the bolile, causing, by the aliL'mpi to do so. the beer 
lo be agilaltd and to foari ..y^"---^--i-,- ^•■^■>— p.>f-pi| omi : ihat 
pieces of cork often fall iiiv ■■■ !- 'i-,d; 

lliat, ill compressing the moisl. coiW, v^Ukli hayiiens just previous 
to its (nsertion. a juice or \invioi is &i\\itti<:i o-i"- ■w'vmi^ '<w«^ 



BOTTLING DEPARTMEKT, 897 

drops into the beer and may afterward aff^t its appearance ; 
and, lastly, ihat if a poor iguality of cork has been used the bottle 
may not be hermelically closed thereby, allowing ihe escape of 
the carbonic acid gas, and. in extreme ca^cs, even spillage oE the 
beer. 

In order to overcome these defects, and for the purpose of 
cheapening the cost of bottle closttrcs. various devices have been 
put upon the market, of which the following are the principal 



PEItKAHENTLY ATTACHFJ* STOPPEBS. 
Patent Stoppers. — The form of closure most commonly used on 

bottles containing beer of which a high degree of durability is 
not required and which is supposed to be consumed soon after 
leaving the brewery, is the "patent stopper." It consists of a rub- 
ber button or plug, through which passes a wire loop, inserted at 
its ends into a movable wire lever or clamp, fastened permanently 
around the neck of the bottle. By depressing this elanip the wire 
loop is lowered and at the same time the rubber plug clamped 
tightly over the mouth of the bollle. 

The advaniages of the patent stopper over all other closures 
lie in the facts that Che bottles supplied with it can be opened 
by hand, require no corkscrew or other tool, and that they 
necessitate no renewal of the closure each time the bottle is 
refilled, thus effecting a considerable saving in the cost of closures. 

The disadvantages, on the other hand, possessed by the patent 
stopper, are that the disc of rubber which covers the opening of 
the bottle comes in contact nilh the heer, and is not very easily 
thoroughly washed and sterilized. This washing, etc. is ren- 
dered more diffieiili by (he crevices in the rubber disc; further- 
more, bottles having patent stoppers offer a temptation to the 
customers to keep them for use for other purposes, as the closure 
is always at hand, ready for use and easily applied. 

Porcelain Stof'per.~-\n order to overcome some of the disad- 
vantages possessed by the ordinary patent stopper having the 
rubber seal, other styles employ a conical porcelain plug, to which 
is attached as a seal a smooth rubber washer, easily replaced when 
it shows any wear, and affording a perfectly tight closure on 
account of its tapering position on the plug. 

SINGLE-VSE STOPPERS. 

All other forms of stoppers in use ate ol \.\x«"w.w^t-M."i*" VvcA.-. 
that is. the stoppers are not permancnXW alftwAwA. V^i •Cwt^**-"^' 



ftjB BOTTUNG KKPARTHENT. 

bitt arc Umnrn >var and not re-oaed after the bottle bu beca 
opened. Thii tl]rie of stonier does away with the posubJUtr of 
anj impnnties from any former contents of the bottle *iwHin 
their way into the bottle, nnce at each filling a new iloppcr is 
interted. These stoppers pouess the advanURc of more md- 
versaDy supplying a tight dosnre, which is not the case witk 
some of the old style patent stoppers in which the rubber b 
worn or hardened. These stoppers, althongh more ( 
further allow the bottle being capped or wrapped with tin foil, 
etc, affording an opportunity for preparing a neater appearing 
package^ . . T «- 

Mflal Plug Stoppers. — One style of these single-ase stopperr 
consists of a hollow cup-shaped plug, made of aluminmn. After 
insertion into the mouth of the bottle the sides of the stopper arc 
expanded into a special groove or recess in the inside of tbe 
mouth of Ihe bottle, a rubber ring or gasket having been pre- 
viously placed around the stopper, so as to form an additional 
air-tight seal between metal and glass. 

Flanged Due Stoppers. — Another style of single-use closure con- 
sists of a flat tin-plate disc, having a flanged and crimped edge 
and containing a thin disc of cork on its inside for the purpose of 
supplying the closing seal when affixed to the bottle. The cork 

. disc employed Is specially treated for the elimination of impurities 
and is then saturated with a neutral and inert water-proofing 
compound. Between this cork and the metal disc proper a sheet 
of prepared paper is inserted to prevent its contact with the tin. 
The flange and corrugations on the metal are compressed by > 
machine which secures them around the bottle head and under 
a shoulder formed thereon, thus insuring the proper compressions 
(o the cork disc to make a gas-tight joint and holding ihe raetal 
disc firmly in place. With this closure there is no possibilily 
of injecting objectionable residual liquids into the contents of 
the bottles from the cork in the act of crowning, or of such 
dissolving out thereafter, as is well known to be the case in 
the compression of ordinary corks, old or new. That part of 
the cork disc which is placed under compression never comes in 
contact with the contents of the bottle: and (he body of the cotfc 
which is in contact is extremely thin as compared with the length 

of the ordinary cork. 
Another style of closure conswte ol a. oiv^VkvA >iji ':av>i*, 

I 



BOTTLING DEPARTMENT. 8yy 

similar to the lid of a round pill box, containing a disc or washer 
of cork. This capsule is secured to the neck o£ the hottle by a 
circular strip o£ tin, the lop edge of which is bent at right 
angles, bo a» to form a flange over the capsule. 

Id aflixing the same the capsule and circular strip arc com- 
pressed over the bottle, and while in this compressed slate four 
wheels gather together and revolve and turn inward or "spin" 
the other edge of the circular strip under the shoulder or off- 
set of the lip of the bottle. 

The main feature of this closnrc is. however, that the closure 
can be removed from the bottle by hnnd, rcijuiring no tool. 
This is accomplished by having one end of the circular strip pass 
through a slot in the other and protrude or extend therefrom. 
To open the bottle this tin protrusion is bent back, by which the 
circular ring is opened and the closing capsule loosened and 
removed, a movement similar to loosening a strap from a buckle. 
Another style of similar closure consi-its of a cup-shaped capsule 
containing a disc uf cork, like the above described closure, but hav- 
ing its sides or cylindrical part nmeli longer. These sides have 
three indentations which fit into spiral recesses in the lip of the 
bottle. In affixing the closure the capsule is compressed over 
the bottle and then given a turn by which ihe closure is simply 
screwed on by about a turn of one-sixth revolution. By the 
reverse turn by hand the clusurc can be readily removed from 
the bottle. 

Rubber Disc Slofpers. — Another closure consists of a disc of 
rubber, about one-third of an inch in thickness, coated upon 
ihe side coming in contact with ihc contents of the bottle with 
a specially prepared textile fabric, saturated and covered with 
an inert, tasteless and odorless compound, to prevent contact 
of the rubber with the liquids. This rubber seal is elasticatly 
forced by machines into a specially prepared groove formed in 
the mouth of the bottle, tt contains a wire loop, projecting from 
the lop surface, by means of which it is readily extracted by 
suitable openers or by any stout-poinled instrumenl. When about 
to !« inserted :n the bottle the rubber disc is tapered up by 
the machine so as to enter the neck readily, expanding after in- 
sertion so as to fill the full width of the neck. In steamv(\t ^■- 
will expand or contract with the boU\e. 
Ecoaowkal advantages gained by the "se oi "Oftt^e vj^«> 



QOO BOTTLING DEPARTMENT. 

single-usc closures Eie in the facts that the extra operalioii of 
wirins, and that of the two operations of affixing and remoitiRg 
tbc steaming caps before and after pasteurization is entire)3r done 
away with since these closures have been found to remain im- 
movable at the pressures generated in the bottles during the 
steaming process. Another and considerable advantage possessed 
by these closures is that they can be removed from tbc bottles 
with ease by use of special accompanying openers, or, in tact, 
with any pointed instrumenl, or by hand, and thus prevent agi- 
tation of the beverage while the bottle is being opened. 

BOTTU-CLOSINC IfACHINES. 

The machines employed for inserting or aflixing the different 
closures described are, with the exception of coilcing maddnct, 
manufactured especially for nsc with each style of closure. 

Corking Machines differ little from each other in the prin- 
ciple of operation, which is as follows: The corks are thrown 
into a funnel, and drop one by one into a cylindrical clamp, 
where, by means of a horizonlally- acting plunger, having a cir- 
ci'lar-shaped recess, the cork is compressed to a size somewhat 
smaller than the opening in the bottle. While in this state a 
vertically descending round plunger forces the compresseti cork 
into the bottle, where it expands and conforms in shape to that 
of the inside of the bottle, thereby effecting an alr>tight seaL 



COBK-CLEASINC, SOFTENIKG AND WASHING MACHINES. 

Cork-cleaning, softening and washing machines consist of a 
revolving horizontal drum, having its cylinder constructed from 
slats or strips of wood, arranged with spaces between them. The 
corks are placed in this cage-like cylinder, whicb is then revolved, 
whereby the tine, powder-like substances contained in the out- 
side veins of the cork, and which might otherwise find their way 
into the bottle, arc removed or shaken out by the concussion 
of the corks against each other. Other forms have this blinder 
placed over a tank so as to partly revolve under water lor 
the purpose of soaking or cleaning ihe corks, or else have a cen- 
iral water pipe with perforations lengthwise as a means of sprink- 
ling the corks for soaking and washing purposes. 



A cork, when properly treaVed. sHovli Nii; eW,\\t iwl whtn in 
*K compressed state prcvioudy to \n«tV\'y(iTOto *«.VKaft,&eA& 



SOTTLlKG DftPARTMEMt. 90t 

dM Bive ofF MBj pretMd oat liquid, aince this liquid is likely lo 
dnp into, or come in contact with, the beer, and affect its bril- 
licDCj. 

Tbc corks are first rumbled dry in a revoiving dmm for sev- 
eral honrs in order to remove the brown cork dust in their veins. 
They arc then further rumbled with a spray of water for about 
30 minutes or, where the apparatus has no central perforated 
shaft for water to spray, the corks can be placed in a vessel and 
the water changed continuously for about 30 minutes. The corks 
arc then put into water of 178* F. (65° R.). Higher temperatures, 
especially boiling water, may injure the corks. Bisulphite of 
lime is added to a distinct odor (about one pint to 6 gallons 
of water) and the corks allowed to remain until soft, which 
nmally requires from 15 to 30 minutes. The corks are ihen 
transferred to a wire basket and immersed in a glycerin solution 
of 156° F. (s5° R.) and kept here for about 30 minutes. This 
glycerin solution is made by adding one volume of glycerin 
to about three to five volumes of water, according to the quality 
of the corks used or softness desired. 

The corks are finally allowed to drain, and then stored in a 
clean perforated barrel, that is. one having holes bored through 
the sides, bottom and cover. By this treatment the corks will 
be ready for use in about 24 hours and will remain in condition 
for immediate use for three to four days. 

CORK PREPARING APPAKATUS. 

As it is a difficult and slow operation lo impregnate wet or 
soaki'cl corks, that is, such as have their pores full of water, nith 
a different kind of liquid or solution by contact, a special apparatus 
for rapidly and thoroughly Accomplishing this process has lately 
come into use. 

The principle here empl<qred is that the dry corks are placed in 
a vacuum, whereby most of the air contained in the pores is 
extracted and subsequently replaced Iq* the impregnating fluid 
with which the corks are allowed to come in contact. 

The operation of this apparatus is as follows: The corks, after 
being rumbled to remove any loose powder contained in their 
pores, are placed in a drum-shaped receptade into which live 
steam is then allowed to enter until all the contained u^ 'v& Sm>- 
placed. The drum is then hermcticaWy c\q«A, wv4 t<i^^ "w^ft-t* 
grayed over its outudt, whereby tht ste&m VnMi* ft'* 4.twsi ■« 



903 BOTTLmC mPAttTHENT. 

condenied and a vacuum fbnncd. Through a vahe the proper 
amount of impregnating fluid is then admitted, and the dran 
revolved so that the corks will be thoroughly moistened or cov- 
ered with the liquid. Another valve is then opened ao M to 
let air into the dmm and relieve the vacuum, whereby the liquid 
is forced into the pores of the corks by the atmospheric presMire 
on their surface. 

COBK-BaAHDIKG MACHINES. 

Cork-branding machines are rapidly coming into more general 
use among bottlers since the branding of corks with the name 
of the brewer and date of bottling possesses desirable features in 
both furnishing an advertisement for the brewer and giving 
a control as to the date of bottling. The branding machines now 
in use employ either gas, gasoline or electricity as a heating 
agent, and are so constructed that the corks, placed in a hopper, 
drop through a tube and are forced between revolving pulleys 
or rollers, which pass or revolve the cork over or across a heated 
metallic die similar to a small branding iron. The operation 
is very rapid and sufficient corks can be branded for daily use m 
a comparatively short time. 

WIRING. 

In order to prevent the corks from being c.vpelled from the 
bottle by internal pressure, caused by the carbonic acid gas. or 
by tlie extra pressure generated during steaming, bottles closed 
with corks arc generally wired: thai is. a wire loop is placed 
aroimd the ring llange of the neck of the bottle and the ends 
bent upward and spirally iwistctl together over the opening of 
the bottle, thus keeping the cork in position. In order better to 
keep this wire clamp in an immovable position, and to give (he 
package a neater appearance, variously shaped corrugated stamped 
discs of tin arc placed l)etween the wire and the cork. 

BotiteWiring .UoWirni-j.^Wiring bottles, when done by hand, 
is a laborious operation, and a machine has been designed and 
constructed to accomplish this manipulation in an even, neat and 
rapid manner. This machine operates automatically, it being 
necessary only to press the bottle against the wire loop held by 
the jaws of the iflacliinc. when, by deiiressing the foot lever, 
the bottle is ivircd, Ilic wire trimmed, and another loop made and 
held in position ready to be put on l\ve TVf*\ \>cw.\t. The c^wdty 
of this machine, when properly o^"*^*^- ^ *''^'- ^'«*^'^«*»» 

I 



BOTTLING t^PARTUBNT. 903 

per honf I wlileh ia approximately four times the number usually 
Ibiflbcd wbed done t^ hand. 

Afltjle of bottle cap much used and easily affixed and removed. 
Hma the bottle consists of a flat tin disc, lo which three strips 
UC attacbed and bent downward at right-angles. The strips 
an acajn attached at their tower ends to a circularly-bent tin 
band or strip having a slot cut at one end. and the other end 
tnered so u to fit into this slot. In affixing the cap, the tapered 
end ia inserted through the slot and its protruding part bent 
backward, whereby the circular strip is tightened or clamped 
■round the flange on the neck of the bottle, for the purpose of 
holding the disc firmly over the cork. 



, CAPnuC AND WIRING MACHINES. 

In order to bring the cost of corking, capping and wiring to 
' a minimum, an automatic machine, combining these three opera- 
tions, has been designed and placed on the market In the oper- 
ation of this machine the botiles are placed into a revolving 
■ttac)iment holding six bottles, in which ihey are successively 
corked, capped wilh a disc and wired automatically at the rate of 
about twenty bottles a minute by but one operator. This machine 
adjusts itself lo t^ikc any size bottles, and the corks need not 
be handled, as they discharge automatically from a. hopper to 
where warned. The machine has another advantage in the fact 
that the cork is compressed before the bottles come under the 
compressor, preventing the troublesome cork juice from dropping 

BOTTLE BOXES. 

These are so well known in general appearance as lo require 
no detailed description. Attention should, however, be called 
to the construction of the cross-partitions separating the bottles, 
which should either be raised from the bottom of the box or 
tapered downward. This causes the bottles, when the case is 
placed on end, as is a common custom of the consumer for the 
purpose of ecoaomiztng space, to assume a slanting poution, 
with bottoms lower than the necks, and thus prevent them from 
falling out. 

PASTEURIZATION, OR "STEAMING." 

The process in the bottling department knowtv ».* ^a«.«N«viat- 
tioa h the manipatation of heatins t.\« ^»t(M \n ft* >»«.•&«». v* -i 



904 BOTTUKG IKFARTHENT. 

cerUJn tarperatOK, boldins this tcmpcntarc onutuit for a 
certain length of time, and. finally, cooling to nearlj ordimrT 
alnxispberic temperature. The object of this heating of the beer 
ii to kill any yeast cells or other tnicro-orgaaisms that may be 
oootained in it, or to weaken their vitality to such an extent u 
to render them inactive, and thereby prevent any further fei^ 
mentation or decomposition of the bottled beer which might 
otherwise have taken place. 

In order to carry out this pasteurJEation manipulation, the bot- 
llea containing (he beer ar« placed in a tank, which la then 
filled with cold water. This water is gradually heated to 
the desired temperature by means of injected live steam (hence 
the more popular [erm "steaminfc") ann the warm water after- 
ward gradually cooled by being mixed with an incoming stream 
or jet of cold water. By this means the beer is gradually heated 
by taking up heat from the surrounding water, and, later on, 
giving off this heat to the cold water. 



lUPORTANCE c 

There is no part of the botlltng manipulation of more impor- 
tance, nor one which, if improperly cKecuied, can give rise to 
more serious -innoyances and loss of money or reputation for 
excellence of the bottled product, than this process of "steam- 
ing" or pasleurizing. During all of the many stages or processes 
through which the beer passes while being manufactured, any 
abnormal change in ils quality or appearance can be readily de- 
lected by a competent and careful brewer, and the proper rem- 
edies applied before the product has left ihe brewery. An excep- 
tion to this, however, is Ihe pasteurisation of the bottled beer, 
since this part of the process takes place just previous to ship- 
ping or placing the beer in the market, and it is, therefore, prac- 
tically impossible to test it in the time at disposal. Hence, any 
deterioration of the beer, due to improper or incomplete pastetir- 
ization, usually manifests itself while the product is in the hands 
of the consumer. The results, in this event, are. almost univer- 
sally, thai the brewer is blamed for having produced an inferior 
beer, even though, in reality, the beer may have been of excellent 
quality and the greatest care and skill possible been exercised 
during every stage of its production in Ihe brewery. 
At the present time. insWnces ■w\\eie all the beer contained in 
the "steamiag" tank has proved lo Wv*. Vea \mv<iv«\i \MaxA 



BOTTLING DEPARTMENT. <X>.i 

are not of such frequent occurrence as was formerly lUe case. 
There is one trouble, however, that quite frequently presents 
itself, and has puzzled many brewers. This is where tile beer 
from the same chip cask has been filled into bottles and "steamed" 
in the same tank at the same time, with the result that a few 
of the bottles of beer proved to have been improperly "sleamtd." 
while the others had been properly treated. The cause of this 
trouble has usually been found either in the defective construc- 
tion of the lank or heating apparatus, causing the lower tiers 
of bottles or those in the corners of the tank to be insufficiently 
heated on account of defective circulation of the water, or else 
In an improper arrangement of the bottles themselves, being 
placed eiliier loo close together when the tank was filled with 
single bottles, or being put in wooden l>o>:es made of solid liii;\rcl< 
and allowing practitaHy no circulation of the water throuBli them. 



PHECAUTIOMS I 

In order properly to carry out the steaming or paslcurizing 
process in the most economical manner, the following precautious 
should be observed : 

1. The raising and lowering of the temperature of the water 
surrounding the bottles should be done gradually in order to 
reduce the liability of breakage of bottles, 

2. The length of time for holding beer at the desired pasteur- 
ization temperature shoidd be such that all the contenl:i of the 
bonle are subjected to the same maximum icniperalure. As 
the beer in the bottle remains at rest during steaming, there is 
practically no circulation or mixing of the warmer beer from 
the outside with the colder inside portion. Furthermore, as the 
l>ottom of the bottle is usually of thicker glass than the w.iUs. 
and rests upon the wooden grate or support, thereby coming 
only partly in contact witji the warmer water, it is evident that 
up and down circulation is prevented and it takes con- 
siderably longer for this central portion to warm to the desire<i 
dtgree of heat. 

3. The beer in the bottle should not be healed tor a longer 
time or to a higher degree of heat than is necessary Is pastcuri/e 
it, on account ot the liability of the product to acquire the ob- 
jectionable so-called "steam" or ''bread taste." Furthermore, 
such heating is apt to coagulate and precipitate w\wi, cS. '^vt ;S.v-\- 
men conlaiiied in the beer, causing Viay.'vwiss ot \,\K\J\Ci\Vi -^^ ^'^'^ 



906 BOTTLING lAPARTUBNT. 

M^Hent Mditnfat Exccsmtc heating also involves the dutcer 
of forcmg oat coria or ttoppera, or of exploding the botdet, 
since the pressure of the carbonic acid gas, in such event, becooMS 
very great, and some bottles will break which would otherwiK 
have withstood the pressure at the nonnal temperature. 

EUtORS TO BB AVOIDED. 

Tbe success to be obtained in the process of pastenrizatkni of 
bottle beer depends not Only upon a proper construction of the 
"steaming" tank, but also, to a very lai^ extent, upon the man- 
ner in which the water is heated. 

A very common hindrance to a proper steaming process lies in 
the use of improperly constructed wooden steaming tray« or 
boxes for holding the bottles while in the lank. In oVder to 
have such boxes strong and durable, they are often constructed 
of heavy lumber, with practically no spaces or holes in' tb«r 
sides, ends and bottom to allow the circulation of the heating 
water through them. 

Where these boxes are not employed, it is customary to place 
the bottles in the lank singly, which is a preferable but more 
time-consuming method. Here, also, an error in manipulation is 
freijucntly met with, in the fact that the bottles are placed too 
close together, because it is much easier for the workman to 
place the bottles touching each other than to place them apart 
in every direction, which requires care and mental effort on his 
part 

A farther cause of improper pasteurization of the beer, be- 
sides tbe mechanical defects mentioned, is an insufficient length 
of time of holding the maximum temperature in the water, so 
that the beer in the centers of the bottles does not reach this 
maximum temperature at all. or for too short a time. 

In order to determine the time when the beer in the center of 
the bottle reaches the maximum temperature, a series of teMS 
were carried out, the averages of the results being given in the 
table on next page. 

In these tests, made with "export" size hollies, the beer 
was heated from 41° F. (4° R.) and the water from 68° F. 
(16° R.) these rq>resenting average temperatures. The water 
Wat in every test raised to 140° F. (48° R.} in 30 minutes. 
From these results it will be seen vVmX ^mts require ao n 
aad quarts 35 minutes longer heavm^ \iefcTc »\\ Cutw t 



BOTTLING DEI'ARTMF.NT. 



DO- 



reach 48* R. thin doea the water, while, when tlie cooling begins, 
the decrease in lemperaturc is quite rapid. It is also seen that 
the opinion of some bottlers. Ihat the beer will hold the highest 
temperatiire for as long a lime after cooling begins as it took 
to K«in it after the water had reached it, is incurred. For in- 
stance, at ten minutes before the lime quarts reach 48° R.. their 
temperature is 47.5' R„ while that of the water is 48° R.. a dif- 
ference of half a degree, whereas during (he first ten minutes 
of cooling there is a difference in IcEuperatiire between the beer 
and the water of 8° R. 



I 



start beat li^U m. ■ K. IH.- R. . II. ' K. t.lt II. 'K ). H. 

ISmlnutcs 101. ■■ K. ffi. H. j W.»- K. SJ.tf- K. HS.l ' t'. i!.J ■ K. 

SOlnlnuips ...I 144). 'R 48. ■ R- l».6' V. ll.fl'K. 'lil.a ■ K. 3tA- \t. 

»nlniit«x I im.T- p', IR.*'H. 'liB.-J - K. «.3' It. 

40mlnii1fs I llM.3 P. «.3" K. jllH.T " K. W.e- 11. 

Wnalnu'cM | "IW.U- K J7.S' H. lai 4 ■ P. 4fl< It. 

ISOmliiiiU's lltO. K. 48. -It. ia7.Kft- K. IT, K. 

BJmlnnl^- I , IIW.OH K. 4T .=> It 

eomliiiiii'- i ' 'iM.ff.' I'. IT.H- R. 

IhoiirSmliiiilc-....; I ^140. ' \-\ 48. •' K, 

Sinri.iK.)jiit; IIO.-I''. IB.- H. .110. ' P. IB. - R. ItO. • P. 1» H. 

Bmlimli"' I ISI." P. II.'B. lias.S' P. IT.S' R. llW.T ' K. IT.I' R. 

IDiiiltiilti-^ IK.'- P. « - R, laj.lTP. 4I.>I^I{. ni.7 ' K. IS, KM!. 

iftmiii"U-« J_iia_'^ !;■, 3H_-lt. ■iiK v, ill, • B_ jxi fl ■ K. ii,il_R, 

OrKHATING THE STtAMINR AfPARATUB. 

In the ntanipulalion of a steaming apparatus, the attendant 
very often, after having properly filled the tank with hollies, 
and also gradually heated the water, will leave llic lank to itself 
the moment the water shows the desired maximum degree of 
heat, and attend to other work. When lie comes hack he finds 
that the water has considerably cooled. He ilien again turns 
on the steam, quickly heats the water and again leaves. Thi^ is 
an improper procedure. Ii is evident that when the water reaches 
ihe maximum temperature, the beer, Iwing then considerably 
cooler, instantly lakes up heat from the water, cooling the latter, 
anil especially the small columns of water beV-ncMv \V«. Ni«iV*«.^. 
•vhich cool the most rapidly, since l\icu \ci\>Hwt \^ wwiKv ■«* V^ 



g06 DOTTUNG DEPARTUEKT. 

portion to the vblome of siiiTotinditig beer. In order to (fis- 
lodge these cooler, stagnint ccdnmnt of water, the drcnlalioo 
abonld be kept up continuallj during the entire time of holding 
the maximnm temperature, and the attendant should stand by, 
with thermometer in hand, and keep the temperature of the water 



In order to hold this temperature aulomatically an automatic 
temperature control is now on the market. This is i^entH 
bj compressed air and haa a thermostat, servit^ to turn on or 
shut oR the air, operating the sream valve by inflating the 
diaphragm above it. 

The water can be safely heated a degree or two above the maxi- 
mum temperature desired for the beer during the first third or 
half of the time for holding, since during that time the beer is 
not warm enough to run the risk of overheating, and, further- 
more, in many styles o( tanks the water at the top. where the 
(cmperalure is taken, is generally a degree or two warmer than 
the water at the bottom, or between the tx)lllcs, even when 
proper circulation is kept up. Care should be taken not to 
allow the water to rise above the maximum temperature during 
the last part of the holding period. 

The minimum time which the highest temperature. 140* F. 
(48° R.) should be held is 30 minutes for pints and 45 minutes 
for quarts, in both cases healing the wai'.'r gradually to that 
temperature or slightly above, as dcscrilxi], in 45 minutes. 

Tonic or malt extract pints, on account of their somewhat 
larger diameter, were found, by tests, to require 5 minutes longer 
heating than export pints. 

The cooling can be done as rapidly as ihe Iwitlles will allow 
without breaking, but should not be done in Ic^s than 30 min- 

Sleaining Cu/-!.— In order that the corks may not be forced out 
of the bollle by the increased pr-ijsure generated during steam- 
ing, metal clamps, n'ade of sheet iron, or differently bent wires, 
are clamped over the necks of the bottles previous to placing them 
in the tank. 

Straniing Trays or Boxes. — .As wooden boNcs. to hold the bot- 
tles during steaming, almost universally present Ihc defects above 
ineniioned, later styles are constructed of galvani/ed perforated 
sheet fleet, which allows consideraWe opporvviwwv ^oi water at- 
—lalion without loss Of the necessary rigvAWij w 4\«**:\Vi- 



flOTTLINC, IHil'ARTMIiNT. i/ij 

Another style consists of a basket made nf woven wire, llic 
whole being galvani^icd. 

Whatever style of tray is ustil. llu-y j^limild tifver lie paokcii 
in the tank so as to touch each other at their sides or c^nds. Even 
though the spaces may be siifficient, it may happen, if perfir.itcil 
or slotted boxes are placed against each other, that the open 
ings in one box arc covered or closed by Ihe solid parls it\ Ibc 
cext box. A space of at least two inches all around tlic Imw^ 
should be allowed in placing Ibciii in the lank. 

The almost universal form of steaming device now in u.=c is 
■■he tank coiisiiling of a square tT rcctanKidar wooden l)i>x, sonic- 
tiiiics made of iron, but I'ncb siyk- i;iii[)loyinR a dilTLTinily ci n 
stnicted healing device or means for circuhling Ibc water in the 
lank or of moving the IjokIcs. The iirinci|iles nnderlyiny llK-ir 
operation are. however, in the main, two; In one ty]),' 
the botlles of beer to In; pastciiri«-d remain stationary and 

other type water bavinc dilTcrcnl lemiKralnrcs is conlaincd In 
different snlidivisiuns or cunipartments of the tank and the Lit 
(Ics arc passed through Ibem. 

Operating on the fiirmtr principle arc the foMi)wiiiB: 

Singh- SU-am-Fil:. Taid:— One of the simplest construction of 
tanks consists of an ordinary wooden lank, bavins a healing 
device made on the injector principle. A piece of .i-inch iron 
pipe, o]icn at both end*, is bolted or clamped 1o the iHittmn 
longilnciinaHy. this pipe being about ifi inches sborler than the 
tank so that it reaches to almul '} inches from each, of the tank 
ends. At one of the open ends is inserted a smaller steam pipe, 
extending sevrral inches inward. When the steam is injected 
Into this larger pipe, it draws the cold ivalcr in with il. heats 
it in the Hihc. and forces it out al the other end warmer than 
the bulk of tlie water in the lank, thus causing a circulation as 
well as healing of the water. 

Perforated Steaml'ipe Tank.— In another style the heating 
device consists of a ntimber of perforated steam pipes branching 
out from a main supply pipe. .^Imvc these pipes a perforated 
false iNittom of wood is placed for the purpose of further dis 
Iribuling the water and holding the botUts. 

l/frig/'l Sicam Injector Taptk.— In anottiM, xVt \i.Mk>lv«t. ■»«^ 



^O BOTTUHG DEPARTMENT. 

nttu GonsiBts of an tqwi^t tnbe, havinK its alom injectar at hi 

lower end, which allows the water to be drawn from all dinc- 
tiou toward the center or tube. The water then paues t^waid, 
is heated and flowi ontward acain in c^tpoaite directions throa^ 
two series of c^eningi at lop of the tube. 

SffffMN Ini*ctor Tout.— Another device employs a cenbal tnbe 
injector heating apparatus, but difFers from those des c r i bed in 
the fact that the steam enters the tube at the top, thus deUvcrioK 
Ibe wanner water to the bottom of the tanlt, where it spreads and 
rises among; the bottles to the iqiper part. 

OverMow Water. — In ail these steam injector heating devices 
the same water is circulated; that is, the water passes through 
the injector, is heated, passes out, circulates to where it was 
taken from, again passes through the injector, is heated some- 
what more, etc, etc. The surplus water due to the condensation 
of the injected steam runs off through an overflow pipe. When 
it is desired to cool the water, the steam is simply supplanted 
by cold water, and the cooling and circulation proceed in the 
same manner as in heating, except thai there is more overflow 

Sfiral Conveyor Tank. — Another style accomplishes the mixing 
of the water by means of a spiral conveyor screw, placed length- 
wise through lank at about the center of its ilepili. The sicant 
healing coil Is placed at the bottom, and tlit? cooling pipe for 
sprinkling cold water is placed al the top. The temperature of 
the water is equalized by agitating iho water by means of the 
conveyor screw, both during healing and during cooling. 

Brass Ejector Tank. — Widely different from the devices above 
described is one which has for its chief feature a specially con- 
structed brass ejector or pump. To this ejector is connected 
a system of piping, one branch of which is placed at the bottom 
of the lank and forms the dlscliarge through which the water, 
heated or cooled in the ejector is evenly distributed throughotit 
the lank. The other branch of piping is placed outside of and 
near the top of the tank and is used as an overllow to the water. 
After the bottles are placed in the lank and this vessel is filled 
with water to a height suflicient to submerge the return or over- 
Bow oprnings and fill the connecting pipes, steam is turned on. 
The stcani in entering the ejectot dt ^mto? il once propels the 
■"*«/■ in it forward, and at the same vvmt ^«»V* Av "Tofc >«»»«* 



BOTTLING DKPARTU l£NT. 9I I 

ter is then forced through the bottom perforated system of 
ing upward through the water and bottles, thereby slightly 
ling the temperature of the bulk of water in the lank. As the 
ited water passes upward, an equal volume of the cooler water 
m the top of the tank passes downward into the ejeclor, is 
re heated, and in turn passes upward as described. This con- 
uous circulation and gradual heating is kept up automatically 
Jl the desired temperature of the water is obtained. In cooling 
the water the same manipulalion takes place, except that, in- 
id of steam, cold water is run through the ejector, whereby 
■ cooling proceeds in the same gradual manner as the heating, 
little above the return overflow openings another opening is 
ced, through which an increase in water by condensation of 
ani during beating or injected water during cooling can 
ape. 

The advantages of this system are, first, economy of steam, as 
live steam whatever enters the tank, but is all absorbed and 
idcnsed before being introduced and distributed into the bot- 
n of the lank. The steam required to operate the pump is 
sniulE in proportion to the immense amount of water it moves 
It a sudden rise in temperature and overheating of bottles 
in impossibility. The cooling of the beer is conducted very rap- 
y and evenly, no cold water striking the hot bottles to cause 
equal contraction of the glass and consequently loss by break- 
; is reduced to a minimum. Another advantage of this sys- 
11 is that the ejector and pipe connections can easily be at- 
hed In a tank already in place, as they can be made to fit 
<i siie or shape of the lank. The ejector is capable of moving 
im 60 to 100 gallons of water per minute, in proportion to 
e of tank and apparatus, with moderate steam pressure. 
ft, steaming device employing the second principle, vii„ to 
ivethe beer through the water, is of quite recent dale. 
tValer Compartment Pasteuricer. — This apparatus consists of a 
ig, narrow and shallow lank, subdivided into three smaller 
iks or compartments, the middle one being the largest. These 
^ filled with water of different temperatures, the first conipart- 
:nt containing water of about one-half the pasteurization tem- 
rature; the middle, or largest one, water at pasteurization tew.- 
rature, and the last one the same as th« fetaV. Qnw «v*>- ■Owto-K!^ 
; tvik pass two iink belt endlws chavm, ««\w«s;\.«i Vi TOiveA c 



. 913 BOTTLING DEPABTlfENT. 

rods, w as to be in ■ppeannce more like as endless flcxiUe Ui- 
der. To the cross-rods are attached tarass wire spring book 
damps for holding the bottles by their necks during their pas- 
sage through the tank. At the contact between the unddk and 
the end oMiipariments are placed two sprocket puDejrs, so tbrt 
the passage of the bottles throagh the tank is as ftdtowa; Tbe 
bottles are submerged into the first compartment containiilg water 
at about one-half pasleuriiatkin temperature, are partly bested 
and then pass into the middle tank, where the pastcurintkn takes 
place. From here the bottles pass into the second attetnperttnig 
tank, where they are partially cooled. After emerging from this 
place they are further cooled, and at the same time rinied bf a 
spray of water. 

The advantages claimed for this tank are the following: A 
saving of labor, as only two boys are necessary to load and 
unload the racks; the regularity of the pasteurization process, 
ench bollle receiving exactly ihc same treatment as the next; 
the smaller percentage of loss by breakage, due to the fact that 
the temperature in the various balhs ean be controlled and sud- 
den variations of lemgierature thus prevented. Another advan- 
tage, which is a considerable one in the cost of operating the 
bottle shop, lies in the fact that the water in this tank is' not 
heated, cooled and run out at each steaming, preventing a waste 
of water and fuel. The water remains the same, and all the heat 
and water that must be supplied is only such as is lost by radia- 
tion and evaporation, which is comparatively little, and that 
heat absorbed by the bcer- 

FINISHIKG THE PACK.\GE. 

BOITI.E LABEUNC. 

Even though all the necessary precautions may have been 
taken, in both the brewery and bottle shop, for the production of a 
sound and durable bottle beer, there still remains another feature 
which quite often considerably influences the product's popularity, 
or often unjustly enhances or detracts from its quality in the 
imagination of the consumer. This is the general appearance 
of the bottle or package as put upon the market, which is gen- 
erally determined bj- the style of label and cap. or the neatness 
nilh which these are afUxcd. T^iw "w wv*^\iUs the case with 
export or "shipping" bottle bc«, ^ta* tvwto o\\.wv%»&fc'*x-w«i 



BOTTLING DKrABTMENT. 9I3 

into tbe bands of distant consumers possessing little or no judg- 
ment as to quality, and who, if thry nrc not inHucnccd in their 
choice by the reputation of the brewer, ate entirely so by tht 
appearance of the package, preferring lliose which are nicely 

In most bottle shops the labeling of ihe bottles is still done 
by hand, which offers many drawbacks as lo neatness and econ- 
omy. Such work may be defective in thai, if performed by a 
careless workman, even though a fine label be used, the neat 
appearance of ihe bottle can greatly be dttractcd from by his 
pasting on the labels in a crooked position, at unequal heights on 
different bottles, or by smearing paste upon the label or bottle. 

In order to overcome these defects and to lessen ihe time 
necessary to affix the labels, machines for thai purpose arc now 
used in many of the larger bottling departments, which, by the 
uniformiiy and speed so far attained, certainly recommend their 

The principle of operation of the differenl labeling machino 
now on the market is very niuch the same, and in a general way is 
the following: The labels arc held in large numbers by a label 
plate or holder, from which they are taken one by one by a 
picker and placed upon the bottle. This picker, before taking 
up a label, passes over a roller, or other device, holding paste, by 
contact with which it is covered with the proper amount of paste, 
and transfers it by contact lo the laliel, which it jiicks up. When 
ihe label touches llic bntclc the pickers are disengaged and ihe 
[iresHurc necessary to tighten the label is supplied by a set of 
rubber wipers. These arc similar to the well-known window- 
cleaners, and in their action much resemble the wiping done 
by hand. The whole operation is automatic; all that the operator 
need do is to have a bottle in position when the picker and label 
come toward it. The bottle rest is adjustable as lo the depth 
to which ihe bottle can be inserted, thereby regulating the height 
at which the label is put on the bottle. The rest is also adjust- 
able as to height, so that hollies of different diameters can be 
centered. 

The general advantages to be derived from the use of automatic 
labeling machines are; Speed of operation, no experience of 
operator being necessary to properly run mathmf, c\ta.^i.i>.«sft. **- 
finishnl botth, since no paste can gel upon \Vv«\»\iA o^ 'Cftt'^<asAa 



914 BOTTLING tSPARTllBNT. 

of the opcnior; labels mre all affixed nniformly ; tbat ii, «t cqnd 
bright from, and with lower edge parallel to, bottom of bottle, or 
if ilanting labels are used, the slant oo all labels is of the aaine 

CAPFIKC 

Altbongh bat a slight expeuM for eacfa bottle, a cap of tin foil 
greatlT *dd8 to the finished appearance of the package. It has 
a fnrther advantage, in that it protects the lip of the bottle from 
dirt or other matter settling on it after the bottle has Aood in an 
npright position for some time. As this dirt is not ttaamt d 
bj the drawing of a cork or the removing of a seal, it aome- 
(imes happens that it ia washed into the glass while ponrinc oat 
the contents of the bottle. 

STORAGE AND DELIVERY. 

The proper storage of bottled beer is of as great importance 
as any of the manipulations to proiliicc it. 

Light. Beer conlained in white or clear glass bottles should 
never be exposed to direct light as it will quickly deteriorate in 
flavor and brilliancy. 

Palenl stoffer or unsteanied beer should be stored cold, thai 
is. the same as beer in hegs. 

Patleurited beer, on the oilnr hand, should not be stored too 
cold, but preferably at ordinary room temperatures. 

Corks. — Bottles closed with corks should not be stored in an 
upright position, but lying upon their sides so that the corks 
will be moistened by the beer and prevented from drying oat. 
wlitch would permit the escape of gas. 

PIPE LINES. 
In larger breweries the tilling from barrels, which entails the 
troublesome operations of taking care of the packages — filling, 
cleaning, pitching, stamping, etc. — is being replaced by filling 
from government casks, connected by pipe line from the chip 
casks directly. 

Here the casks or taOks, placed in a separate refrigerated room 

under the bottle shop, are filled and gauged under control of a 

government inspector. 

This system has the advantage of rapidity— saving the repealed 

tapping of barrels— also a moic umlwwv delivery, besides a 

saving of labor in the geneTa\ V«n4Ut<i ol \\« >a«i^- \5«*'*\j^ 

ieJations.") 



FIQURINQ IN THE BREWERY. 

{Temperatures in this chapter are given in degrees Reaumur 
only because calculations are simpler than with Fahrenheit de- 
grees, and the Reaumur thcrmomclcr is more generally cinpUiyed 
for these purposes in American 6r«<i<TiVj.) 



CALCULATING THE YIELD OF EXTRACT OF BREWING 
MATERIALS. 

By "yield of extract." or "yield" simply, ts meant the number 
of pounds of extract which is obtained from loO pounds of a 
material used in brewing. 

The yield is, therefore, always given in per cent. Thus, if we 
say the yield of a malt h 64 per cent, or a malt yields 64 per cent 
of extract, we mean that wc obtain 64 pouuds of extract from lOo 
pounds of malt. 

In order (o calctdate the yield of extract of a material we should 

1. Balling (B.). i. e., the saccharomcter (Balling) indi- 

cation of the wort in the cellar or in the kettle at 
14° R. 

2. Specific gravity (Sp. 0.) of the wort. 

3. Bbls., i. e., the number of barrels of wort in the cel- 

lar or in the kettle. 

4. Materials, i. e., . the amount of material used, in 

pounds. 
In order to find the number of pounds of extract obtained from 
100 pounds of material, i. c., to calculate the yield, we riiu.st first 
figure out how many pounds of extract were obtained ahogether 
from the total materials used, i. c.. how many pounds <it et.W'iw. 
are contained in the total w<irl. This la done as \o\Vi'«^'- 

9'5 



9l6 FIGURING IN THE BREWEKY. 

nctmiKc ExnACi ix iotal won. 
The wdght of a barrel ot water at cellar temperatare (4* R.) 
is 256.5 pounds. The weight of a barrel of wort oE a certaia 
Balling indication is 358.5 X Bp. g. 

Since the Balling indication of a wort (B.) shows bow many 
ponnds of extract are ccmtained in 100 pounds of wort, it f<dIowi 
- that 

asB-S X sp. g. X B. 

Extract in i bbl. wort = . 

100 
IleKC 

258-5 X sp. g. X B. X t*to. 

Total extract in wort = . 

100 
This being the extract obtained from the total materials, the ex- 
tract from too pounds, or the 

258.5 X sp- g- X B. X bbls. 

Yield = . 

Total materials 
Example I. — 6.600 pounds malt yield 120 barrels wort in cellar 
at 13 per cent B. ; sp. g. 1.053. What is the yield of the malt? 
Solution. — 

258-SXI.0S3XI3X 120 

Yield = . 

6600 
424632 

~ 6600 

= 64.3- 

Anm-cr.— Yield = 64.3 per cent. 

A tabk of Specific Gravity and Balling will be found in "Tlie 
Brewers' Chemical Laboratory," and one for reducing Balling 
indications to pounds of extract per barrel on ihe next page. 

CALCULATIONS ACCORDING TO R. WAHL. 

ABRIDGED CALCULATION OF YIELD BV WAHL'S FORMOLA. 

To calculate the yield by the above method involves consulting 
a table for the specific gravity and a tedious multiplication by that 
figure. Both of these inconveniences are avoided by nsing Wahl's 
formula. Wahl found that if the Balling indication of a wort 
is added to 25!)— wliich is sufikienik accurate for ihe weight of a 
barrel of water al cellar lempeiMvue— ft»t 7cs*\\. -wAWftfta-^ta^ 



FICURISC IN THE BREWERY. 



Hailing B 


Pounds 


BaUlng'F, 


Pounds 


BaUlnEN 


Poittlda 


UalllnK -x 


Pound 


8>ecl»- 


Extract 


Sacch&- 


Bi tract 


Sweh.- 


BltOKt 




Exlr.cls 




Per 


rometer. 


Per 


romeler. 


Per_ 


ro meter, 




WrOnt. 


Barrel 


Per Cent. 




Per Cent. 




Per Cent. 


Iten'el. 


I •• 


t.OD 


S.8 


MM 






18.4 






2.as 




1B.S3 




'.{& 


IB.E 


61:4s 






7M 








le.s 




;> 


S.K 


7.1 










!>3:0B 




ata 


7,! 


19.16 


ll.4> 


38 


i8:b 


52. 19 








19.42 




3B.«7 


i«-e 


fn.HK 


lis 










3S.M 






1.7 


i.is 




19:97 


IS^S 


SB.Bfi 




«:» 




4.l» 


7.« 


B0.» 




30-63 








4.91 




SCI.B2 




x.m 


19.8 


63:to 


w-o 














51,30 


«.l 


SM 




sroT 




sriso 




-M.49 






S.O 


21 .3S 


i3:» 


37. «t 


le.e 




*.a 










S7.97 






1.4 








i4la 


38.211 






t.s 


6:58 


bIs 


ffl;i7 




38.66 




Ffi:7o 








K.4g 




3B,W 


«o.o 




S.7 






iB.JS 




3S.13 






£.M 






23. W 




38.41 




se:oi 




j'.tut 


si? 


2S.!» 




38 70 


ao's 




a« 


7.BS 








40.(0 


20.4 


57:21 


S.I 






isib 




40.28 




67 &3 


S.Z 


M.W 


«.6 






40.57 
















40. «T 


ai.j 










M^m 


islo 


41.16 


20,8 


.^< 43 


sin 










4I.4.'> 


209 
















«l.o 


MM 








2r:m 


6.3 


43:03 




!W3S 
















69. W 


1^9 


io;»i 




2fl:(m 








59.80 


40 


lO-MI 




2«.» 


&.« 


42.91 




00.27 








20.81 


6.7 


4il.30 


21 -S 




i'.S 




ItiM 


2a. w 


.S.H 






«l\Wt 


4.3 




lO.I 


3J.1H 








81.19 




i':" 


Hi.a 


27 46 

27.73 


If 


44:37 


21 .d 
21,9 














44 te 


1M.O 


fl2 M 




i^iw 




2N.29 






2i 1 






13.W 




».»« 




46:26 


22.3 


b2:m 






10.7 


i».m 




46. Vi 




SI. 04 












4K.H 








1 '.» 




91:42 












1 .73 


ii>t 
















11,1 


W.iX) 






22:7 


61 2; 




] .KS 


11.3 


w.w 


1 a 














30. 4B 




47:32 


33:9 




!a 






19. n 






«8.0 






1 ;oj 






17:3 


47:91 


231 
















232 














4ti:&o 






CO 










«.»> 


ui 






1 .IS 


11.9 


K.IS 


17.7 


48.10 


23.S 


M 70 








12. U 






23.6 






1 '.m 




12. n 




49:ae 


23.7 






1 -M 


1 12.2 


n.10 


ISO 


fiu-oo 


^k.* 






1 .«> 


\ 12. S 


33.39 




\ Has, 


\\ ^'^ 










S3.«7 


w'.s 


\ »-■» 


\*** 






/ /l.fi 


33 9K 




\ W.t» 







9l8 FIGURING IN THE BREWERV. 



materials 
By thia abridged fbmnda the following values can be calcnlatsd: 

1. Weight of I bbl. won = 3» + B. 

(aS9+B)XB 

2. Lbs. extract in i bbl. wort = . 

100 

(259 + B) X B X this. 

3. Lbs. total extract in total wort = , 

too 

4. Yield as above. 

Exttmpte 2. — Same as in t ; 6,600 pounds of material give CV 
barrels of wort in cellar at 13 per cent Balling. What is the 
yield? 
Soltklion.— 

(359+1.1) X 13X IM 
Yield = . 



6600 

= 6+3. 
/4Hjwcr.— Yield = fti.3 per cent. or. the sntnc result as above. 

CAI.CUL.^TINIJ VIELD FOR TWO DIFFERENT MATeRlAr.S. 

If two different materials are used together (niMl and raw 
cereals), the total yield of mixed materials, or the .iverage yield, is 
calculated the same as above. But if it is desired to find the yield 
of one of the two materials, for instance, the raw cereal, it is 
necessary to know the yield of the other. Tor instance, the malt. 
If an approximate value is sufficient for the purpose in hand, the 
average yield of a malt of the quality in question is taken. To 
be accurate, it is better to take the yield obtained in a pure malt 
brewing. 

ExamfU t. — K brewing with 3.500 pounds of malt and i.goo 
pounds of raw cereals, gives 95 barrels of wort in the cellar at 
14 per cent Balling- The yield of the mall in a pure malt brewing 
nas 6j per cent. What is the vie\4 of the raw cereal? 
Solulian. — First figure ovrt t\\e ^o^»\ ff.M^'S. K^w(\ ft* total 
■feriaf; 



from the total ma- 



FIGURING IN THE BKEWERV. 9I9 

(259+14) X 14X95 
Total extract: 

lO 

= 3639-9=31531. 

We have, therefore, 3631 pounds exli 
[eridl. 
Next, calculate the extract from the malt: 

too lbs. malt yield = 63 lbs. extract. 
3500 lbs. malt yield ? lbs. extract. 

3500X63 
= 2205. 

We have, therefore, 2205 pounds malt extract. 
Deducting the malt extract from the total extract, 
extrnci from the raw cereal : 

3631 lbs. total extract. 

2205 lbs. malt extract. 

I42<5 lbs. raw cereal extract. 
This amount of extract was obtained from igoo lbs. rj 



igoo 



- = 7S- 



AiiS7Vcr. — Yield of extract from raw cereal = 75 per cent. 

Example .?.— 6500 pounds of material, consisting of 60 per cent 
malt and 40 per cent grits, give 130 barrels of wort in the cellar 
at 12.5 per cent Balling. The malt yield is 63 per cent. What is 
the yield of the grits? 

There are two ways of solving this example. 

Solulion I. — First calculate the number of pounds of malt and 
grits used, respectively. 

100 lbs. materials contain 60 lbs. malt. 
6500 lbs. materials contain ? lbs. malt. 



6500 X Co 




FIClHtntG IN THB OtEWKSV. 



gives a6oo Hm. grhs. 
s abore: 

(^S9+t2.i) X 12.5X130 



J3!0.75 X I3D 



= 44ii-ft or 4412. 

100 lbs. malt jridd 63 lbs- extract 
3goo lbs. malt yield ? lbs. extract. 



leaves 1955 lbs. grits extract from 2600 lbs. grits. 
2600 lbs. grits yield 1955 lbs. exlract. 
100 lbs. grits yield ? lbs. extract. 

1955 X 100 

— 75.2. 

2600 
Ansmrr.—YieH of grits — 75.2 per cent, 

Solulioii 2. — Calculate the average yield of ihc mixed materiils: 
(259+12.5) X 12.5 X 130 



Yield of mixed materials = 



441 187 



6500 



6500 
= 67.8. 
The average yield is 67.8 per cent. i. e.. loO lbs. mixed ma- 
terials yield 67.8 lbs. extract; too %&. in\xed materials consist of 
60 lbs. malt and 40 lbs. grits. DeivwA ftve «:».«»« <A te^ta*. tsaJt 



FIGURING IN THE HREWF.RV. 

from 67.8 lbs. extract, and the resnlt will be the e 
lbs. grits; 

too lbs. malt yield 63 lbs. extract. 
60 lbs. malt yield ? lbs. extract. 



gives 30.0 lbs. extract from .40 lbs. grits. 

40 lbs. grits yield 30 lbs. extract, 
too lbs. grits yield ? lbs. extract. 



For many purposes it is desirable to calculate the yield from 
the material by the total amount of won in the kettle and the 
Balling indication of sucli wort. 

Since the wort in the kellle is at a boil, llie liguri; 250 for the 
weight of a barrel of water at cellar temperature cannot he used. 
but the weight of a barrel of bolting water nmst be taken, which 
is -ippro-vimrlcly 246 lbs. For calculaliuR ihc yield of cxlrncl in 
the l.-eltle. Walil's formula, therefore, takes ibis appearance: 
(246+ B) X BXbbls. 

Yield = — — — -■ ■ ■ - — -. 

materials 
/r.rliii/';.'.— 8800 pounds of material i.s used, from which 1110 
barrels of wort in the kellle of 12 per cent Balling is oljiaiii.d 
What is the yield of extract? 
Soliilioii.— 

(246+ 12) X 12 X ?0O 



Yield = 



= 70 3O. 
Answer. — Y/pU = 70.36 per t 



gua ncuBiMG m tbb bbswkrv. 

cucuiATUK coMcmm mui or wnr » xMntx. 
On laving the mash-ttm and mnninK into the kettle ibt wort 
■howi a certain per cent Balling, winch >■ co eii deTalil y Mam 
that required what the wort leaves the kettle. In order to con- 
centrate the wott to the required density a certain amoBnl of 
water most be drawn off Iqp evaporation in boiling. 

The cpiestion is, how mnch should be evaporated, or bow 
moch should the wort be boiled down? 
The answer is found Iqr the following fonnnla: 
BUa. wort I BbU. of wort before boD. X Balling before faoiL 
after bailing \= Balling after boiling " 

Examfilt. — A sample of wort from the kettle after being cooled 
to 14* R. shows 12 per cent Balling. It is required to have 
a wort of 13 per cent Balling, when nuuing from kettle. 
How much should the wort be boiled down in the kettle, the 
total amount of wort on hand being 320 barrels? 
320X12 

Solution. — Bbls. wort after boiling = ^= 295.4, con- 

"3 
sequently the 320 barrels of wort must be boiled down to 9954 
barrels. 

320 — 295.4 = 24-6- 
Antmtr.— Amount of water to be evaporated = 24.6 barrels. 

CALCULATING THE MATERIALS. 

If the question is, how many pounds of material are required 

to produce a given number of barrels of woit of a certain Balling 

indication, ihe yield of the material should be knovm. The 

formula for this calculation is as follows : 

(259 -h B) X B X bbls. 

Materials in lbs. = . 

Yield. 

MALT. 

Example I. — How many pounds of malt will be required for 
a brewing of ISO barrels in the cellar at 13.8 per cent Balling, tiie 
mail yield being 64 per cent? 
Solulioii.— 

(2594 13-8) X 13^X150 
Materials = 



FIGURING IN THIi ItREWKRY. 923 

564696 
64 
= 8823 

Antwer. — Required: S823 lbs. malt. 

tlALT AND RAW CEaEALS. 
Example i, — How many pounds of malt and how many pounds 
of grits are required for 300 barrels in the cellar at 12.5 per cent 
Balling, using 65 per cent of malt and 35 per cent of grits, the 
yield of mall being 64 per cent, of grits 75 per cent? 
Solution. — 
I. Calculate the average yield : 

100 lbs. malt yield 64 lbs. extract. 
65 lbs. malt yield ? lbs. extract. 



= z6,2 lbs. grits extract. 



!0O lbs. mixed yield 67.8 lbs. 1 
/J/wn'cr. — Average yield = 67,8 per cent. 
2. CalciiUtc tbe total materials; 

(259 + B) X 1 



Total material = 



Yield 

(259 f 12.5) X 12 



67.8 
101812.S 

67.8 
= IS016. 
Total maieriaJs rwjiiired = 15016 Vo%. 



FIGURING IN THE BKICWERY. 

3. Calculate the pounds of malt and grits, 

100 Ihs. matcnals contain 65 lbs. malt. 
15016 lbs. materials contain ? lbs. mall. 



5256 lbs. grits. 
/Jiwiocr.— Required: 9750 lbs. malt and 5256 lbs. grits. 

CALCULATING THE COST. 

To calculate Ibc cost of a barrel of wort (in cellar) a 



laterial is concerned, the following values i 



. be 



1. Saecharomcter indication of the wort in cellar. 

2. Percentage of each material of the total. 

3. Yields of ibc materials. 

4. Cost of the materials. 

This calculation will be illustrated by the following: 
Example. — A wort o[ 13.5 per cent Balling in the cellar is to be 
prepared from 60 per cent malt, 40 per cent rice, and 1.5 lbs. Imps 
per barrel. What is the cost of llie materials per barrel at the 
following prices : Malt 58 cents per bushel of 33 lbs., rice 210 
cents per 100 lbs., anil hops 18.5 cents per pound. Yield of the 
malt 64 per cent, of the rice 78 per cent? 
Solution. — Find ihe anionnt of materials required for a barrel 

Calculation of average yield: 

100 lbs. malt yield 64 lbs. extract. 
(a lbs. malt yield ? lbs. extract. 



60X64 



= 38.4 lbs. niah e 



gA 



ncURING IN THE BlUWERY. 



too lbs. mixed yidd 6i>.6 lbs. extract 
(^IculatioQ of total materiala: 

<»59 + IJ.5) X 13.5 
Total materials for one barrel = 

367&75 

= 32-9- 
Total materials required 5^4 lb*, of which 60 per cent malt and 
40 per cent rice. 

In too lbs. materials fn lbs. malt. 

In 53.9 lbs. materials ? lbs. malt. 



52.9X60 





gives 31. albs. rice. 


Thi.- nMtcriats 


n-quired for a barrel of wort, therefore, are: 




31.7 lbs. mall. 




21 .3 lbs. nee. 




1.5 lbs. hops. 


The cost of ihcse materials it found in ihc following manner: 


I. Malt. 






3.1 lbs. malt COM 58 cents. 




317 lbs. malt cost ? cents. 




317X58 




= 557. 




33 




Cost of malt = 55.7 cents. 


2. Rice. 










21-2 lbs. rice cost ? cents. 




2i.a X 210 



Cost of rice = M-S twv^. 



FIGURING IN THE BREWERY. 937 

3- Hops. 

1 lb. hops cost 18.S cents. 
1.5 lbs. hops cost f cents. 

18.5 X IS = 2?7. 
Cost of hops := 27.7 cents. 
In conclusion 

the malt cost 55.7 cents. 

the rice cost 44.5 cents. 

the hops cost 37.7 cents. 

Total materials cost 127.9 cents. 

/tiiswer.—Thc cost of the materials per barrel of wort amounts 
to $1.27. 

FIGURING COST OF ONE BARREL OF BEER. 

If wc want to find the cost of material used in producing a bar- 
rel of beer ready for delivery we must add to the cost of a bar- 
rel of wort as figured above the cost of the beer lost between 
starting tub and racking bench. (See "Losses from Malt Mill 
lo Racking Bench.") 

Examt-le.^U loo barrels of wort in starling tub equal gs bar- 
rels m.irkelabic beer (loss 5 per cent), and the cost of the nia- 
[erial for the production of one barrel of wort is $1.27 what 
would be (he cost of a barrel of beer? 

Solution. — If 95 barrels of beer are obtained from 100 bar- 
rels of wort it takes = I.OS barrel of wort lo obtain one 

95 
barrel of beer. 

Since one barrel of wort costs $1.27, 105 barrels of wort cost 
!,05X 1.27 = $1.33. 

Answer. — Cost of material for one barrel of beer $1.33. 

CALCULATING THE MATERIALS ACCORDING TO M. 
SCHWARZ. 



In figuring out the amounts of malt and adjuncts required for 
a brewing, the percentage of yield of extract from the various ma- 
terials should be first determined. Average values for yields are 
given in the following tables: 

1 bu. uncleaned maW =^ 24 %%. 
I bu. cleaned maU = 35 \\». 



93B flGUSUIG IN TUE BREWERY. 

I bo. cleuMd malt yieldt ai pounds of cztnct 

100 lbs. cleaned malt jrieldi 63.6 pounds of extract 

100 lbs. com (fine) yielda 76 pounds of extract 

100 lbs. flalces yields 78 pounds of extract 

100 Ibfl. rice yields 82 pounds of extract 

too lbs. glucose or grape nigar ytelda 79 pounds of extract 

100 lbs. anhydrous grape sugar yields 97 pounds of extract 

100 lbs. cane sugar yields 100 poundt of extract 

One busbel of malt is replaced by 
37.63 lbs. com. 
3&ga Iba. Hakes. 
SS^i lbs. rice. 

9&58 lbs. gtococe or gra^ sugar. 
31^6 lbs. anfaydfons grape sugar. 
31.0 lbs. cane sugar. 



100 tbs. corn takes the place of 3.62 bu. malt. 

100 lbs. flakes takes the place of 3.7 bu. matt. 

100 lbs. rice takes the place of 3-9 bn. malt. 

TOO lbs. glucose or grape sugar takes the 

place of 3,8 bu. malt 

100 lbs. anhydrous grape sugar takes the 

place of 4.63 bu. malt. 

100 lbs. cane sugar takes the place of ^.76 bu. malt 



100 lbs. corn takes the place of 

100 lbs. flakes takes Ihe place of.... 

icm lbs. rice takes the place of 

100 lbs. glucose or grape sugar takes 

the place of 

100 lbs. anhydrous grape sugar takes 

the place of 

100 lbs. cane sugar lakes Ihe pi: 
10 gal. syrup takes the place 



iig.5 lbs. cleaned malt. 
122.6 lbs. cleaned malt. 
128.9 lbs. cleaned malt 

124 2 lbs. cleaned mah. 

152.5 lbs. cleaned malt. 

f 157.2 lbs. cleaned malt. 

147 lbs. cleaned malt. 



Inserting the respective values from the above tables in the 
formulas given below, the anvount ol mwetak for a brewing can 
*e readily calculated. 



FIGURING IN THE BREWERY. 929 

ALL MALT. 

The question is: How many bushels of malt are required in 
order to obtain a certain number of barrels of wort of a given 
percentage of extract, either in the kettle or in the fermenler? 
het B = the bushels of malt to be found, 
W = the barrels of wort, 
p = percentage of extract in the wort, 
F ^ a factor which is equal 125 for wort in the kettle and 
133 for viort in the fermenler, taking an average 
malt yield of 60 per cent. Should the yield not be 
60 per cent, deduct 2 from the factor F for each 
per cent above 60, and add 2 lo the factor F for 
each per cent below 60. 
The formula then is: 

WXPXF 



Example I. — How many bushels of malt are required to get 165 
barrels of wort of 12.8 per ceni extract in the fermenting cellar, 
the malt yield being 60 per cent? 
Solution. — 

W = i6s, F = 133. P = 12.8. 
16s X 12.8 X 133 280896 

B = = = 280.9. 

1000 1000 

Answtr.—The required amount of malt is 28o.g, or nearly 281 
bushels. 

Example 3. — How many bushels of malt are required to gel 
in the kettle aoo barrels of wort of 13 per cent Balling, the malt 
yield being 62 per cent? 
Solution.— 

W = 200, p = 13, F = I2S —(2X2)= 121- 
200X 13X 121 314600 

B = = = 314.6. 

1000 1000 

Answer.— 'T\\^ required amount of malt is 314.6 bushels. 

MALT AND ADJUNCTS. 

If adjuncts are to be used with malt, calculate first ttw. a\wiMv>x 
of malt that would be required if the btevtm^ -ww^ \o ^l«■ ^w***- 
o!al} tnah. after whicii replace the dwVrcA vartwa oV. "^o.^ *^'-'^ 



930 FIGURING IN THE BREWERY. 

for malt 1^ the adjunct that is to be tised,Jnsertiiig the values 
given in the tables above. 

Example /a.— Taking Example i, above, under "All Matt," 
and saying that 30 per cent of the materials is to be replaced bgr 
flakes, what amounts of malt and flakes would be required? 

Solution, — ^Total materials if malt alone was to be used would 

be 280.9 bushels, as calculated above. Of this amount 50 per 

cent is: 

a8o.9X30 

= 84.3 bushels (approximately). 

100 

This amount is to be replaced with flakes. One bushel of malt 

is rq>]aced by 26.92 pounds of flakes. Hence, multiply 26.92 by 

84.3. 

26.92 X 84.3 = 2269.3 

The amount of flakes to be taken is 2,269.3, or in round num* 
bers 2,270 pounds. The quantity of malt is to be reduced 30 
per cent 
Hence, 

280.9 — 843 = 196.6 
is the amount of malt to be used. 

Ansufcr. — 2^70 pounds of flakes and 196.6 bushels of malt is 
the required amount of materials. 

Example ib. — Still taking Example i (above), under "All 

Malt,*' and saying 20 per cent of the malt is to be replaced by 

corn grits and 20 per cent by grape sugar. What amounts of 
malt, grits and grape sugar are required? 

Solution. — The required amount of malt, if an all-malt brew- 
ing was intended, as calculated above, would be 280.9. Of this 

amount 40 per cent is: 

280.9 X 40 

= 1 12.4 (approximately). 

100 

Half of this amount = 56.2 bushels is to be replaced by corn 

grits, and the other half by grape sugar. There remains malt 

280.9 — 1 1 2.4 = 168.5 bu. 

One bushel of malt is replaced by 27.63 pounds of com. Hence, 

the amount of corn required is 

27.63 X 56.2 = 1553 lbs. 
w round numbers. 

One busbcl of malt is replaced b| ;i6.^ ^msA^ ^ ^sns^ sn^ar. 



y^ 



FIGURING IN THE BREWERY. 93 1 

Hence, the amount of grape sugar required is 

56.2 X 26.58 = 1494 lbs. 
in round numbers. 

Answer. — The required amount of materials is 168.5 bushels of 
malt, 1,553 pounds of grits and 1494 pounds of grape sugar. 

MATERIALS ADDED IN KETTLE. 

Where grape sugar, glucose or other adjuncts are used, which 

arc directly soluble and are added in the kettle, another formula 

may be used. 

The question here is, what amount of glucose, syrup or sugar 

of any kind, of known yield, should be added in the kettle in 

order to raise the percentage of extract in a given number of 

barrels of wort to a certain figure? 

Let W = the barrels of wort, 

p = the percentage of extract in the wort, 

q = the required percentage of extract, 

pi =: the percentage of extract of the adjunct, 

F = a constant factor = 250, 

G = the required amount of the adjunct in pounds. 

The formula then is: 

(FXW)X(q-p) 
G = . 

Pi — q 
Example. — How many pounds of glucose of 80 per cent ex- 
tract are required in order to raise the percentage of extract in 
210 barrels of wort from 13.2 to 14.4? 

Solution. — 

W = 210, p = 13.2, q = 14.4, F = 250, Pa = 80. 

(250 X 210) X (i4«4 — 13.2) 52500 X 1.2 

G = : = . 

80 — 14.4 fe.6 

,' 63000 

= = 960. 

65.6 

Answer. — The required amount of glucose is 960 pounds. 
YIELD CALCULATIONS ACCORDING TO M. SCHWARZ 

CALCULATING YIELD FROM WQRT IN FERMENTER. 

Taking a wort of 13 per cent extT2ic\, ^VlvOcv \% >^\'«^ ^=<^'^^2^ 
density for most beers in the United Stal^^, N«\v«^?ai VJt«. «v^^ 



932 FIGURING IN THE BREWERY. 

gtmvHy becomes a oonstant &ctor, the foUonring formidR it 

deemed accurate enough for practical purposes : 
Let W = barrels of wort in fermentcrs, 

p = saccharometer reading of such wort 

B = total materials expressed in bushels of malt, 

Y = the yield 
The formula then is: 

_ WXpX8 

B 

Examplf, — 500 bushels of malt yield a88 barrels of wort in 
fermenters at 13.5 per cent Balling. What is the yield! 

SoluHon. — 

W = 288, p z= 13^, B = 50a 

288 X 135X8 31104 

Y = = = 62^ 

500 500 

Answer. — The yield is 62.2 per cent. 

CALCULATING YIELD FROM WORT IN KETTLE AFTER BOILINa 

The amount of wort which leaves the kettle differs from that 
which reaches the fermenters, since in passing from the kettle to 
the fermqnter the volume of the wort shrinks on an average 10 
per cent, while the density increases by the evaporation of wa- 
ter, causing an increase of 4 per cent in extract. If it is desired 
to calculate the yield from the amount of wort in the kettle after 
boiling, the formula given for calculating the yield from the 
amount of wort in the fcrmenter can be used with this modifica- 
tion that the specific gfravity factor 8 is changed to 7.5. 

Let W = barrels of hot wort in the kettle, 
p = Balling reading at 14* R., 
B = total materials calculated in bushels of malt, 

Y = the required yield of extract. 
The formula then is: 

J WXPX7.5 

B 
Example. — Taking the example given for calculating yield 
from amount of wort in fermenter, as above, there is obtained 
the following: 

Solution. — Taking into consideration the contraction of the 
volume of wort from kettle to icnnftuXfcx^ VSast ^.mwsvx. ^1 wort 



FIGURIKO IN THE BREWERY, 933 

of 13 per cent in the kettle, according to the above figures, is 320 
barrels. Hence, 

W = 320. p = 13. B = 500. 

3»X I3X75 31200 

Y = = = 62.4. 

500 500 

Antvier. — The yield is 62.4 per cent. 



MECHANICAL YIELD CALCULATOR BY J. E. SIEBEL. 
A device for calculating the yield mechanically has been in- 
vented by J. E. Sicbcl, and is shown in the accompanying illus- 
tration. It is of a size to allow the printed matter on its dial 
to be read with ease, tiic illustration being considerably reduced 

The inside dial bearing the legend, "ifOMtta^ o\ m^s^tiv^? -i™- 
be turned around the center, and ttw Vmivi« ot viiy^'^'-* "^ 



934 fIgueing i^ f He BREWfittv. 

drde, showing oo one divisioo gravity of wort and on ano t he r 
jrield in per cent, can also be turned around partiaUy. The 
dial showing the nnmber of barrels of beer, or rather wort, re- 
mains stationary. The dials comprise a range of material from 
1,000 to 40,000 pounds^ and from ao to 800 barrels of wort The 
gravities shown on this diagram indude the degrees 7 to 16^ 
and the yields from 45 to 88 per cents, but the range of these 
figures may be enlarged, if desirable, on the same principle. It 
will be observed that in using this device it is inmiaterial what 
kind of saccharometer is used to determine the gravity of the 
wort, as it gives the percentage of yield always in the samM 
denomination corresponding to that of the saccharometer. More- 
over, the instrument is equally applicable if different weights 
and measures are used to indicate quantities of wort and raw 
material if the zero or starting point on the margin is shifted 
to a position which can be readily determined. Thus in using 
the point XO a little to the ri|^t of the zero point, as such, 
the instrument gives correct indications of yield if German 
pounds are used for material and hectoliters for barrels, hi 
other words, by shifting the zero point to a point readily ascer- 
tainable in any given case, the apparatus may be adapted to any 
system of measurement, number of gallons per barrel, etc. 

HEAT CALCULATIONS ACCORDING TO M. HENIUS. 

THE BREWEX'S HEAT UNIT. 

For practical purposes when making calculations in the brew- 
ery we do not employ the heat unit as given in the chapter on 
Physics. A heat unit, as understood for the purpose of practical 
figuring in the brewery, is the amount of heat required to raise 
the temperature of one barrel of water one degree Reaumur. 

The heat required to raise the temperature of larger quantities 
of water of a given temperature is governed by the weight of the 
water and the number of degrees by which the temperature is to 
be raised, but is independent of the original temperature of the 
water. In other words, in order to raise one barrel of water 
from o** R. to 10* R., an equal amount of heat (= 10 heat-units) 
is required as to raise one barrel of water from 15*^ R. to 25* R.. 
the rise being 10° in each case, and each degree requiring one 
heat-unit per barrel of water. Likewise, in order to raise five 
barrels of water of 20* R. to Bo* B.., fese \\mt^ ^ wwiVv heat is 



FIGURING IN THE BREWERY. 935 

required as to raise one barrel water from 20** to 80°, viz., 

5 X 60 = 300 heat-units. 

To heat 1 bbl. water from 0° R. to PR. or by 1«», requires 1 h. u. 

To heat 1 bbl. water from 0** R. to 10° R. or by 10°, requires 10 h. u. 

To heal 1 bbl. water from 85** R. to 50<* R. or by 15**, requires 15 ti. u. 

To heat t bills, water from 3B*» R. to 50" R. or by IB", requires 2x15=30 h. u. 
To heat 80 bbls. water from IS** R. to 80" R. or by 65", requires 50x65=3250 h. u. 

The amount of heat contained in a given quantity of water de- 
pends upon the weight of the water and its temperature. Thus, 
one barrel of water of 50° R. contains 50 heat-units, 20 barrels 
water of 50* contain 20 X SO = 1000 heat-units. 

Remark: The temperature of boiling water and boiling mash 
is taken at 78° R. in all subsequent calculations, since the water 
loses about 2** R. during its passage through the pipes. 

CALCULATIONS WHERE WATER ONLY IS USED. 

TO FIND TEMPERATURE OF MIXTURE OF WATER. 

Example i. — 75 bbls. of water of 15** R. is mixed with 50 

bbls. water of 70** R. What is the temperature of the mixture? 

Solution. — 

75 bbls. water of 15° contains 75 X I5 = 1125 heat-units. 
50 bbls. water of 70** contains 50 X 70 = 3500 heat-units. 



125 bbls. mixed water contains 4625 heat-units. 

One barrel mixed water, then, contains the 125th part of the total 

heat of 4625 units. 

4625 -r- 125 = 37, 

or 37 heat-units. Water possessing 37 heat-units per barrel has 

a temperature of 37®, hence: 

Answer. — Temperature of the mixed water = 37® R. 

TO FIND TEMPERATURE OF COLD WATER. 

Example 2. — By mixing 20 barrels of boiling water with 12 
barrels of cold water, the temperature of the mixture is 54** R 
What was the temperature of the cold water? 

Solution. — 

12 bbls. water ? R. 

20 bbls. water 78** R. contains 20 X 78 = 1560 heat-units. 

32 bbls. mixed water of 54° contain 32 X 54 = 1728 heat-units 
From the total amount of heat of 1728 units, deduct the heat 
supplied by the boiling water = 1560 units. T\\<i \tvcv3AvAvi\ 'vb "^"^ 
amount of heat that must be contained \tv V\vt v-zXJ^^. ^^^ ^•j^r-'^ 



936 FIGUUKG IK THB BREWERY. 

lyaB hea-onits = total amoiiiit of heat 
1560 heat-iuiits = heat of boiling water. 

168 hcat-tmits = heat of cold water. 
Dividing the amount of heat in the cold water by the number of 
barrels gives the temperature: 

16B -i- la = 14. 

One barrel of cold water contains 14 heat-units, or 
i^iijwrr.— Temperature of the cold water = 14* R. 

TO nun AMomiT op gold wato. 

ExampU 3. — ^How many barrds of cold water of 15* R. are re- 
quired in order to cool 30 barrds of water of 72*^ R. to 60^ R.? 

Solution. — In cooling the hot water from 72® to 60*, that is, 
by 12 degrees, each barrd of water gives up 12 heat-units, herice 
the 30 barrels of water give up 30 -X 12 = 360 heat-units. This 
amount of heat serves to raise the temperature of the cold water 
from 15* to 60* to reach the final temperature of 60° in the mixed 
water. To raise the temperature as required from 15* to 6o* 
= 45^, each barrel of cold water must receive an addition of 45 
heat-units. There is a total of 360 heat-units available, which is 
given off by the hot water. It must be found how many barrels 
of cold water can be heated to 60® R., using 45 heat-units for 
each barrel. 

One barrel cold water takes up 45 heat-units. 
How many barrels cold water take up 360 heat-units? 

360 -f- 45 = 8 bbls. 
Answer, — 8 barrels of cold water is required. 

TO nND AMOUNT OF BOILING WATER. 

Example 4. — How many barrels of boiling water of 78* R. will 
be required to raise 20 barrels of water from 30** to 56* ? 

Solution /.-—To heat 20 barrels water from 30** to 56®, that is. 
by 26 degrees, requires 20 X 26 = 520 heat-units, which is taken 
from the boiling water. This water is thereby cooled from 78® 
to 56*, that is. by 22 degrees. Hence, each barrel of boiling water 
gives off 22 heat-units. 

One barrel boiling water gives off 22 heat-units. 
Ho\^ many barrels boiling water give off 520 heat-units ? 

520 -T- 22 = 2i.6. 

Answer, — It requires 23,6 bb\&, oi V>o\\\tv^ hi^V^x. 



FIGURING IN THE BftEWEftY. 937 

Solution 2 (Abridged). — ^Write the three temperatures in a 
column, beginning with the lowest and finishing with the highest. 
Take the difference between the first and the second temperatures, 
multiply it by the number of barrels, and divide the product by 
the difference between the second and third temperatures. The 
result is the required number of barrels of boiling water. 
20 bbls. water 30° 



56° 



78^ 
26X20 
= 23.6. 




22 

Anszvcr. — 23.6 barrels of boiling water. 

TO FIND AMOUNTS OF COLD AND OF BOILING WATER. 

Example 3. — I low many barrels of cold water of 12** and how 
many barrels of boiling water arc required to secure 35 barrels of 
64**? 

Solution (Abridged). — Write the three temperatures in a col- 
umn as in ICxainplc 4. nuiltiply the number of required barrels by 
the (lifTerenoc between the first and second temperatures, and 
divide by llio diffcrcnrc between the first and third temperatures. 
This gives the barrels of hot water required. Deducting this 
number from the total amount of water gives the barrels of cold 
water. 



35 bbls. water 12 



52X35 
66 



78' 
= 27.5. 



o 

•3 



52 

66 



35 bbls. total water of 64". 
27.5 bbls. boiling water of 78®. 

7.5 bbls. cold water of 12". 

/insu'cr. — It requires 27.5 barrels of boiling water and 7.5 barrels 
of cold water. 



938 FIGURING IN THE BREWERY. 

CALCULATIONS WHERE MALT OR RAW CEREAL AND 

WATER ARE USED. 

Whenerer malt or cereals are to be mixed with water and it is 
desired to determine the temperatures of such mixtures (mashes) 
or find the required temperature of either of these materials it 
must be borne in mind that it takes less heat to raise the tem- 
perature of malt or cereals than it does to heat i>^ater. Taking 
water as a unit it requires only o^ of the heat used in heating 
water to raise the temperature of an equal weight of malt an 
equal number of degrees. The figure 04 is called the specific 
heat of malt. (See "Physics.**) For specific heat calculations in 
the brewery it is convenient to take 1,000 pounds of malt as a 
*basis and to express its heat capacity in barrels of water. 

One barrel of water weighs 258.5 pounds, but results suffi- 
ciently accurate may be obtained by taking the figure 250 as the 
weight of one barrel, or 1,000 pounds for four barrels. In short : 
250 pounds malt = i barrel of water in weight, 
or 1000 pounds malt = 4 barrels of water in weight. 

Since the specific heat of malt is 0.4. >%e have 

1000 pounds malt = 4 barrels X 0.4 =1.6 barrel of water, as 
to heat capacity. 

In order, then, to find the heat capacitj* of a given quantity of 
malt or cereals calculate 1.6 barrel of water for each 1,000 pounds 
of malt or cereals, or divide the number of pounds of malt or 
cereals by 1000 and multiply by 1.6. 

Example i, — 5400 lbs. malt of i8* R. is doughed-in with 50 
bbls. water of 33° R. What is the temperature of the mash? 

Solution. — 

5400 -7- 1000 = 5.4. 
5.4 X 1.6 = 8.64. 

5400 lbs. malt correspond to 8.6 bbls. water as to heat capacity. 

8.6 bbls. water of iS** contain 8.6 X 18 = 154.8 heat-units. 
50 bbls. water of 33** contain 50 X 33 = 1650 heat-units. 



58.6 bbls. mash contain 1804.8 heat-units. 

1804.8 -T- 58.6 = 30.8. 
Ansxccr. — Temperature of mash = 30.8° R. 



FIGURING IN THE BREWERY. 939 

CALCULATIONS AT THE MASH TUB. 

TO FIND THE TEMPERATURE OF THE DOUGHING-IN WATER. 

Example. — 6500 pounds of malt of 15® R. is doughed-in with 60 
barrels of water. The temperature of the mash is to be 30** R. 
What should be the temperature of the doughing-in water? 

Solution. — 

6500 -f- 1000 = 6.5. 
6.5 X 1.6 = 10.4. 

6500 lbs. malt correspond to 10.4 bbls. water as to heat capacity. 
10.4 bbls. water of 15° R. contains 10.4 X I5 = 156 heat-units. 
60 bbls. water of ? R. 



70.4 bbls. mash of 30** R. contain 70.4 X 30 = 2112 heat-units. 
From the total heat-units of the mash deduct the amount oi 
heat supplied by the malt, and the result will be the heat contained 
in the water. 

70.4 bbls. mash contains 21 12 heat-units. 

10.4 bbls. water (malt) contains 156 heat-units. 



60 bbls. doughing-in water contains 1956 heat-units 
1956 -T- 60 = 22.G. 
Answer. — Temperature of doughing-in water = 32.6** R. 

to find the final temperature (temperature of the tofal 

mash). 

Example. — Doughed-in in the mash tub, 8750 lbs. malt with 
80 bbls. water. Temperature of malt mash = 32**. Doughed-in 
in rice cooker, 6500 lbs. grits and 1900 lbs. malt, with 84 bbls. wa- 
ter. What is the temperature of the total mash, after the cereal 
mash has been run into the malt mash? 

Solution. — First find how many bbls. mash arc contained in 

the mash tub and how many in the rice cooker: 

I. Malt mash. 

8750 -T- 1000 = 8.75. 

8.75 X 1.6 = 14.0. 
14 bbls. water (malt). 
80 bbls. water. 

94 bbls. malt mash. 



940 FtGUftING IN THE BttEWERY. 

2. Oreal mash. 

&S0O lbs. grits. 
1900 lbs. malt 

8400 lbs. materials. 
&I00-T- 1000 = 84. 
a4 X liS = 13.44- 

13.44 bbls. water (materials). 
84. bbls. water. 



97.4 bbls. cereal mash. 
94 bbls. malt mash of 32* contains g^ X 3^ = 3008 h. u. 
974 bbls. cereal mash of yS** contains 97.4 X 78 = 7597.2 h. u. 



191 .4 bbls. total mash contains 10605.2 h. u. 

10605.2 -T- 191 -4 = 55-4- 
Answer. — Final temperature = 55.4** R. 

TO FIND THE DOUGHING-IN TEMPERATURE (TEMPERATURE OF THE 

MALT mash). 

Example. — E>oughcd-in in the mash tub. 6800 lbs. malt with 62 
hbls. water. In rice cooker 5200 lbs. grits and 1500 bbls. malt with 
64 bbls. water. Final temperature, i. e., temperature of total mash 
to l>c 56°. \Yhat should be the temperature of the malt mash 
when the cereal mash is run in? 

Solution. — First find the bbls. of malt mash and cereal mash, 
respectively. 
I. Malt mash. 

6800 -=- 1000 = 6.8 
6.8 X 1.6= 10.88. 
10.88 bbls. water (malt). 
62 bbls. water. 



72.9 bbls. malt mash. 

2. Cereal Mash. 

5200 lbs. grits. 
1500 lbs. malt. 



6700 lbs. materials. 
6700 -r- 1000 = 6.7. 
6.7 X 1.6 = 10.72. 



FIGURING IN THE BREWERY. 94I 

10.72 bbls. water (materials). 
64 bbls. water. 



74.7 bbls. cereal mash. 

72.9 bbls. malt mash of ? degrees. 

74.7 bbls. cereal mash of 78** contains 74.7 X 78 = 5826.6 h. u. 



147.6 bbls. total mash of 56° contains 147.6 X 56 = 8265.6 h. u. 

From the heat-units of the total mash deduct the heat-units of 

the cereal mash: leaves the heat-units contained in the malt 

mash. 

8265.6 h. u. in total mash. 

5826.6 h. u. in cereal mash. ' 



2439.0 h. u. in malt mash. 
2439.0 -7- 72.9 = 33.4. 
Answer. — Doughing-in temperature = 334° R. 

TO FIND THE NUMBER OF BARRELS OF CEREAL MASH. 

Example. — Doughed-in in mash tub 5400 lbs. malt with 54 bbls. 
water. Temperature of mash = 35** R. How many barrels of 
cereal mash of 78* R., or boiling water, are wanted in order to 
raise the malt mash to 58**? 

5400 -7- 1000 = 5.4. 
5.4 X 1.6 = 8.64. 
8.64 bbls. water (malt). 
54 bbls. water. 




62.6 bbls. malt mash. 
Proceed according to abridged solution of Example 4. "Cal- 
culation where water only is used": 

62.6 bbls. mash. 35** 

58'^ 

78' 
62.6X23 
71.99. 

20 

Answer. — Required, 72 bbls. cereal mash. 

TO FIND THE BARRELS OF THICK If ASH. 

Example. — Doughed-in in mash tub 10500 lbs. malt with 100 
bbh. water. Temperature of mash = 3QP. T\vt xww^v V8» V^Xsfc. 
heated by a thick mash to 40*. by ai %tJCKya^ ^^r*- 'ck*'^ ^*^ '^ 



942 FIGURING IN THE BREWERY. 

and by a "lauter^ mash to 60*. How many barrds are reqnired- 

of the first and second thick mashes and the tauter mash? 

Solution, — 

IQ500 -h 1000 = 10.5. 

las X 1-6 = 16^ 
16.80 hbls. water (malt). 
100 bbls. water. 



116^ bbls. malt mash. 
Proceed as in Example 5, ''Calcalation when water only is 
used": 

1. Thick mash. 
1 16.8 bUs. nudt mash. 30' 

7^ 
116.8X 10 

= 24.3. 

48 
To raise the mash to 40* R. requires 24.3 bbls. thick mash. 
The total mash then has a temperature of 40°. 

2. Thick mash. 

1 16.8 bbls. malt mash. 40' 



••^- 



78 
116.8 X 12 

- = 36.9. 



40^ 

52^ 

'?«^^ 



12 
J8 




38 

To raise the jnash to 52*^ requires 36.9 bbls. thick mash. Tem- 
perature of total mash = 52*. 
3. **Lauter** mash. 

1 16.8 bbls. mash- 52^ 

60 

78 
116.8X8 

= 35.9. 

26 

To raise the mash to 60^ requires 35.9 bbls. lauter mash. 

Answer — 

First thick mash = 24.3 bbls. 
Second thick mash = 3j5.q bbls. 



FIGURING IN THE BREWERY. 943 

CALCULATIONS BY MEANS OF LATENT HEAT, 

ACCORDING TO M. HENIUS. 

COOLING CAPACITY OF ICE. 

If heat IS applied to ice of o** R. it melts and changes into 
ice-water. Though a large amount of heat is expended in melting 
the ice no rise in temperature is indicated by the thermometer 
as long as any ice is present. The heat so absorbed 
is called latent heat. It has been found that the amount of heat 
it takes to melt one pound of ice will raise the temperature of one 
pound of water from o** R. to 63° R., or is equal to 63 heat-units. 
The cooling capacity of ice is, therefore, 63 heat-units. We may 
here also, as in the calculations with specific heat, take for our 
practical figuring one barrel of water (250 pounds) as the unit of 
weight, and a heat-unit will then be the amount of heat it takes 
to raise the temperature of one barrel of water one degree 
Reaumur. 

MIXING ICE AND WATER. 

To illustrate the difTcrence between ice and ice-water as to 
cooling capacity, the following examples will suffice: 

Example i. — Ten barrels of water of 78** R. are to be mixed 
with 10 barrels of water of o** R. What is the temperature of 
the mixture? 

Solution. — 
10 barrels of water of 78* contain 10 X 78 h. u. = 780 h. u. 
10 barrels of water of 0° contain 10 X o h. u. = o h. u. 



20 barrels of water contain 780 li. u. 

or one barrel contains 780 heat-units -f- 20 = 39 heat-units, hence : 

Answer. — Temperature of the mixture is 39** R. 

Example 2. — Ten barrels of water of 78** R. arc to be mixed 
with 10 barrels of ice (250 pounds each) of o** R. What is the 
temperature of the mixture? 

Solution. — The 10 barrels of water contain 78 X 10 heat units 
= 780 heat units. The 10 barrels of ice absorb 10 X 63 heat 
units = 630 heat units and are then changed into 10 barrels of 
ice water of o** R. The heat units so absorbed are taken from 
the 780 heat units of the hot water, and aiXftx Tw\<vwsk ''^ ^^^ 
ice there arc kit 780 — 630 = ISO VvwlX uxC\\.'& \u >^^ '^^'^ ^^^^ 



944 nGUUNG IN THE BEEWSRY. 

lo Imrfclt of water ooataining 150 hcA units 
10 twrrcls of water containing o heat units 

20 tNurels of water containing 150 heat units. 
One barrel contains 150 -^ 20 = 7.5 heat units. 

Answer. — ^Temperature of the mixture is 7.5^ R. 

We see from- the two ezamiftles that while 10 barrda of ice- 
water of o* R. cools the water of 78* R. to ap"* R. only, the same 
qtumtity of ice reduced the temperature to 7.5** R. 

OOOUNG WATSR BY ICE. 

If ice is melted and the resulting ice-water of o* R. is raised 
to a higher temperature, then the heat absorbed is the sum of 
the latent heat and the heat required to raise the temperature 
to the desired point 

Example 3. — We want to cool 10 barrels of water of 78* R. to 
4* R- with ice. How many barrels of ice does it require? 

Solution,— To cool 10 barrels from 78* R. to 4° takes (78 — 4) 
X 10 heat units = 740 heat units, which must be absorbed by the 
ice. Each barrel of ice, when melting, absorbs 63 heat units, and 
as the water should have a temperature of 4° R., the melted ice 
must absorb four more heat units in rising from o** to 4*^ R., or in 
all 63 + 4 = 67 heat units. As 740 heat units must be absorbed 
it takes 740 h- 67 = 11 barrels ice to cool 10 barrels of water 
from 78*' R. to 4** R. 

Answer. — It requires 11 barrels of ice (250 pounds each). 

From the data given above we may construct the following 
formula : 
Bbls. ice required j '^ No. bbls. water X (high temp. - end temp.) 

(250 IDS. each; ^ Cooling capacity of ice + end temperature 

It being more practical to get the result in tons of ice (2,000 
pounds) instead of barrels of ice, i ton = 8 barrels, we can. by 
multiplying the barrels of ice, the latent heat and the end tem- 
perature by 8, change the formula as follows: 

I Barrels of water X (high temp. — end temp.) 

Tons of ice = ^ 

Cooling capacity X 8 + (end temp. X 8) 

or taking latent heat 63 X & = S^ as 500 and abbreviating still 

fartbcr we iiavc ^ . 



Tons of ice = 



FIGURING IN THE BREWERY. 945 

Barrels of water X (high temp. — end temp.) 



5CX) + (8 X end tcinperature) 
Example ^.— (Abridged Method.) Taking Example 3 as an 
illustration, we have: 

Solution. — 

Barrels = 10. 

High temperature = 78° R. 

End temperature = 4** R. 

ioX(78 — 4) 10X74 740 

Tons of ice = = = = 1.39 

500 + (8 X 4) 500 + 32 532 
Answer. — 1.39 tons. 

We found in Example 3 that we required 11 barrels of ice; 
as 8 barrels of ice = i ton of ice, we have 11 -f- 8 = 1.38 tons, 
and in Example 4, using the formula, 1.39 tons, which proves that 
our formula answers all practical purposes. 

COOLING WORT BY ICE. 

If we have to cool wort by means of ice we may employ the 
formula for water without any changes, because the heat ca- 
pacity of a barrel of wort is about the same as that of a barrel 
of water, as the following reflection will show : One barrel of 
ordinary cold wort of, say, 13 per cent Balling weighs 259 + 13 
= 272 pounds and contains 35 pounds extract and 272 — 35 
= 237 pounds of water. The 35 pounds of extract have a specific 
heat of 0.4 or a heat capacity of only 0.4 X 35 = 14 pounds of 
water. The heat capacity of a barrel of wort of 13 per cent 
Balling is, therefore, equal to 237 + 14 = 251 pounds of water. 

Example 5. — 131 barrels of wort is to be cooled Ky ice from 
7** R. to 3** R. 

Solution. — 

Barrels = 131. 

High temperature = 7** R. 

End temperature = 3° R. 

131 X (7 — 3) 131 X 4 524 
Tons of ice = =: = = i. 

500+ (8X3) 500 + 24 524 
Answer. — We use i ton of ice to cool 131 barrels of wort from 

7" R. to 3^ R. 
When figuring v/ith hot wort, a baTT^\ ol >n\C\Ocv ^^x^'s* V.^ 
00 



946 FICUHIHG IK THE BREWERY. 

than a barrel of cold wort, the fonnula gives reanhs anfficieittly 

accurate for all practical pnrposes. 

In all the calculations no acconnt has been taken of the ke 
melted by otttside beat. 

LATSNT HEAT OF STEAK. 

If a pound of steam of So' R. is forced into water of o° R. and 
condensed, the heat Ihns given out «ill raise the terapcratnre 
ot S-37 pounds of water from o* R, to Sd" R., which is equal to 
& X 5-37 = A3P heat units. This amount of heat will also be 
ahsorbcd in changing one pound of water of 80* (just oa the 
verge of boiling) into one pound of steam of the same tempera- 
lure or 80°. This heat is called the latent heat of vaporiiation, 
and is very nearly seven times the amount of heat absorbed by 
melting ice. The latent heat of steam at different pressures varies 
from that of steam of 80* R., but the differences being slight 
arc not considered in the following. 

The calculations for healing water with steam are very simitar 
to those for melting ice, as a few examples Kill show. 

Example I. — flow many pounds of steam are needed to heat 
10 barrels of water from 14" R. to 40" R. 

Solution. — Ten barrels of water equal 10 X '5o or 2,500 pounds 
of water, which, when, warmed from 14° R. to 40°, or 26' R.. re- 
quire 2.500 X 26, or 65.000 heat units. One pound of sieam 
gives off in the form of latent heat, 4^0 heal units, and the wa- 
ter so formed when cooling from 80° R. to 40° R., the desired 
lemperaturc, an additional 40 heat units or 3 lotal of 430 -|- 40 
= 470 heat unils. As the water needs 65,000 heat units and each 
pound of slcam supplies 47° heat unils we require 65,000 -i- 470 
= 138.5 pounds sleam. 

^ n Jiff r.— 138.5 pounds of steam. 

The formula, then, for figuring the number of pounds of steam 
il requires to heat a certain number of barrels of water would 
be 

Bbls. water X 250 X (end temp. — low temp.) 

Lbs. of slcam = 

Latent heat of steam (430) -j- 80 — end temp. 
Barrels X 250 X (end temp. — low temp.) 



FIGUSINC IN THE BRKWERY. (Ji\J 

Example 2. — How many pounds of stcain does it lake (o heat 
120 barrels of water from io° R. to boiling, 80° R,? 
SoluHon.— 

Barrels = 120. 
End temperature ^= 80° R. 
Low temperature =: 10° R. 
120 X 250 X (80 — 10) 30000 X ?o 

Lbs. steam = ^ = 4884. 

510 — 80 430 

^Rjwirr.^4884 pounds of steam. 

If we take the power of evaporation of 1 pound of coal to be 
4&S4 

8 pounds of water, it would take = 610 pounds of coal 

8 
to heat 120 barrels of water from 10° R. lo boiling. 

CALCULATION OF ATTENUATION. 
In the calculation of attenuatiron Balling's treatise on attenua- 
tion (attenuate = thinning, decreasing the amount of extract) 
was used as a basis, but in a modified and simplified form, so as 
to meet the requirements of the practical brewer, for whose 
purpose the results obtained, which, lo some extent, differ from 
those obtained by an exact chemical analysis, are sufficiently ac- 

BALLING OF WOKT AND APPARENT EXTRACT. 

In a wort the saccharotneter (see "Saccharometry") indicates 
the number of pounds of extract contained in 100 pounds of wort, 
the Balling of wort. After adding yeast to this wort fermenta- 
tion sets in (sugar is split up into alcohol and carbonic acid gas) 
and the saccharometer indication decreases day by day until the 
fermentation comes to a stop. The indications of the instrument, 
however, no longer, as they did in the wort originally, corre- 
spond to the extract really contained in the fluid because the 
beer contains alcohol which, being specitically lighter than wa- 
ter, allows the saccharometer to sink lower than it would do in a 
fluid containing an equal amount of extract dissolved in water 
only instead of in a mixture of water and alcohol. In other 
words, the saccharometer apparently indicates the extract con- 
tained in the beer while in reality it shows less than \% -v^'a:£&^ 
present. The saccharometer indication oi » ^w "«, ■CtvtitX™^. 
called apparent extract. 



948 FIGURING IN THE BREWERY. 



f« 



In the following the* apparent extract will be designated as the 
Balltng of beer/' which is identical with "saccharometer indi- 
cation of beer," or "density of beer/* while the "original den- 
sity/' "original gravity/' "original wort/* or "extract of wort" 
will be designated as "Balling of wort/' which then means the 
number of pounds of extract contained in one hundred pounds 
of wort in the cellar. 

SEAL BXTKACT. 

In order to find the actual amount of extract contained in beer 
by means of a saccharometer it is necessary for reasons given 
above to remove the alcohol by distillation, and then add water 
again until the original weight is restored. In the liquid so ob- 
tained, free from alcohol, the saccharometer will show the ex- 
tract contained in the beer. This is called the "real extract." 

If we know the extract contained in the original wort, "Ball- 
ing of wort" and the extract (sugar) fermented, we can readily 
ascertain the extract of the beer by deducting the extract fer- 
mented from the "Balling of >\ort." 

APPAKENT ATTENUATION AND REAL ATTENUATION. 

The difference between the Balling of wort and the Balling of 
beer is called the "apparent" attenuation. It is the decrease of 
the saccharometer indication during fennentation. 

The difference between the Balling of ^ort at the 
time when fermentation began, and the extract in the beer, is 
called the "real*' attenuation, because it shows the actual decrease 
of extract by fermentation and represents the amount of sugar 
that has been fermented. 

CALCULATING ALCOHOL CONTENT. 

Since the real attenuation represents approximately the fer- 
mented sugar, it serves as a basis from which to figure the amount 
of alcohol in the beer, the effect of fermentation being to split up 
the sugar into two almost equal parts, one of alcohol, the other of 
carbonic acid. The latter escapes almost wholly, whereas the 
alcohol remains in the beer. The amount of alcohol can be found, 
therefore, by dividing the real attenuation by two. 

The alcohol can also be calculated from the apparent attenua- 
tion by multiplying the same by a given alcohol factor, which dif- 
fers according to the original density of the wort. For an original 
density of ii per cent Balling tVit 3\coVvq\ l^cXox *v& ^avjn fee « 



FIGURING IN THK BREWERY. 949 

wort of 14 per cent it is 0.423, average 0.42. Now, the Balling 
indication of nearly all worts lies between the figures given. 
For practical purposes sufficient accuracy is, therefore, obtained 
by using 0.42 as the alcohol factor. 

The alcohol content of beer, accordingly, can be calculated in 
cither of two ways: 

1. by dividing the real attenuation by 2, or 

2. by multiplying the apparent attenuation by 0.42. 
And, vice versa, the two attenuations can be found from the 

ahrohol content, that is, 

1. the real attenuation by multiplying the alcohol con- 

tent by 2, and 

2. the apparent attenuation by dividing the alcohol con- 

tent by 0.42. 

ATTENUATION FORMULA. 

Summarizing we have: 
Saccharometer indication = Balling = B. 

Original wort extract = Balling of wort = B. W. 

Apparent extract = Balling of beer = B.B. 

Balling of wort — Balling of beer = Apparent attenuation = A. A. 
Apparent attenuation X 0.42 =: Alcohol = Al. 

Alcohol X 2 = Real attenuation = R. A. 

Balling of wort — real attenuation — Real extract in beer = R. E. 

Example J. — A wort in the cellar weighs 13 B. After fermen- 
tation the saccharometer indicates 4 B. How much alcohol and 
extract does the beer contain? What is the real and what the 
apparent attenuation? 

Solution. — 

Balling of wort = 13 

Balling of beer = 4 

Apparent attenuation = 9 

X0.42 

Alcohol = 3.78 

X 2 

Real attenuation = 7.56 

Balling of wort = 13 

Real attenuation — 7.S6 

Real extract ^= SA^ 



9^ FIUUKING IN THE BREWEKY. 

Antwer.—Tht beer a>nttiM 3.7S per cent alcohol and $-44 ptt 
cent extracL The real attcniiatKni is 7.56, the apparent attenna- 
tion, 9. 

APPARENT AND RIAL DEGREE OF ATTGNUATIOK. 

In comparing two beers as to their apparent or real Utenna- 
tion it is obvious that satisfactory results cannot be obtained if 
we do not know the perce»tagt of the extract, which apparent 
or really attenuated, and this we can only figure out if the Ball- 
ing of vi>3rt is known. 

The following will serve as an illustration; 

The analyses of two beers gave these results: 

No. I. No. a. 

Balling of wort 15.5 15.0a 

Balling of beer 3-5 Soo 

Apparent attenuation laoo laoo 

Alcohol 4.3 4.3 

Real aitenuation 8.4 84 

Real extract of beer 5.1 6.6 

It wilt readily be seen from the above figures that if we were 
lo judge the two beers as to their composition, and only kiiew 
either the apparent or the real atteiiualion. or both, we would 
be justified in calling these beers identical. That thry, however, 
are different wc learn by noting the Balling of wort, which is 
different in the two beers, but still we cannot form an opinion as 
lo Iheir attenuation (real or appaienl) before we have found 
the percentage of the extract thai really or apparently fermented. 
This can easily be calculated by dividing the real or apparent 
attenuation by the Balling of wort, and multiplying by lOO. We 
thus convert the apparent, or real attenuation into per cent of ap- 
parently or really fermented extract, and the figures so obtained 
we niay, for purposes of convenience, which will be readily an- 
derstood, term "apparent degree of attenuation" and "real de- 
gree of attenuation." 

The apparent degree of attenuation then shows how 
many out of a hundred parts of extract at-porcnlly fermented, 
the real degree of attenuation, how many parts out of one hun- 
dred parts really fermented. 
Apparent attenuation X 100 

^ Apparent deg. of attcn. = A. D. A. 

B;)/fiosof wort 



FIGURIHG IN THE BREWERY. 95! 

Real attenuation X 100 

= Real degree of attenuation ^ R. D. A. 

Billing of won 
Example. — Balling of wort is 14. Balling of beer from Ibis 
wort is 4.5. What is the apparent degree of fermcnlallon and 
what the real degree of fermentation? 
SolulioH. — 

B. W. (Balling of wort) 14 

B. B. {Balling of beer) 4.5 

A. A. (apparent atEenua(ion) g.5 

Al. (alcohol) 9.5 X 0.42 = 4 

R. A. (real attenuation) 4X^ = 3 

R. E. {extract in beer) 14 — 8 = 6 

A. A. X 100 95 X 100 

A. D. A. = = = 67.8. 

B. W. 14 

R. A. Xioo 8X100 

R. D. A. = = = 57-1. 

B. W. 14 

Answer. — Apparent degree of attenuation = 67.8. Real degree 
of attcmiation = 57.1. 

SUGAR DECBEE, 

The extract of wort consists of a number of substances, chief of 
which are sugars, then follow dextrins, malto-dexlrins, al- 
buminoids, mineral substances, hop extract, lactic acid, etc. It 
has been customary heretofore to express the relative amount of 
sugar in the extract in the form of ratio of sugar to the other 
substances (non-sugar), taking either 100 or i as the sugar 
basis, but as the figures so obtained are misleading, especially 
if 100 is taken as a unit, and consequently the percentage, of 
sugar and the ratio of sugar are often confounded, we have 
adopted, in conformity with the terms real and apparent degree 
of attenuation, the term "sugar degree," which simply means 
the parts of reducing sugars (commonly called sugar) con- 
tained in 100 parts of extract. 

Sugar X 100 

S. D. (sugar degree) = . 

B.W. 

Example. — By analysis it was found that a wort contained 1% 
per cent of extract, g parts of which vtCTC. xt&wXwi ws^-k^^- 
Wliat is the sugar degree? 



953 FIOUUHG IK THE BREWERV. 

5'ahil*Mi.-^ii 13 parts of nctnct, g an sugar, how nuny pMrti 
in 100 will be sugar? 

g X 100- _ 900 _ 

13 13 

Antwer. — Sugar degree is 69^ 

KATIO OF SOGAM 10 MOK-SUGAR. 

If it is desired to find the ratio of sngar to nim-sugar proceed 
in the following manner: 

Example. — In 13 parts of extract, 9 parts were sugar, conse- 
qaently 13 — 9 = 4 parts were non-sugar. 
SclmHon.— 

9 : 4 = loo : ? 

Sugar Non-sugar Sugar Non-sugar. 
4X100 

= Non- sugar. 

9 

44 = Non- sugar. 
Antwer. — Ratfo of sugar to non-sugar too : 44. or, if the 
sugar unit is one, 1 : 0.44. 

nCURING IN ENGUSH BREWERIES- 

Onc barrel (English) = 36 gal.. 10 lbs. each = 360 lbs. 

A quarter (English) ^ 8 bu.. 42 lbs. each ^ .136 lb<:. 

A- hundredweight (cwt.) = 112 lbs. 

L = saccharometer indication according 10 Long's scale (see 

atAvnv. 

By "Gravity" the English brewer understands either "Brewers' 
Pounds" or "Degree of Specific Gravity." 

brewers' powds and lanQ's scale. 

"Brewers' Pounds" expresses the number of pounds a barrel 
of wort weighs more than a barrel of water of 360 pounds at 60° 
F, If a barrel of wort weighs 375 pounds the wort will theh be 
called a 15-pound wort (375 — 360 = 15). .-Xflcr fermentation, 
this beer would still be called a 15-pound beer. Long's saccharo- 
nieter, which is in general use, indicates "Brewer?' Pounds," 



// we fate r.ooo parts o( water as a unit of weight and weigh 
n equal volume of wort (or beer) aV v\»t saroe y.tTO\«:iWMt,*«a 



FIGURING IN THE BREWERY. 953 

the relation between the weight so obtained and 1,000 gives us the 
specific gravity of the wort or beer. 

It is not customary, however, to give the specitic gravity of the 
wort or beer, but simply to use the figure in excess of i.ooo whicli 
is called the "degree of specific gravity." 

ExamfiU.—It the specific gravity of a wort is I.OSO, then we 
apeak of the wort as a 50 gravity wort (i.oso — 1,000 — go), or 
the degree of specific gravity of the wort is 50. 

TO CONVERT RECREES OF SPECIKIC CHAVITV INTO brewers' [IICNDS. 

From the above it will be readily seen thai i.ooo holds ilie same 
relation to "degree of specific gravity" as 360 to ''brewers' iiounds" 
(or Long). 

Brewers' lbs. 360 0.36 
D.S.G. ~ 1,000 - , -"■ 
Therefore, by multiplying the degrees of specific graviry by 0,j6 
we obtain the equivalent in brewers' pounds. 

Example. — Degree of specific gravity of a wort is 60. State 
equivalent in brewers' pounds. 
Solution.— 

60 X 0.36 = 21,6. 
Answer. — Brewers' pounds ^ 21.6. 



By dividing the brewers' pounds by 0.36 we obtain the degree 
of specific gravity. 

Example— How many degrees specific gravity are 15 brewers" 
pounds? 

Solution. — 

'5 

= 41.67. 

0.36 
Answer.— 41.67 degrees specific gravity. 

We may also multiply by 2.78 (i -i- 0,36 = 2.78). Taking above 
example we have 15 X 2?8 = 41.7. 

SOLID EXTRACT PER BARREL. 

The brewers' pounds per barrel shows us the excess weight of a 
barrel of wort as compared to a barrel oi waVw , \i>A ^st~. w"- ■>>** 



954 FIGUUNC IH THE BKEWEKV. 

iaEonnatioa about the »Mal qnantity of solid extnct contained in 
a barrel of worL Id order to understand the relation between 
tbe brewers' pounds and the actual pounds of solid extract con- 
tained in a barrel of wort the following will serve as an illnstra- 
tion; 

One barrel of water weighs 360 pounds. If we mix 35 gallons 
of water with one gallon of dr; sugar, a gallon of water wrighing 
10 pounds and a gallon of sugar weighing 16 pounds we hare 

35 gala, of water, 10 lbs. each, weighs 350 lbs. 
I gal. of sugar, 16 lbs. each, weighs 16 lbs. 

36 gallons of water and sugar weighs 366 lbs. 
Brewers' pounds of this wort are 6 (jG6 — 360 = 6), while 

the barrel contains 16 pounds of solid extract ; therefore, tbe ratio 
between the solids contained in the wort and the brewers' pounds 
is 16 to 6 or about 3.67- (The correct figure is 2.59, but 2.6 is 
generally employed.) This calculation is based upon the fact (hat 
cane sugar has the same sp. gr. as dry malt extract. As i brew- 
ers' pound =^ 2.6 pounds sugar (or extract) i pound of sugar =: 
ri or 0.39 brewers' pounds, and a cwl. of sugar = 112 X 0.39 or 
43.68 brewers' pounds, or I ewt. of dry cane sugar will yield 43 
brewers" pounds. A glucose, although apparently dry, may have 
several per cent water and will consequently yield less than 43. 

TO CONVERT BItEWERS' POUNDS INTO SOLID EXTEACT PER BAKRFJ. 

Rule. — Multiply brewers' pounds by 2.6. 

Example. — Brewers' pounds of a beer ^ 35 ; how many pounds 
of solid extract does the barrel contain? 
Solution. — 

as X 2.6 = 6s- 
Ansn-cr. — A barrel contains 65 pounds of solid extract. 



TO CONVERT POUNDS OF St 

By multiplying brewers' pounds by a.6 we find, as shown above, 
the number of pounds of solid extract contained in a barrel of 
*ort. Knowing now the weight of a barrel of wort (360 + L) 
and the solid e\tract contained therein (L X 2.6) we can readily 

ascertain the pounds of solid extract contained in 100 parts of (he 

»ort, or tbe ilaJling indication, u fQ\\<»i«-. 



FIGURING IN THE BREWEKY. 955 

LX2 6X 100 260 X L. 

B = = ■■-■ 

360 -I- L. 360 + L. 

Example. — What is the Balling of a 25 pound wort? 
SolulioH.— 

260 X ZS 6500 

360 + 25 38s 
AnsiDeT.—j6.g Balling. 

In England it is customary to express the yield in pounds ex- 
tract per quarter of malt, which, of course, is entirely arbitrary 
and has nothing in common with the yield proper that expresses 
the number of pounds of solid extract obtained from 100 pounds 
of material. By multiplying the number of barrels oE wort ob- 
tained in a brew by the gravity (Long) and dividing by llie num- 
ber of quarters used, we obtain the extract yielded per quarter of 
malt. If sugar is used the extract obtained from the sugar must 
first be deducted before division takes plaee, 

barrels X brewers' lbs. (Long) 

Brewers' extract yielded : 



Ors. 
Rule. — Multiply number of barrels by brewers' pounds (Long) 
and divide by number of quarters. 

Example 1. — 100 barrels brewed at 20 pounds employing 23.5 
iiuarters of malt; state the yield. 
Solution. — 

100X20 

= 8S. 

23- S 
Antwfr.—\\t\A per quarter 85. 

Example 2. — 300 barrels wort were brewed at 20 pounds from 
57 quarters of malt and 30 cwt. of sugar (sugar yielding 35 ex- 
tract per cwt.). State the yield. 
Soluiion. — 

(300X20) — (30X35) 6000—1050 



57 M 

Ansu^.—Sy yield extract per quatXer, 



956 FIGURING IN THE BREWERY. 

SaUD BXTKACT R> QUAKIXK. 

The solid extract of a quarter can readily be toanA by mnltipljr- 
ing the extract per quarter tiy 3.6 (this fact<v is apprrocimatelr 
correct). 

RaU.— Multiply extract per qnarter bj »j6. 

ExampU. — Brewers' extract per (|iurter = 87; how manj 
pounds of solid extract does a quarter yield? 

Solution. — 

87 X 2JS = aa6.2. 

Aiuwer. — One quarter yields aad^ pounds of solid extract 

SOLID EXTRACT PER Hl/NDRID POUNDS, OK EXTRACT PER CENT. 

Knowing the solid extract per quarter {336 pounds) we can 
readily find the solid extract obtained from 100 pounds (extract 
per cent) of malt by multiplying by too and dividing by 3361 or 
dividing by 3.3S C?iS)- 

Riii*.— Divide sfJid extract per quarter by 3J6. 

Example. — Solid extract per quarter ^ 226.2 ; what is the ex- 
iract per ceni? 

Solution. — 

226.2 

—-=67.3. 
336 

Answer. — Extract per cent =^ 67.3. 



CENT yiELDED. 

3 preceding rules we derive the following 
Lbs. per quarter X 3.6 



3.6 

= Lbs. per quarter X ■ 

336 

= Lbs. per quarter X 0-774 
Rule. — Mtiliiply pounds per quarter by 0.774. 
E.rample. — Pounds per quarter 83.5, Find extract per cent. 
Sohition.— 

83s X 0.774 = 64-6. 
Aiis-wcr. — 64,6 per cent extract. 



TO FIND QlWymiES (\ -_ 

The quantity of material to be viatd m a \>te:» w«v \« \wao& 
luhiptying the number o! bands \o bt >«««** Vj ft>^ 4««^ 



FIGURING IN THE BREWERY. 957 

gravity (pounds) and dividing by the extract yielded per quarter. 

If materials other than malt arc to be employed the extract 

yielded by them should be deducted from the extract yielded by 

the malt before dividing by the extract per quarter of malt. 

Barrels X brewers' pounds (L.) 

Quarters = -.. 

Extract per quarter 

Example i. — In producing 200 barrels of 18 pounds a malt is 

employed yielding 86 pounds extract per quarter. How many 

quarters of malt are required for the brew? 

Solution. — 

200 X 18 

= 41.9. 

86 

Answer. — We employ 41.9 quarters of malt. 

Example 2. — The same number of barrels of same strength as 
in Example i are to be brewed from malt and sugar, using 20 
cwt. of glucose (yielding 36 pounds per cwt.). How much malt 
is required? 

Solution. — 

(200 X 18) — (20 X 36) 3600 — 720 

= = 33.5 

86 86 

Answer. — We employ 33.5 quarters of malt. 

SUMMARY. 

In figuring according to English usage it should then be borne 
in mind that : 

1. Brewers' pounds = excess of weight, in pounds, of a barrel 
of wort (or beer) over a barrel of water (360 pounds). 

2. Pound beer or pound gravity or saccharometer indication ac- 
cording to Long = L. = brewers* pounds (see i). 

3. Specific gravity or degree of specific gravity = excess num- 
ber over 1,000 (the unit of water). 

4. Extract, or brewers' extract, per quarter, generally 80 — 90 
pounds, is an arbitrary figure based upon the extract as indicated 
by the Long saccharometer. 

5. Dry or solid extract = real extract contained in wort or 
beer. 

6. Extract per cent = solid extract per 100 pounds of \va^.wv3\. 

7. Material = quarters of malt. 

8. Final attenuation of a beer is tVie sacc\v^xovcv«X&x Vsx^x^-as^^^ 
pf the beer according to Long. 



THE BREWER'S CHEMICAL LABORA- 
TORY. 



In this chapter are given mch analylical methods as are med 
most commonly in the examioattoas required to be made in the 
practice of brewing, when it is desired to examine materials em- 
ployed, or the product in its various stages, in testing iiutramcnts 
and appliances, or detemiining the properties of the finished 
article. Examinations of this character are necessarily confined 
to what the brewer, in the course of his rejpilar occupation, can 
attend to, and it is not purposed to go into the more thorough and 
detailed analytical methods, which are employed in the scientific 
laboratories. 

The object is to aid and refresh the memory of a brewer who 
has taken a course in scientific brewing, but may not be aUe, 
where his mind is taken up in the work of curative brewing, to 
remember the details of every method and, therefore, will be 
grateful for a handy reference book to which he can turn and 
quickly find the necessary information. 

Originality is not claimed for all the methods here given. The 
effort hiis been to select those which combine in the highest pnc- 
lical degree the two qualities most needed for the work in the 
laboratory, viz., reliability and dispatch. Some of the methods 
differ litilc from those given in the standard treatises. The meth- 
ods for analyzing beer. won. malt and barley, are practically 
identical with those in vogue in Europe, and those for water have 
also been in common use for a long time. Of the rest, many can 
be classed as distinctly American, having been evolved under the 
requirements peculiar to the brewing industry of the United 
Slates. They are. in a large measure, the result of patient, care- 
ful, and in part, at least, original work on the part of the scientific 
station of ll'afil and Henius of Chicago, devised with a view to 
supplying the needs of the American \«e««, 
in regard to brewing materials, tbis tta^w ■«^\ »M.ViS«roM& 
958 



THE BSEWERS CHEMICAL LABORATORY. 959 

that devoted entirely to that subject, as far as methods of exami- 
nation are concerned. 

To make Ihe descriptions more complete, mention is made of the 
apparatus and chemicals required to equip a chemical laboratory 
sufficient for a brewer to do his work, and the tests given by 
which the fitness and accuracy of the appliances may be deter- 
mined. 

ANALVnCAL CHE MISTS V. 

Analytical chemistry treats on the determination of the ele- 
ments of a cornpound, the proportion of the constituents and 
the presence of impurities. 

If we merely take into consideration the kind of their con- 
•tituents the analysis is a gualitative one, as testing for starch 
in wort and beer; iron in water, lupulin and sugars ; tannic add 
in lupulin. 

If, however, the amount of each constituent is determined, then 
the analysis is a quantitative one. 

Volumclric analysis is the analysis by measure. 

Gravimftric analysis is the analysis by weight. 

SPECIFIC GRAVITY. 

To Find Iht SpcciHc Gravity of Solid Bodies.— The simplest 
method of finding the specific gravity of solid bodies is based 
on the principle of Archimedes. According to this principle, a 
solid body immersed in water apparently loses weight, and this 
apparent loss is equal to the weight of the water which it dis- 
places, or to its own volume of water. 

To determine the specific gravity of a solid body, such body is 
first weighed in air, next suspended from the balance pan by a 
fine thread or horsehair and immersed completely in pure water 
of 60° F. and again weighed while immersed. It now weighs less, 
the difference being the weight of the displaced water. 

Dividing the weight of the body in air by the weight of an 
equal volume of water we obtain the specific gravity of the body 
compared to water of 60° F. 

Example. — A stone weighs in air loStbs. 

When suspended in water the same stone 

weighs Ts" 

Difference, being the weight of an eqaaX No\iimt -a^ ■«-iL\.« 
J8 lbs., and 108 -h 3S = 3.S4. the speciftc gTiN*! ^^ '^'^'^ **^*^- 



g6o THE brewer's chemical laboratory. 

To Pmd the SfecUte Gravity of Gates. — Gases are compared to 
air as standard. The specific gravity of a gas is found in the 
same way as that of a solid, that is, by weighing equal volumes 
of the gas and air, and dividing the weight of the gas by the 
weight of the air. 
ExantpU. — One cubic foot of carbonic acid gas weighs. ...1.97602. 

One cubic foot of air weighs 1.3 " 

1.976 -T- 1.3 = 1.52 ; hence the specific gravity of car- 
bonic acid gas is 1.53, that is, carbonic acid gas is i-S^ timet as 

To find the specific gravity of li<imd with an ordinary Aiufc. — 
Weigh a flask, first, empty; next, full of water i then, full of the 
given liquid. Subtract the weight of the empty flask from each 
of the other ttvo weights; the reittainders represent the weights 
of equal volumes of water and the other liquid. Divide the weight 
of the liquid by the weight of the water, and the quotient is the 
specific gravity of the liquid. 

Example. — A flask filled with water weighs S.S.^oi- 

Same flask filled with wort weighs - . .58.2 01. 

Empty flask weighs 24.1 oz. 

Subtracting 24.1 01. from 55.9 01. gives weijiht of water ,11.8 oi. 

Subtracting Z4-i oz. frotn 58.2 oz. gives weight ol wort J4.1 ui. 

Divide 34.1 oz. by 318 oz.. and the quotient of 1.07 indicates 
that the wort is 1.07 times .is heavy as an e^jual volume of water, 
or, that the specific Rraviiy of 'he wort is 1.07. 

Another and simpler way of finding '''>■ specific gravity of 3 
liquid is to let a body lighter than the liquid float in it. The 
denser the liquid is, the Uss deep docs the floating body sink 
into it. 

Water at 15° C. has been accepted in the brewer's laboratory as 
a convenient standard of specific gravity for worts, beers and 
other liquids, the specific gravities of which vary with the amounts 
of alcohol, sugar or other substances held by them in solution. 

The piciiomcter is the only strictly reliable instrument for the 
determination of the specific gravity of a liquid, from which the 
quantity of sugars and other solids, or of alcohol, present in a 
uon or beer, can be found by referring to proper tables. 
Balling's extract tables give, in convenient columns, the amounts 
of extract corresponding to aptcifet ara-itties, M.\.« v\«.\a»«i %as 



THE brewer's chemical LABORATORY. 961 

been obtained by the instrument, the corresponding weight per 
cent of extract will be found in the table. 

Alcohol tdhles give the weight per cent of alcohol in beer for 
a certain specific gravity of an alcoholic solution. 

THE PICNOMETER. 

This instrument should hold very nearly (within a decigram) 
50 grams of distilled water at 15** C. Before using, the pic- 
nometer should be dried completely, which can be most easily ef- 
fected by rinsing with 96 per cent alcohol, which, in turn, is re- 
moved by air from the bellows. The instrument is then accurately 
weighed, together with its capillary stopper. A quart pail, or dish, 
is filled with hydrant water, and some pieces of ice are added to 
hasten the cooling. The picnometer is filled with distilled water 
and immersed in the pail. A clean, dry, thin and accurate centi- 
grade thermometer is used to indicate the temperature in the 
picnometer, and as a stirring rod. When the distilled water has 
a uniform temperature of 15** C, the picnometer is drawn from 
the pail, filled to the brim with distilled water and closed with 
the stopper containing the capillary tube, care being taken to 
avoid bubbles between stopper and liquid. The top of the plug 
is dried with a soft, clean, dry towel, and the whole instrument 
immersed so as to be almost covered by the cooling bath. The 
cooling liquid should not show more than 4 or 5** C, and in a 
warm room the cooling must be continued longer than in a cold 
room, so that the liquid in the picnometer may not expand and 
escape from the capillary stopper, while weighing the instru- 
ment. The plunging of the picnometer in the cold water causes 
the glass to contract, and a small drop of water is forced out 
at the top of the stopper; it sinks back again, however, as soon 
as the water in the picnometer begins to cool below 15° C. When 
the water has contracted to the bottom of the capillary tube of the 
stopper, draw the instrument from the cold water, dry it carefully 
with a soft, clean, dry towel, and weigh to milligrams. From this 
weight of the full picnometer, deduct the weight, previously ob- 
tained, of the empty picnometer. The difference will be the 
weight of the distilled water contained in the picnometer. 

After finding the weight of the picnometer and the weight of 
^the water it can hold at 15" C, we ascertain the weight of a wort, 
beer, or alcohol solution, in precisely the same v\\a."W5\R.\ -*& >^Na5<- ^^ 
distilled water, the same precautions \)em^ c\si?»«r^^- %>a?^v^«^ 
a 



THE brewer's CHEMlCAi. LABORATORY. 







& 






THE BREWER^S CHEMICAL LABORATORY. 963 

the picnometer flask weighed 28,500 grams, stopper included, and 
held 50.003 grams of distilled water at 15** C. Let the weight 
of the flask filled with wort be 81.627 grams at 15° C, the flask 
weighing 28.500 grams, then the wort weighs 53.127 grams, 
where an equal volume of water weighs 50.003 grams. The re- 
sult is now obtained by dividing 53.127, the weight of the wort, 
by 50.003, the weight of the water, equals 1.06248, specific gravity 
of the wort. 

The following abridged formula can be used: Double the 
weight of wort, or other liquid, and subtract double the excess 
over 50 grams of the weight of water contained in the picnometer 
at 15** C, and divide by 100. Taking the preceding case, in 
which we supposed that the weight of the wort was 53.127 grams, 
and an equal volume of water weighed 50.003 grams, then, 

twice weight of wort = 106,254 grams, less twice excess 
weight of water 0.006. Divided by 100 = 1.06248, 
specific gravity of wort. 

HYDROMETERS. 

Floating instruments used to find the specific gravity of liquids 
are called hydrometers. They consist of a h.ollow cylinder of thin 
metal or glass, having a weight beneath to keep it in an upright 
position, and a stem above bearing a divided scale. The liquid to 
be tested is poured into a cylindrical jar, and the instrument im- 
mersed. The denser the liquid, the less of it will be displaced by 
the same hydrometer, and the higher will the instrument rise, 
whereas it sinks deeper in a liquid of less density, as the instru- 
ment displaces exactly its own weight of liquid. When the hydro- 
meter is at rest, the mark on the scale at the liquid level may be 
read off. There are different kinds of hydrometers bearing dif- 
ferent names according to the kinds of liquid for which they are 
intended. They arc known as "acidometers/' "alcoholometers," 
"lactometers," "saccharometers," etc. 

THE SACCHAROMETER. 

Saccharometers (from the Latin words Saccharum, sugar, and 
metio, I measure) are a special kind of hydrometers used to find 
the per cent of sugar in saccharine solutions, and the amount of 
extract in wort and beer. 

The first saccharometer constructed ot\ Sic\ev\V\?vc ^\\x^^v^«^^ "^^!lx 
made in the year 1787, by Richardson, *m ^ixftV^tvd, -aw^ V\s vc\^>^ 



9G4 '^BB brewer's chemical laboratcay. 



of detemiiiiiog the mmoant of extract in wort is still in use. He 
. also introduced the term "attenuation** to designate the decrease 
of the extract daring fermentation. Later, Prechtl, in Germany, 
constructed a saccharometer for a temperature of 12^ R, with a 
scale 'showing both per cent extract and the corresponding ^ledfic 
gravity figures. In the year 18133 Balling introduced his saccharo- 
meter in the form substantially as it is known at present* and 
fj[aiser*s per cent areometer appeared in 1838. 

If a saccharometer is to be used exclusively for estimating the 
amount of extract contained in wort or beer, expressed in per 
cent, it would, of coarse, seem quite proper to graduate the in- 
strument by dissolving dry extract of malt in water to 
of known percentages, and immersing the instrument in these 
lutions, graduating the scale of the saccharometer accordingly. 
The same results should be obtained by a modification of tUs 
plan, according to the methods used by Schultze and Ostermann, 
and by H. Elion. These investigators determined the specific 
gravity of a wort, a weighed quantity of which was then evapo- 
rated to dryness and dried by Schultze-Ostermann at 70** to 75* C. 
at ordinary air pressure ; by H. Elion at 97** C. in a current of 
dry air in a partial vacuum. 

The English chemists, Brown and Heron, and later, O'Sullivan, 
determined the specific g^vity of solutions of maltose and dextrin, 
that is, the two principal constituents of wort, in a solution con- 
taining 10 g. per 100 c.c. Following the principle of the English 
investigators, Elion determined how much the specific gravity of 
water is increased by each gram of dry extract of malt per 100 
c.c. of solution. 

The results of all these investigations differed considerably on 
account of the impossibility of getting malt-extract of one and the 
same composition from different malts, and on account of the diffi- 
culty of determining when the extract really was dry, as too high 
a temperature or too long an exposure was found partly to decom- 
pose the extract and thus to influence the results. 

For this reason the idea of using dry extract of malt for grad- 
ing the saccharometer was abandoned, and in its place was selected 
a substance that differs but little from extract of malt in its 
specific gravity, and which, on the other hand, can easily be had 
in a uniform degree of dryness and purity. This substance is 
pure, dry cane-sugar. Cane-sugar )KaA ^xeai^i \sfcwv >asft4 Vpj Ball- 



THE brewer's chemical LABORATORY. 965 

ing for the construction of his saccharometer as he supposed that 
cane-sugar and extract of malt influenced the specific gravity of 
the solutions in the same way. This is, however, not quite ac- 
curate, as a solution of malt-extract shows a slightly higher 
specific gravity than a solution of cane-sugar of equal percentage. 
The differences are, however, not great enough seriously to impair 
the value of such a saccharometer for practical use. 

There are, at present, four saccharometers in use, named from 
their inventors: Balling's, Kaiser's, Long's and Gendar's. 

Balling's saccharometer is in general use in the United States, 
Germany and Austria. It is usually graduated for a temperature 
of 14° R. (17.5** C.) and at this temperature indicates how many 
per cent by weight of dry, pure cane-sugar are contained in a 
sugar solution, and in a wort or beer how many per cent of dry 
extract the liquid contains. In other words, if the saccharometer, 
when immersed in a wort, sinks in to the 12 mark, it indicates 
that one hundred pounds of this wort contains 12 pounds of dry 
extract of malt. 

The line to which the instrument sinks in pure water of 14*^ 
R. is marked o and is found at the upper part of the stem. The 
instrument is graded by floating it in sugar solutions of the same 
temperature, but of different strength, and the depth to which 
it sinks is marked with the corresponding number of per cent. 
Balling's saccharometers are generally graded up to 20 or 25 
per cent, and each per cent subdivided in tenths. 

The indications of the instrument are correct only at the tem- 
perature of 14** R. If the solution is warmer than 14* R. the 
indication is too low, as the liquid becomes less dense at a higher 
temperature. At a lower temperature the indication would be 
too high. To avoid the difficulty of always getting the liquid at 
the same temperature, a correction-scale is added to the instru- 
ment, indicating how many tenths of per cent should be added at 
temperatures higher than 14* R., or subtracted at lower degrees. 
In this case, the weight at the lower end of the instrument, which 
serves to float it pcrpcndictilarly, is the bulb of a mercury 
thermometer, the scale of which is inserted in the wider part 
of the saccharometer, and opposite each degfree of temperature 
is found the corresponding tenth per cent correction. 

To obtain correct readings, the instrument tw»&\.\st ^-^x^^^^ 
handled. It must be cleaned imtned\a.le\v ^^^^^^^ \s€vws^ >5.^^V 



966 THE BSEWES'S CHEMICAL LABORATORY. 

hdd by the upper end and gradually lowered into the liqiiid, 
avoiding dipping it in too deep, as the liquid remaining on the 
stem above the surface of the liquid would tend to make the in- 
strument heavier. The liquid must be free from foam and no 
gas bubbles should adhere to the saccharometer, which must 
float free in the liquid without touching the sides of the 
vessel. The reading should be done according to the directions 
on the instrument, and generally from above. Beer must be 
freed from carbonic acid gas l^ pouring it from one dish into 
another repeatedly, and by warming it gently, before it can be 
weighed by the saccharometer. 

Besides the ordinary Balling saccharometer there is in use, 
especially in sugar factories, the so-called corrected Balling or 
Brix saccharometer. When cane-sugar is dissolved in water a 
contraction takes place, and this contraction varies with the con- 
centration of the sugar solutions. Brix calculated these contrac- 
tions and made the corrections correspondingly. 

Kaiser's Saccharomeicrs of the modem type are made exactly 
like Balling's and give the same indications, only the per cent 
is subdivided in %. %. % per cent instead of tenths per cent. 

Long's Saccharometer is used in England and indicates how 
many pounds an English barrel (36 gallons) of wort weighs more 
than a barrel of water at 6o* F. (15.6* C). 

Gendar's Saccharometer indicates how many pounds a barrel 
of beer or wort weighs more than a barrel of water (of 30 gal- 
lons) at 70** F. (21. !• C). 

Hot wort saccharometers are, as the name indicates, used to 
find the per cent of extract in hot wort, and are generally graded 
at 70* to 75** R. (87.5** to 93-4* C). These hot wort saccharome- 
ters are often made of metal, and are expected to give only an ap- 
proximately accurate value. 

All the above mentioned saccharometers gfive the amount of ex- 
tract by weight contained in a certain weight of solution. 

Krieger's Extractometer differs from all of them in this respect : 
It indicates how many grams of cane-sugar (or approximately 
malt extract) are contained in 100 c.c. of the solution at 14* R. 

For the construction of this saccharometer Dr. Jos. Krieger pre- 
pared a solution, containing ten grams of cane-sugar in 100 c.c 
The specific gravity of this solution at 14" R. was found to be 
o.oj8a taking water of 14' R. as a umX. K% Vtx^ ^^m^ ^1 cane- 



THE brewer's chemical LABORATORY. 



967 



TABLE FOR THB COMPARISON OF DIFFERENT SACCHAROMBTERS WITfi 
SPECIFIC GRAVITY, AND GIVING POUNDS OF EXTRACT IN WORT 

PER BBL. OF 31 GALS. 



a 

0.00 
.25 
.50 
.75 

1.00 
.25 
.50 
.75 

2.00 
.25 
.50 
,75 

3.00 

.50 
.75 

4-00 
.25 
.50 
.75 

5.00 
.25 
.50 
.75 

6.00 

.25 

.50 

75 

7.00 
.& 
.50 
.75 

8.00 
.26 
.50 
.75 

9.00 
.25 
.50 
.75 
1000 
.25 
.50 
.75 
11.00 
.25 
.50 
.75 





aj 


• 


»4 


'/i 


08 


'u. 


-a 


a 


d 








^ 





0.00 


0.00 


.36 


.30 


.72 


.60 


1.08 


.90 


.44 


1.20 


.80 


.50 


2.16 


.80 


.52 


2.41 


.88 


.40 


3.24 


.70 


.60 


3 00 


.96 


.80 


4.32 


.60 


.68 


.90 


5.04 


4 20 


.40 


.50 


.76 


.80 


6.12 


5.10 


.48 


.40 


.84 


.70 


7.20 


6.00 


.56 


.30 


.92 


.60 


8.28 


.90, 


.64 


7.20 


9.00 


.50 


.36 


.80 


.72 


8.10 


10.08 


.40 


.44 


.70 


.80 


9.00 


11.16 


.30 


.52 


.60 


.96 


.96 


12.32 


10 26 


.68 


.57 


18 M 


.88 


.40 


11.19 


.76 


.50 


14.12 


.81 


.48 


12.11 


.84 


.42 


15.21 


.78 


.58 


13.06 


.95 


.87 


16.82 


.68 


.69 


14.00 


17.07 


.32 



00 



1.000 

1.001 

1.002 

1.003 

1.004 

1.006 

1.006 

1.007 

1.006 

1.009 

1.010 

1.011 

1.012 

1.013 

1.014 

1.015 

1.016 

1.017 

1.018 

1.019 

1.020 

1.021 

1.022 

1.028 

1.024 

1 025 

l.C»26 

1 027 

1.028 

1.029 

1.030 

1.031 

1.032 

1.0832 

1.0342 

1.0352 

1.0368 

1.0374 

1 0884 

1.0894 

1.0401 

1.0415 

1.0425 

1.0136 

1.0446 

1.0457 

1.0467 

1.0478 






&3 



^a 



0.00 

065 

1.30 

1.95 

2.60 

3.25 

8.91 

4.57 

5.22 

5.88 

6.54 

7.20 

7.86 

8.58 

9.19 

9 86 

10.52 

11.19 

11.86 

12.53 

13.20 

13.87 

14.56 

15.22 

15.90 

16.58 

17.26 

17.94 

18.62 

19.30 

19.99 

20.67 

21.36 

22.05 

22.74 

23.43 

24.12 

24.81 

25.51 

26.20 

26.90 

27.60 

28.80 

29.00 

29.70 

30.41 

31.11 

31.82 



to 

c 



12 00 
.25 
.50 
.75 

13.00 
.25 
.50 
.75 

14.00 
.25 
.50 
.75 

15.00 
.25 
.50 
.75 

16.00 
.25 
.50 
.75 

17 00 
.25 
.50 
.75 

18.00 

• /So 
.50 
.75 

19.00 
.25 
.50 
.75 

20.00 
.26 
.50 
.75 

21.00 
.25 
.50 
.lb 

22.00 
.25 
.50 
.75 

23.00 
.26 
.50 
.75 

24.00 



OB 

a 
o 



21, 
22. 



17.46 
.83 

18.21 
.60 
.99 

19.38 
.77 

20 16 
.56 
94 
33 
72 
11 
.50 
.89 

23.27 
.66 

24.05 
.44 
.83 

25.21 
.61 

26.00 
.89 
.78 

27.17 
.56 
.96 

28.36 
.76 

29.16 
.56 
.95 

30.34 
.73 

31.12 
.50 
.87 

32.25 
.64 

33 04 
.44 
.84 

34.23 
.63 

36.0^ 
.43 
.83 

86.23 



ce 

a 
o 
O 



21 



14.64 
.96 

15.28 
.60 
.92 

16.24 
.55 
.86 

17.17 
.48 
.80 

18.12 
.43 
.75 

19.07 
.89 
.71 

20.08 
.35 
67 
00 
.38 
.66 
.99 

22.82 
.66 
.98 

23.31 
.64 
.97 

24.:)0 
.63 
.96 

25.29 
.62 
.95 

26.27 
.60 
.98 

27.26 
.59 
.92 

28.25 
.68 
.91 

29.24 
.57 
.90 

80.23 






1.0488 
1.0498 
1.0509 
1.0620 
1.0530 
1.0&40 
1.0651 
1.0662 
1.0572 
1 0582 
1.0)93 
1.0604 
1.0614 
1.0626 
1.0636 
1.0646 
1.0657 
1.0668 
1.0679 
1.0600 
1.0700 
1.0711 
1.0722 
1.0733 
1.0744 
1.0755 
1.0766 
1.0777 
1.0788 
1.0799 
1.0810 
1.0821 
1.0832 
1.0843 
1.0864 
1.0865 
1.0876 
1.0887 
1.0698 
1.0900 
1.0920 
1.0931 
1.0942 
1.0953 
1.0964 
1.0975 
1 .UHOO 
1.0997 
1.1008 






32.52 
33.23 
83.94 
34.65 
a'>.36 
36.07 
36.79 
37.50 
38.22 
38.94 
30.6rt 
40.38 
41.11 
41.83 
42.65 
43.28 
44.00 
44.73 
45.46 
46.19 
46.92 
47.66 
48.39 
49.13 
49.86 
50.(30 
51.34 
52.08 
52.82 
53.57 
54.31 
55.06 
.S5.80 
.'J6.55 
57.30 
58.05 
68.80 
50 66 
60.31 
61.07 
61. H2 
62.68 
63.34 
64.10 
64.86 
65. 6:^ 
66.39 
67.16 
67.92 



yfiB THE brewer's chemical laboratcmky. 

sugar in loo cc. had incrofied the specific gravity of water hf 
00586^ one gram of cane-sugar irould, consequently, increase tm 
speynfic gravity by 0.005861 This factor, aooj86, was used in the 
construction of the new scale, each degree of which means an in- 
crease of 0.00586 in the specific gravity. 

The per cent extract of this scale are, therefore, changed into 
per cent of the Balling scale hy dividing them by the sp. gr. of tiie 
solution. 

The advantages claimed for this scale by Kricger (Der 
Amertkanische Bierbrauer, i8pi, p. 86) are as follows: 

1. Taking the weight of a barrel of water as 258 pounds, the 
weight of a barrel of wort is found by adding the saccha i omc tei 
reading to 258, or, calling the saccharometcr reading Sa, 

Weight of a barrel of wort = 258 + Sa. 

2. Multiplying 258 by saccharometer reading and dividing by too 
(or cutting oflF two decimals) gives the pounds of extract per * 
barrel, or 

pounds extract in one barrel = Sa X 2*58 -r- loa 

3. The specific gravity of wort is equal to saccharometer read- 
ing multiplied by o.ooj86 and added to i, or 

Sp. Gr. = Sa X 0.00386 + i, 
or, equal saccharometer indication added to 258, and the sum 
divided by 258, thus: 

Sp. Gr. = Sa + 258 -T- 258. 

4. The alcohol factor remains constant for varying per cents 
of extracts of original wort, and is equal to 04. 

While admitting that the claims of Dr. Krieger are valuable it 
will be seen that the Balling saccharometer can be used, as sug- 
gested by R. Wahl, for the purpose of calculating the weight and 
pounds of extract per barrel, as well as for practical brewery 
calculations. (See "Figuring in the Brewery/' also Der Brau- 
meister, 1890, p. 315). 

ALCOHOLOMETERS. 

These instruments are used to find the strength of mixtures of 
alcohol and water. 

Tralle's Alcoholometer gives per cent alcohol by volume, or 

how many volumes of absolute alcohol are contained in 100 vol- 

umes of the dilute alcohol at I2.5* R. (15.6* C. ). The scale reads 

from o per cent to 100 per cctil m absolute alcohol of a specific 

gravity of 0.7939 at W.S** R. (\^ff C->. 



THE brewer's chemical LABORATORY. 969 

The indications are correct only in solutions of alcohol in pure 
water. Corrections on account of temperature are much higher 
than when using the saccharometer and amount to full per 
cents. The corrections, however, go the opposite way to those 
of the saccharometer. The more alcohol is present the less dense 
is the mixture, and a higher temperature, making it less dense, 
causes the indications to be too high, and consequently the rule is, 
for temperatures above 12.5° R., subtract, and for temperatures 
below 12.5° R., add, as many per cent as indicated by the correc- 
tion scale. 

TESTING THE SACCHARO METERS. 

Saccharometcrs are usually tested at o, 5, 10, 15 and 20 per 
cent. The latter four solutions can be approximately prepared 
by dissolving 25, 50, 75 and 100 grams of pure, dry cane-sugar 
in water and weighing each solution up to 500 grams. Testing 
at o is accomplished by immersing the saccharometer in distilled 
water of a temperature of 14" R. (17.5° C). In order to determine 
the correct percentage of extract contained in each of the above 
sugar solutions, the specific gravity is taken by means of the picno- 
meter and referred to the Balling extract table. The percentage of 
extract thus obtained should be indicated to within 0.1 per cent 
by the saccharometer when tested at 14° R. (17.5** C). 

THE BALANCES. 

As all analyses are either directly or indirectly based upon the 
correct indications of the balance, this instrument may be consid- 
ered as the most important apparatus in the chemical 
laboratory, and it is necessary that it should be sensitive and 
accurate to the full limit of its carrying capacity. 

ANALYTICAL BALANCE. 

The balance can be easily adjusted by the regelating screws, if 
necessary, and is then ready for testing. This delicate instrument 
must, when carrying a load of 100 grams (should that be the 
maximum weight) in each pan, be sufficiently accurate and sensi- 
tive to show no change of swing on an interchange of weights, 
and one milligram added on one side must increase the swing of 
the needle one or two divisions to the other side. 

TECHNICAL BALANCE. 

This balance, although not so accurate as tVsft ^tl^^xv^'^^^s^^^^^'^- 
is nevertheless a necessity in the cViem\ca\ V^Xwt'atovi • ^'^ '^'^ ^'^" 



g/jo THB brewer's chbuical iIaboratory. 

flawed for ■"■''"g ■ocli aialj*et in whkh the weight ex c wM i 
the ouryins capacity of a more sensitiTe boUnce, or where it ia 
not required to uk the milligiain weishta, for instance, in tbe 
determinatioii of the yield and moisture in nuH, com p r od u c U , 
rice, barley, etc 

The needle must swing eqoally far on both sides of the o inark 
when two kilogram weights are balanced, and also when the lame 
ffdgbts change pans. If a centigram weight is added to either 
pan the needle must show an increased swing of one divioioa of 
the scale to the oppoahe sidb 




-^*^i^J 



Each balance should h; 

reeling a set. proct'ed a: 
should be equal ; (hey mui 

nilligraTn weights must be eqi 



■rbala 



set of weights, 
wo lo-milligram 
ce a 20-inilligram 
Two twenties ai 



eights 
>eight. 



should counterbalance a 50-m[lltgram weight, etc. 
shovid never come in cotitact viith acid or other vapors, 
correctness will be impaired. TV\tj a\i(»A4 nt-iw \>c 
■ the fingers, but always wiA snalft v«k«v 



THE BREWERS CHEMICAL LABORATORV. 97I 

THB raOCESS OF WBIGUIHO. 

The substance to be weighed is placed on the left scale, and the 
other scale is accurately counter- poised against it. In counter- 
poising substances on the balance, a. systematic course ought to be 
pursued. The following is an illustration; Suppose we want to 
weigh a crucible, the weight of which was subsequently found to 
be 7.727 grams; say 10 grains is placed on the other scale against 
it, we find this is too much ; we place Ihe weight next in succes- 
sion, i. e., five grams, and find this 100 little; next eight, too much; 
seven, too little; 7.5, too little; 7.7, too little; 7.8, too much; 775, 
too much; 77^, too little; 7.73, too much; 7.735. too little; 
7.727. right. 

TESTING PIPETTES. 

To test iS C.c. Pipettes and flu«HM.— Put a beaker on one pan 
of the scale and counterbalance it on Ihe other. Run 35 c.c. 




of distilled water at 15' C. into this beaker and weigh it. The 
pipette is pronounced correct if the weight is within 5 centigrams 
of 25 grams. Proceed in the same way with the other pipettes. 

Burettes are tested in the same way. 

To test 100 c.c. Flasks.— Wash a 100 c.c. flask with water, then 
with alcohol, and dry. Counterbalance the flask and fill to mark 
with distilled water of 15° C, It should then ■we.\it\\ Vq •«\'^^vtv ^ 
decigrams of 100 grams. Proceed simWaA^j \ot *fi t,^., ■«« '^-'^ 
sjo c.c, M liter, and i liter flasks. 



973 THB brewer's chemical laboratory. 

THE THERMOMETER. 

This consists of a bulb connected with a tube of uniform bore^ 
and partly filled with mercury or alcohol. The upper part of 
the tube is exhausted of air and closed air-tight If the instru- 
ment is brought in contact with a warmer body, both the glass 
and the liquid of the thermometer expand, but, as the expansion 
of the glass is small compared to that of the liquid, the latter win 
begin to rise in the tube. The change in volume is measured 
cm a scale attached to the tube. Mercury freezes, or becomes 
soKd, at low temperatures, and for still lower ones the alcohol 
thermometer is used. 

"Thermometer Scales." A thermometer has two fixed points, 
called the freezing point and the boiling point The first is the 
temperature of melting ice, the other the temperature of steam 
escaping from water boiling under normal atmospheric pres- 
sure. The distance between these two points is divided into 
equal parts, called degrees, which vary in the different scales. 

STANDARD SCALES. 

There are three of these scales in use, viz. : 

"Fahrenheit," "Reaumur" and "Celsius" or "Centigrade." 
. The boiling point is called: on the Fahrenheit, 212; on the 
Reaumur, 80; and on the Centigrade, 100. The freezing point is 
called: on the Fahrenheit, 32; on the Reaumur, o; and on the 
Centigrade, o. Between the freezing and boiling points there 
are on the Fahrenheit. 212 — 32, or 180 degrees ; on the Reaumur 
80 degrees; and on the Centigrade, 100 degrees. 

To Reduce Degrees of One Scale to Those of Another. — The same 
rise in temperature, from the freezing to the boiling point of 
water, being divided into 180 degrees on the Fahrenheit. 80 
deg^'ees on the Reaumur, and 100 degrees on the Centigrade 
thermometer, it follows that 180 degrees Fahrenheit (written 
i8o* F.) = 80 degrees Reaumur (8o* R.) = 100 degrees Centi- 
grade (loo* C.) = or, dividing by 20. that 9* F. =4** R. = 5* C; 

4 5 9 5 

and I* F. = — • R. = — • C : i* R. = — ° F. = — • C. ; i*» C 

9 9 4 4 

9 4 

S 5 



THE fSEWES's CHEMICAL LABORATORY. 973 

And since the point marked 33" F. corresponds to o* R. and 
0° C. we may reduce Reaumur degrees to Fahrenheit by multi- 
plying by 9, dividing by 4 and adding 32; and Centigrade degrees 
to Fahrenheit by multiplying by g, dividing by 5 and adding 33. 

Thus: 

30X9 270 
30= R. = 1- 32, or h 32, or 67-5 + 32, or 99-S" F. 



30° C. = + 32. or S4 + 32. or 86' F. 

5 
Similarly, we may reduce Fahrenheit degrees to Reaumur by 
subtracting 32, multiplying by 4 and dividing by g; and Fahren- 
heit degrees to Centigrade by subtracting -^i, multiplying by S 
and dividing by g. Thtis: 

4(60 — 32) 4X28 112 
6o* F. = , or , or , or 12.44" *• 



SX28 140 



r 15-55° C. 



TESTING THE THntMOHETERS. 

The accuracy of a thermometer at the boiling and freezing 
points of water may be ascertained approximately in the follow- 
ing manner : Immerse the thermometer in boiling water, care 
being taken not to touch the sides of the vessel containing the 
water or to have the mercury bulb come in contact with the bot- 
tom of the vessel. The thermometer after a few minntes should 
read 212° on the Fahrenheit scale, 100° on the Celsius and 80' 
on the Reaumur. For the freezing point immerse the thermometer 
in melting ice. It should then indicate 32° F., 0° C, o* R. 

WORTS. 

The wort is filtered while cold. Note the color, brilliancy, 
presence or absence of starch or erythrodextrin. 

■XTBACT. 

The specific gravity is taken by means of the picnometer at 
15° C. and converted into per cent extract b^ »«fa^\TO.t x** ■^t 
Bailing table. 













iDoruiKMriaK 






F. 


W. 


;^ 


F- 

iia 


8. 


G 


i 


R. 


c. 


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S.I 


x.a 


M 


— ■:■ 


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mi 


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■.1 


ia 


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-7.* 


no 






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-31 


-!l!> 


-M.l 


isr 


ag.u 


TO-1> 


IIS 


ilia wit 


M 


S.} 




^» 






toa 


wn 






ai.i an.i) 


ffi 














».i 


no 




M.T' W.S 








— fr 






IN 


«.7 


TO-S 


wo 










- a" 


^2-^ 


-»:s 


MB 


W,i 


72-J 


w 




» 






-a* 






l« 


K.fi 




















Mt 








»» XA 


a 








-aio 






«J 


^'■' 


s 


S.1 


at.s 


If 


_KS 


Ji-il 


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iSJ 


=£1 



HO 31,1 ■ 31 -».« -I 



CONVBR8ION TABLES OP THB THBRMOMBTBR SCALBS. 
Reaumur to Fahrenheit and Celsius. 



R. 


P. 


c. 


R. 

o 


V. 


0. 


R. 

o 


p. 


c. 

o 


R. 

o 


F. 


C. 


o 


o 


o 


o 


o 


o 


O 

• 


o 


80 


212.00 


100.00 


40 


142.25 


61.25 


18 


72.50 


23.50 


—13 


2 75 


-16.25 


79 


209.75 


98.75 


48 


140.00 


60.00 


17 


70.28 


21.26 


—14 


0.50 


—17.50 


78 


207.50 


97.50 


47 


137.75 


58.75 


16 


68.00 


20.00 


—15 


- 1.75 


-18.75 


7T 


205.25 


96.25 


46 


135.50 


57.50 


15 


85.75 


18.76 


-16 


— 4.00 


-20.00 


76 


203.00 


96.00 


45 


133.25 


56.26 


14 


63.50 


17.60 


—17 


- 6.25 


-21.25 


75 


200.75 


93.75 


44 


131.00 


55.00 


13 


61.25 


16.25 


—18 


— 8.50 


-22.50 


74 


196.50 


92.50 


43 


128.75 


53.76 


12 


50.00 


15.00 


-19 


—10.75 


—23.75 


73 


196.25 


01.25 


42 


126.50 


52.50 


11 


56.75 


13.76 


—20 


—13.00 


—25.00 


72 


194.00 


90.00 


41 


124.25 


51.25 


10 


54.50 


12.50 


-21 


-15.25 


-26.25 


71 


191.75 


88.76 


40 


122.00 


50.00 


• 9 


52 25 


11.25 


-22 


—17.50 


—27.50 


70 


189.50 


87.50 


39 


119.75 


48.75 


8 


50.00 


10 00 


—23 


-19.75 


—28.75 


m 


187.25 


86.25 


38 


117.50 


47.50 


7 


47.75 


8.75 


-24 


—22.00 


—30.00 


68 


186.00 


85.00 


37 


115.26 


46.25 


6 


45 50 


7.50 


-25 


-24.25 


-31 .-.SS 


67 


188.75 


83.75 


36 


113.00 


45.00 


5 


43.25 


6 25 


-26 


—26.50 


—32.50 


66 


180.50 


88.50 


35 


110.75 


43.75 


4 


41 00 


5.00 


-27 


-28.75 


-33.75 


65 


178.25 


81.25 


3t 


108.50 


42.50 


3 


38.75 


3.75 


—28 


—31.00 


—35.00 


64 


176.00 


80.00 


33 


106.25 


41.26 


2 


36.50 


2.50 


-29 


-33.25 


-36.25 


63 


173.75 


78.75 


%i 


lOl.OO 


40.00 


1 


34.25 


1.26 


—30 


-:i5.50 


-37.50 


62 


171.50 


77 50 


31 


101.75 


38.75 





32.00 


0.00 


-31 


— :rr.75 


—38.75 


61 


169.25 


76.25 


30 


99.50 


37.50 


— 1 


29.75 


— 1.28 


—32 


-40.00 


—40.00 


60 


167.00 


75.00 


29 


97.25 


36.26 


- 2 


27.50 


— 2.50 


—33 


-42.25 


-41.25 


50 


164.75 


73.75 


28 


96.00 


35.00 


— 3 


25.25 


— 3.75 


—34 


—44.50 


—42.50 


58 


162.50 


72.50 


27 


.92.75 


33.75 


— 4 


23.00 


- 5.00 


—35 


—46.75 


-43.75 


57 


160.25 


71.25 


26 


90.50 


32.50 


— 5 


20.75 


- 6.25 


-36 


-49.00 


-45.00 


56 


158.00 


70.00 


25 


88.26 


31.25 


— 6 


18.50 


— 7.50 


—37 


-51 .25 


-46.25 


55 


156.75 


68.75 


24 


86.00 


30.00 


- 7 


16.25 


— 8 75 


— :« 


-53.50 


—47.50 


54 


153.50 


67 50 


23 


83.75 


28.75 


- 8 


14.00 


—10.00 


—89 


-.'V5.75 


-48.75 


53 


151.25 


66.25 


22 


81.50 


27.50 


— 9 


11.75 


-11. £5 


—40 


-58.00 


-50.00 


52 


149.00 


65.00 


21 


79.25 


26.28 


-10 


9.50 


-12.50 








51 


146.75 


68.75 


20 


77.00 


25.00 


—11 


7.25 


-13.75 








50 


144.50 


62^ 


19 
re 

C. 


74.75 


23.75 


-12 
ir am 

1 r. 




5.00 
1 Pabre 


—15.00 












*"• i 


Isius to 
R. 

o 


Reaumi 

f7 ' 


nheit. 


c. 




0. 


R, 

o 


R. 


I~P." 


R. 


P. 


G 


° : 


o 

1 


o 


o 


o 


1 00 


80.0 212.0 


72 


.57.6 


161.6 ' 


44 


35.2 


111.2 


16 


12.8 60.8 


99 


79.2 210.2 1 


71 


56.8 


159.8 


43 


34.4 


100.4 


15 


12.0 


59.0 


98 


78.4 , 20H.4 , 


70 


56.0 


158.0 


42 


: 33.6 


107.6 


14 


11.2 


57.2 


97 


77.6 ' 2U6.« 1 


69 


55.2 


156.2 


41 


32.8 


105.8 


13 


10.4 


55.5 


3? 


76.8 , 2W.8 


68 


54.4 


154.4 


40 


32.0 


, 104.0 i 


12 


9.6 


5:). 6 


9^ 


76.0 1 203.0 


67 


53.6 


152.6 


39 


31.2 


102.2 , 


11 


8.8 , 51.8 


94 


75.2 201.2 


66 


52.8 


150.8 


38 


30.4 


100.4 1 


10 


8.0 


50 


93 


74.4 199.4 


65 


52.0 


149.0 


37 


29.6 


98.6 , 


9 


7.2 


48.2 


92 


73.6 1 197.6 


01 


51.2 


147.2 


36 


28.8 


96.8 


8 


C.4 46.4 


91 


n.S • 195.8 


63 


50.4 


145.4 


35 


28.0 


1 95.0 


7 


5 6 ' 44.6 


90 


Ti.O I 194.0 


62 


49.6 


143.6 


34 


27.2 


93.2 


6 


4.8 


42.8 


89 


71.2 ! 102.2 


'61 


48.8 


141.8 


3:^ 


26.4 


91.4 


5 


4.0 


41.0 


88 


70.4 190.4 
09.0 188.6 


60 


48.0 


140.0 


32 


1 25.6 


, 80.6 


4 


3.2 


30.2 


87 


59 


47.2 


138.2 


31 


24.8 


• 87.8 


3 


2.4 


37.4 


86 


68.8 186.8 


56 


46.4 


136.4 


30 


! 24.0 


■■ 86 


2 


1.6 


35.6 


85 


68.0 1 185.0 


57 


45.6 


134.6 


29 


2:^.2 


' 84.2 1 


1 


0.8 


:{3.8 


84' 


67.2 183.2 


66 


44.8 


138.8 


28 


22 4 


82.4 ; 





0.0 32.0 


83 


66.4 181.4 


56 


. 44.0 


131.0 


27 


, 21.6 


80.6 I 


-1 


-0.8 30.2 


82 


65.6 179. 6 


54 


43.2 


12d.^ 


26 


' 20.8 


78.8 


-2 


-1.6 28.4 


81 


64.8 177.8 1 


53 


. -42.4 


127.4 


25 


20.0 


. 77.0 1 


-3 


—2.4 26.6 


80 


04.0 176.0; 


52 


41.6 


126.6 


24 


i 10.2 


75.2 


-4 


-3.2 2-J.8 


7» 


63.2 • 174.2, 


51 


• 40.8 


123.8 


23 


18.4 


73.4 


5 


—4.0 1 23.0 


78 


62.4 . 172.4 1 


50 


40.0 


122.0 


22 


i 17.6 


71.6 


- G 


-4 8 21 2 


77 


61.6 170.6 


49 


39.2 


120.2 


21 


' 16.8 


69. H 


-7 


- ^ t*. \^ .V 


7B: 


60.8 168.8 


48 


38.4 : 


118.4 


20 


, 16.0 


«iv.vi ^ 


— \s 




75, 
7*1 
73/ 


60.0 i67.0i 


47 


37.6 


116.6 


Vi 


\ \f».i 


<5fo.^i 




-m.2 i M5.2I 


46' 


36.8 


114:8 


I ^^ 




V ^.^ 


58.4 


103.4 J: 


451 


96.0 


113.0 


1; n 


, ^ «4.' 


A- 


IVJ^^ 


_->-"- ^— 



mQ 



976 THE brewer's chemical laboratory. 

SEDUCING SUGAIS (SUGAR). 

Measure 25 c.c. of the wort and dilute to 250 cc After 
shaking thoroughly, run 25 cc. of this mixture into a boilinf 
Fehling solution and boil four minutes. Treat the red precipitate 
as in the case of sugar determination in beer. Subtract three milli- 
grams (0.003 g.) from the total oxide of copper found; nraltiplj 
by 26.3, and divide by the specific gravity of the wort The resolt 
is the percentage of reducing sugars (sugar) in the wort 

yolumttric Estimation of sugars and calculation of sugar <lr- 
gree. — ^The wort or beer should be diluted, if necessary, so 
that it contains not to exceed i per cent of sugar. Suppose the 
wort has 9.512 per cent extract. Dilute it 10 times by measur- 
ing out 10 c.c. of the wort and adding 90 cc of water. After 
mixing thoroughly, fill a 50 cc burette with the diluted wort 
Prepare a Fehling solution in a porcelain dish by mixing 10 
cc. of the white solution, 10 cc of the blue solution and 
20 c.c. of water. Heat to boiling and add the dilated wort, 
first in large quantities, finally, in o.i c.c, until the blue color 
disappears. This point being difficult to discover by the eye, 
it is belter to moisten a piece of doubled filter paper on each 
side with a drop of dilute acetic acid and a drop of a solit- 
tion of ferrocyanide of potash, then add on the top side a drop 
of the solution from the porcelain dish ; press the spot between 
the fingers a little, and examine the under side. This is repeated 
after each addition of o.i cc. of diluted wort to the solution 
in the porcelain dish, each time putting on a fresh drop of the 
dilute acetic acid and the solution of ferrocyanide of potash 
on each side of the doubled filter paper and one drop of the 
solution from the porcelain dish on the top side. As long as 
there is any copper left unprecipitated. the under side of the 
doubled filter paper remains colored red. Keep adding ai cc. 
of the diluted wort to the solution in the porcelain dish and 
put the drops on the filter paper as described until this red color 
on the under side of the doubled filter paper disappears, or the 
paper remains white. At this point all of the copper has been 
precipitated as oxide of copper. The number of c.c. of di- 
luted wort that has been run into the Fehling solution is now 
noted. Suppose we find it to be 22 c.c. Since it requires 155 
milligrams of sugar to precipitate all of the copper in the 
Fehling solution these 22 c.c. oi dWuled '^oW ^noXivoA^ v^S laiUi- 
^*oi5 oi maJtose. 



THE brewer's chemical LABORATORY. 977 

Or 22 c.c. of diluted wort contain 0.155 g. sugar. 
100 c.c. of diluted wort contain 0.7 g. sugar, 
or 

0.155 gX 100 

= 0.7 grams sugar. 

22 
In the original wort, which is 10 times stronger, there 
must, then, be seven grams sugar. The wort of 9-512 per cent 
extract has a specific gravity of 1.0384, and dividing 7 by 1.038.1 
gives 6.74, the percentage of sugar or maltose in the wort. 
The Sugar Degree (sugar in 100 parts) is then found as fol- 
lows : 
In 9.512 parts extract are contained 6.74 sugar, or 
In 100 parts extract are contained how many parts? 

6.74 X 100 

Sugar Degree = = 71 • 

9512 
Ratio of Sugar to Non-sugar. — By subtracting the sugar from 

the extract we find the non-sugar, from which data we can readily 

find the ratio between the two. talking sugar as 100. 

2.772 X 100 
= 41. 1 or S : NS. = 100 : 41. i. 

6.74 

ALBUMEN. 

Measure out 25 c.c. of the wort into a Kjeldahl flask 
and add a small amount of tannic acid to prevent froth- 
ing. Evaporate to a syrupy consistency on a sand bath. When 
cool, add al)Out 0.7 gram of yellow mercuric oxide and 20 c.c. 
of concentrated chemically pure sulphuric acid. Coiuinue a-; 
under albuminoid determination in beer, using the same factor, 
0.035 in the calculation and divide by the specific gravity. 

BEERS. 

DETERMINATION OF APPARENT EXTRACT. 

Remove the carbonic acid by repeated pouring from one larpe 
copper beaker into another, and take the specific gravity by 
means of a picnometer at 15** C. Refer the specific gravity 
found to Railing's table, and read off the apparent extract of 
the boer. the "Balling of beer." 

ALCOHOL AND REAL EXTRACT. 

Wei^h two thoroughly cleaned and dried Erlenmese^ ^•^'^^ 
(about 250 c.c. capacity). Into otie vft\\^ ^y.^o\>s x^» ^-a^^^^ 



978 THE brewer's chemical laboratory. 

• 

of the beer, free from Garbontc add, and add 50 cc of dis- 
tilled water. Connect with a condenser, and distfll about 80-90 
cc. of the diluted beer into the second, previously weighed, 
cleaned and dried Erlenmeyer flasic After cooling, fill up both 
flasks, adding carefully distilled water from a wash bottle, to 
a weight of 100 grams over and above the weight of the empty 
flasks. Take the specific .gravity of each with the ptcnometer. 
and then refer to Balling's extract taUes and Baumhauer's 
alcohol tables (15* C.) to obtain the respective per cents, by 
weight, of real extract and alcohol. By sul^tracting the appar- 
ent extract from the real extract and multiplying by 2.22 Ihe 
approximate percentage of alcohol is obtained, which may 
serve as a check on the results. 

The following method, although not as accurate as the preced- 
ing one, will serve in cases where the approximate percentage 
of alcohol is desired. After the beer has been freed from car- 
bonic acid, determine the a4>parent extract by means of the 
saccharometer ; 200 g. is now weighed in a copper beaker, 
using the technical balance. Heat to boiling and allow to boil 
until about one-third of the volume remains. Cool and add 
enough water tp make the original weight, i. e., 200 g. plus the 
weight of the empty beaker. After mixing thoroughly, again de- 
termine the Balling by means of a saccharometer which then 
shows the real extract of the beer. The approximate percentage of 
alcohol is then obtained by subtracting the apparent from the real 
<:xtract of the beer and multiplying by the factor 2.22. 

FIXED ACID. 

Measure 50 cc. of the extract solution obtained as above described 
(after determining the specific gravity), in a small beaker, and 
titrate with decinormal caustic soda solution, until a drop no 
longer gives a reddish tinge to blue litmus paper. Multiply the 
number of cc. standard soda used by 0.018 to get the percentage 
of fixed acid in the beer. 

VOLATILE ACIIK 

Measure 50 cc. of the above obtained alcohol distillate in a 
small beaker and add enough tincture of cochineal to give a de- 
cided yellow color. Run in a decinormal solution of caustic soda 
from a burette, one-tenth cc at a time, until a reddish color ap- 
pejtrs. The number of one-tenth cc used multiplied by oxx>i2 
'"'« the percentage of volatile acvd *\n Vjww. 



THE BREWER'S CHEMICAL LABORATORY. 979 

PHOSPaOBIC ACID. 

Measure out 50 c.c. of the original beer, free from carbonic 
acid, into a small beaker. .Add -5 c.c. of an acid solution o[ 
sodium acetate, and heat to boiling. Run in from a burette 
standard uranium acetate solution, one-half c.c. at a time, test- 
ing each time until a drop of the beer, when placed on a white 
plate, colors a small crystal of potassium ferrocyanide slightlj 
brown. The number of c.c. of the uranium acetate solution 
necessary, multiplied by o.oi, gives the per cent of phosphoric 
acid (anhydride) in the beer. 

TOTAL ALBUMEN. 

Ueasure out 25 c.c. of the beer, free from carbonic acid, into 
a Kjeldahl flask. Evaporate to a syrupy consistenlcy on a 
sand bath. When cool, add about 0.7 gram of yellow mer- 




:ntrated chemically pure sulphuric 
acid. Heat again on a sand balli, in a hood, until almost color- 
less. Add 10 the somewhat cooled liquid gradually small quanti- 
tics of powdered, chemically pure permanganate of potash, until a 
green color remains upon stirring, and allow to cool. Fill a half- 
lilcr Hrlcnnieyer flask to a depth of about half an inch with dis 
tilled water, and run in the contents of the Kjcldahf flask, carefully 
rinsing witli distilled water. Add 10 c.c. sulphide of potassium 
solution and one or two pieces of pure granulated >;inc to 
prevent bumping. Add enough caustic soda. aoW\!wm *A^<;t VtoTO, 
nitrogen) to make it aJkaline (about 70 to fto tx, <A a ^».i.nw».V!^ 



900 THE BREWERS CHBUICAL LABOSATOSV. 

Mdntioo}. Comwct namcdindy with LicUg's eooiantx and dii- 
till over about lOo to 150 ex.; the dittiUate is collected in 
a qnarter-litcr ErlcnmeTer flask, containing aS ex. of deci- 
aonnal snlphunc add. lo order to prevent any loaa of am- 
monia, the end of Ibc tnbe of Uebig's condenser thould be 
immersed in the acid before commencing the dittiUation. Titnic 
bach the exccu of inlpfaniic acid with decinomial todiam 
hjdntc solution, osing cochineal aa an indicator. Subtract the 
nnndter of cc of dednormal Bodinm hydrate naed, from 24^ 
nmttipljr ibe remainder by 0.03s, >nd divide by the ipedfic 
gravity of the beer, to obtain the per cent of total aJbtunen. 

Exptanation of the factor 0035. — One ex. of the one-tenth 
standard soda solntioa correspomU lo 0.0014 g- nitrc^en. The 





nitrogen, when multiplied by the factor 6.25, gives the albumen. 
As the albumen was determined in 25 c.c. of beer, it would 
be four limes more in lOO cc; therefore 
0.0014 X 6.25 X 4 = O.03S. 

REDUCING SUGARS (WALTOSE). 

Measure oiil 25 c.c. of ihe beer free fiom carbonic acid into 
a 100 c.c flask, and add dislilled water up to Ihe mark. After 
shaking thoroughly, prepare a Fehling solution in a glass beaker 
of about ,100 c.c. capacity, by mixing 30 c.c. of ihc blue solu- 
(jon. 30 C.c. ot the white, and 60 c.c. distilled water. Heal 
10 boiling and ihen run in imme4ia\e\K Vtciwv % vvette 25 c.c. 



THE brewer's chemical LABORATORY. g8l 

of the diluted beer, and allow to boil for four minutes. Filter 
the red precipitate of oxide of copper, while hot, through an 
ashless filter paper, and transfer carefully any particles of the 
red precipitate that may adhere to the sides of the beaker to the 
filter by washing with hot water. Continue washing with boil- 
ing water until the sides or rim of the filter paper show no 
longer an alkaline reaction by testing with red litmus paper. 
Dry in a hot air bath at lOO to 105* C, and ignite in a weighed 
platinum crucible, cool and weigh. The increase in weight, minus 
0.003 g» gives the amount of oxide of copper. To find the per- 
centage of maltose in the beer, multiply the number of grams of 
oxide of copper by the factor 11.32 and divide by the specific 
gravity of the beer. 

The factor 11.32 is found in the following manner: 25 c.c. 
beer diluted to 100 c.c. = 4 times dilu^e^; as the maltose was 
determined in 25 c.c. of the diluted beer, then the total dilu- 
tion = 4 X 4 or 16 times. The oxide of copper is calculated as 
copper by multiplying by 0.8. This result divided by the factor 
1.13 =: maltose; therefore, 

16 X 0.8 
= 11.32. 

1.13 

The subtraction of the three milligrams from the total oxide 
of copper is an allowance for the alkali, which it is impossible to 
wash out. 

ASH. 

Evaporate to dryness on a water bath 100 grams of the 
beer in a platinum dish of known weight. Ignite directly over 
a Bunscn burner until the ash assume^ a white appearance. 
Cool in desiccator, and weigh. The weight of ash in grams 
gives the per cent of ash in the beer. 

DEXTRIN. 

Fifty c.c. beer and 15 c.c. hydrochloric acid of specific grav- 
ity i.i^s ^rc diluted to 200 c.c. The flask, after being fitted 
with a wide glass tube about three feet long, is kept in the boiling 
water bath for two hours, cooled, neutralized with caustic soda 
and filled to 250 c.c. (or 300 c.c. with a beer of high extract) ; 
25 c.c. of this diluted solution is taken and tmw voX.^ -a. X^^S^v^-sfe. 
Fchling solution (30 c.c. blue, 30 c.c. viVvvVt, fe c.c. ^ti-aX^Ov , '5»sn.^'^- 



982 THE brewer's chemical LABORATYHCY. 

lowed to boil for two miiitttcs. Filter, and detemriiie the amoont 
of oxide of copper, as in maltose determination tnbeer. llnU^ily 
the oxide of copper found by o^ to obtain the cor resp onding 
amoont of copper, and refer to F. Allihn's dextrose table. The 
amount of dextrose thus found, multiplied by 20 (or 24 if dUntod 
to 300 cc.) and divided hf the specific gravity, equals the dextioae 
in the l^|d. Take this percentage of dextrose, subtnct 
||*of tH^ffrcentage of maltose in the original beer, and multiply 
hy A which gives the percentage of dextrin in the originid beer. 

WATER ANALYSIS. 

TOTAL SOLIDS. 

Evaporate to dryness on a water bath aoo cc of the sample in 
a weighed platinum dish. Dry in the hot air bath at 105-110* C, 
until no further diminution of weight takes place. Subtract the 
weight of the empty dish and multiply by 5. The result is the 
total amount of the solids in milligrams per liter, or parts per 
million. 

LOSS BY IGNITION. 

Heat the contents of the platinum dish to a dull redness. In case 
it blackens (which is an indication of organic matter), continue 
heating gently until it appears white. Cool, moisten with an 
ammonium carbonate solution, and evaporate to dryness on a 
water bath. Heat gently over a Bunsen burner and cool in a 
desiccator. Weigh and multiply the loss in weight by 5. Result 
is the loss due to ignition. 

TOT.\L SULPHATES. 

Treat the ignited residue with a small amount of water and 
add. carefully, dilute sulphuric acid (1:4) in moderate excess. 
Evaporate to dryness on a sand bath and then heat directly over 
a Bunsen burner in order to expel all the free sulphuric acid. 
Cool in a desiccator and weigh. Multiply by 5 to obtain milli- 
grams per liter or parts per million of the sulphates of all the 
bases. When dissolved in water the total sulphates so obtained 
nmst show a neutral reaction. 

OXIDES OF IRON AND ALUMINUli 

Acidify 200 cc. of the water with i cc. of reagent hydrochloric 

acid, and concentrate to about *4i of the original volume, then 

Md(l enough ammonium hydrate (,aqu:a amrnwivii^ Vo t«A« \Vft 



THE brewer's chemical LABORATORY. 983 

solution slightly alkaline. Should a precipitate form, redissolve 
in hydrochloric acid and reprecipitate with ammonia and evapo- 
rate until the odor of ammonia has almost entirely disappeared, i 
If iron and aluminum are present, the former can be distinguished 4 
by its rust-colored appearance. Filter (the filtrate still contains 
the calcium, magnesium and sodium salts) through an ashless 
filter paper into a medium-sized beaker. Wash tJ^orecipitate 
that may adhere to the sides of the beaker with hoWlliter, ^nd 
transfer to filter. Continue washing the precipitate with hot 
water until a few drops of the filtrate, when collected in a 
test tube, show no turbidity upon adding a few drops of silver 
nitrate solution. 

Concentrate the filtrate and washings to about 50 c.c, and re- 
serve for the calcium and magnesium determinations. Dry the 
precipitate in the hot air bath, and then carefully bum in a 
weighed platinum or porcelain crucible. Cool in a desiccator and 
wei8;h again. The increase in weight shows the number of milli- 
grams of oxides of iron and aluminum in 200 c.c. of water. 
Multiplied by 5, gives the parts of oxides of iron and aluminum 
per million. 

OXIDE OF CALaUM. 

The above mentioned filtrate, which was concentrated to about 
50 c.c, should be kept hot, add a few c.c. of ammonium chloride 
solution and then 5 to 10 c.c. ammonium oxalate solution, and 
place on water bath until the' precipitate has settled. Then add 
carefully a few drops more of the ammonium oxalate solution to 
be sure that all the calcium was precipitated. If it was, no further 
precipitate will be produced. The solution containing the white 
precipitate (which is calcium oxalate) is no\^ filtered through an 
ashless filter paper into a 200 c.c. beaker. Wash the precipitate 
with hot water and transfer to filter; continue washing until a few 
drops of the filtrate, when collected in a test tube and treated 
with a solution of nitrate of silver, remains clear. The filtrate 
and washings are now concentrated to about 50 c.c, and re- 
served for the magnesium determination. The precipitate is 
dried in a hot air bath, burned in a weighed platinum or porcelain 
crucible over a Bunscn burner, and then in the flame of a blast 
lamp until the weight remains constant. The weight cvl ^^^R. 
substance in milligrams multiplied by S ^'^^^ ^^^ w>\tc\«x oK ^rar^^-*^ 
of oxide of csLlcium per million. 



984 THE BKBWES'S CHEMICAL LABOKATOBY. 

MAGIIBSIinf OXIOB. 

Determined as magnesintii fiyrophosphate. — ^To the filtrate from 
caldnm oxalate, which was ooocentrated to 50 cc, add a few 
cc of ammonium chloride solution, if not added already when 
precipitating the lime, and a slight excess of ammonia. (Should 
a precipitate form upon the addition of ammonia, it iiofild in- 
dicate that not enough ammonium chloride had been used, in 
which case enough is added to effect the re-solution of the prcci^* 
tate formed.) To the clear liquid is added sodium pho^hate so- 
lution and the mixture stirred, then add dilute (i :3) ammoiua 
gradually to the amount of % of the liquid. Cover and allow to 
stand for 12 hours. Filter through an ashless filter paper, and wash 
out any particles of the precipitate that may adhere to the sides 
of the beaker, with a portion of the filtrate, or dilute anunoma. 
The precipitate is now washed with a mixture of 3 parts. of water, 
and one part solution of ammonia of 0.96 specific gravity, the op- 
eration being continued until a few drops of the liquid passing 
through the filter when acidified with nitric acid, produces only a 
slight milky color upon the addition of a drop of silver nitrate 
solution. The precipitate is now thoroughly dried in a hot air 
bath of 105-110** C, and then transferred to a weighed platinum 
or porcelain crucible. Heat gently at first, and finally to intense 
redness ; continue the heating over a blast lamp for about five min- 
utes, cool and weigh. 

If the magnesium pyrophosphate is dark colored, moisten with 
a few drops of nitric acid, warm carefully till dry, and ignite 
again, cool and weigh. The weight of the magnesium pyrophos- 
phate X 0.56 gives the weight of magnesium oxide in 200 c.c; 
the weight of magnesium oxide in milligrams X 5 gives parts of 
magnesium oxide per million. 

■ 

SULPHURIC ANHYDRIDE. 

Determined as barium sulphate. — Measure out 200 c.c. of the 

water into a beaker of about 400 c.c. capacity, acidify by adding 

I c.c. of hydrochloric acid and evaporate to about 50 c.c, add to 

the hot liquid a solution of barium chloride (8-10 cc), proceed 

. then as in the determination of sulphuric acid as described under 

preparation of sulphuric acid. The weight of barium sulphate 

X 0.34s X 5 gives the weighl oi sulphuric anhydride in milli- 

-'rams per liter or parts per mvWioci. 



THE brewer's chemical laboratory. 985 

CHLORINE. 

Measure out 100 c.c. of the water into a beaker of about 200 c.c. 
capacity, add 3 drops of a solution of pure potassium 
chromate. Then run from a burette a decinormal silver nitrate 
solution very slowly, stirring constantly. Each drop pro- 
duces, where it falls, a red spot, which, upon stirring, disappears. 
Continue to add the silver nitrate drop by drop, until the red 
coloration ceasi;s to disappear, and note the number of c.c. it re- 
quired. 1 c.c. of the dccinormal silver nitrate solution = 0.00585 
gram of sodium chloride, or 0,00355 gram chlorine. Suppose it 
required 0.5 c.c. of silver nitrate solution, then 0.00355 X O.J = 
0.001775, amount of chlorine in 100 c.c, or 17.75 in 1,000 c.c., or 
milligrams per liter. Milligrams per liter and parts per million 
being identical, then the parts per million of chlorine in this 
case would be 1775- 

FSKE AMMONIA. 

Take 200 c.c. of the water in an Erlenmeyer flask. Add about 
one gram of pure, dry, sodium carbonate, and distill through a 
Liebig condenser into a 50 c.c Nessler tube. Two c.c. of Nessler 
reagent are dropped into the 50 c.c. of distillate, and if any am- 
monia is present it will assume a rich brown color; the more 
ammonia, the deeper the color. Now. imitate the depth of color 
given by the distillate. In order to do so, another clean 50 c,c. 
Nessler tube is taken, and to it is added a certain measured 
volume of the diluted standard solution of ammonium chloride, 
and then filled with distilled water to the 50 c,c. mark and stirred 
tlwroughly. Then 2 c.c. of Nessler reagent is added, and com- 
pared in color with the 50 c.c. of distillate, by placing the two 
tubes side by side on a white surface, looking through and noting 
which is of the deeper color. Should they be of equal depth, the 
Nesslerizing is accomplished, if the two solutions be not of equal 
depth, another standard must be made up with water, dilute 
standard atimionia. and Nessler reagent, and another comparison 
must be made. 

CaUuiaiion. — The dilute standard solution of ammonium chlor- 
ide contains o.ooooi gram of ammonia in i c.c. If it required 5 
c.c. of the sland.ird solution to imitate the color of the distillate. 
IS 0.01 milUgiun, or <,C.e- twrRiwi.'a.'a^.'^'™' 
r taken cootam tjjo^ ■Ka\\Y(p».m ««iMn«v ■»«> 



986 THE bkkwsr's chemical laboratory. 



1,000 cc or I liter, therefoic, contain 025. In tins case, tlien, 
the free ammonia would be 0^5 parts per million. 

ALBUMUfOin AMMONIA. 

To the water left in the Prienmeyer flask after distilling off the 
50 cc for free ammonia, as above^ add 2$ cc of alkaline pennan- 
ganate of potash solution, and distill another 50 cc into a Nessler 
tttbc Add 2 cc of Nessler reagent, and proceed the same as 
for free ammonia. The number of cc of standard anunonia 
solution it required, multiplied by aos, gives the parts per uiUUon 
of albuminoid ammonia. 

OXYGEN CONSUMED IN MOIST OOMBUSTIDN. 

Measure out 100 cc of the water .into an Erienmqfcr flask of 
about 8 ounce ca^dty. Run in from a burette 20 cc of the 
potassium permanganate solution of known strength and M cc 
of caustic soda solution (1:2). Boil lor ten minutes, then add 
while hot 20 cc. of f }« normal solution of oxalic acid and 5 cc 
of sulphuric acid (1:4); after shaking, run in from a burette the 
permanganate of potash solution about V2 cc. at a time, finally ai 
cc, shaking after each addition until a permanent pink color ap- 
pears and remains for a minute. The number Of CC it re- 
quired times 0.8 gives the parts per million of oxygen consumed 
in mcHst combustion. 

I cc. of the permanganate solution = 0.00008 g. oxygen. 

TEMPORAItY AND PERMANENT HARDNESS. 

Measure out 250 cc. of the water and pour into a glass tieaker 
of about 400 cc. capacity. Cover with a watch glass and boil, 
keeping up the volume with distilled water for about i honr. 
Filter through an ashless filter paper and wash with hot water, 
using a "policeman" (rubber- tipped glass rod) to remove all 
traces of the precipitate adhering to the sides and bottom of the 
beaker. Dry in a hot air bath, bum, and ignite the filter paper 
in a weighed platinum crucible. Heat over blast lamp until 
weight remains constant, cooling in desiccator. The number of 
milligrams, multiplied by 8, g^ives the approximate amount of 
temporary hardness in parts per million, or carbonates of lime, 
magnesia, iron and alumina, the latter two being very sddom 
found. The lime and magnesia ate weigjied as the oxides, and 
ty maJtiplying the same by 2 we ctofcam iv^twxoa^^s ^Safc wet*. 



THE brewer's chemical t-ABORATORY, 987 

apondins amount of carbonates in 250 c.c, of water, or, in milli- 
grams per liter, by multiplying by four. 

The permanent hardness is that part of the total residue which 
is not removed by boiling. 

SUSPENDED UATTEK. 

if amount appears to be in excess, lake a liter of the water, 
after shaking thoroughly, and pour it through a dried and weighed 
paper filter. Wash a few times with distilled water in order to 
remove any traces of suspended matter that may adhere to the 
sides of the flask. Dry at 105-110° C, in air bath, cool, and 
weigh. 

Weight found in milligrams per liter is parts per million of sus- 

Ignile the weighed paper filter in a weighed platinum crucible, 
cool, and weigh again. Number of milligrams of ash is parts pel* 
million of inorganic matter in suspension. 

Subtracting latter from total suspended matter, we obtain the 
organic suspended matter in parts per million. 

The inorganic matter in suspension can be further examined 
for silica, iron, alumina and lime, by dissolving in dilute hydro- 
chloric acid and evaporating to dryness, redissolving the 
residue in dilute hydrochloric acid and water. Filter and wash 
with hot water, ignite and weigh; the result is the amount of 
silica. In the filtrate, iron, alumina and lime arc determined 
as above. 



Evaporate in a small beaker 100 c.c. of the water until about 
[O c.c. remains. Filter while hot through a small paper filler 
into another small beaker, washing a few time) with hot water. 
A few drops of cochineal tincture is added to the filtrate. If it is 
alkaline, a red or violet-red color appears. Titrate from a bur- 
ette until a yellow color is produced upon the addition of dcci- 
normal sulphuric acid (Va ec- at a time). The number of c.c 
of dccinornial sulphuric acid required multiplied by 53 gives the 
parts per million of alkalinity, or of carbonate of soda in the 

J NIISATCS. 



Into two Ncssler tubes measure oirt. a.\toa\. a* ^-^- 'A "Cnt •«■»^.«^ 
w each. In one of these tu\K» V^« » ^iwat (A. VM«- ■*a=«™»*^ 



908 THE BREWERS CHEMICAL LABORATORY. 

zinc, and to both add i c.c of dilute sulphuric acifl and i cc of a 
solution of zinc iodide and starch. Keep in a dark place for ten 
minutes. If no blue coloration appears, no nitrites nor nitrates are 
present. A blue color in the lube containing the zinc shows 
the presence of nitrates, Uue coloring of the same depth in both 
tubes shows presence of nitrites, while Mue color in both, but 
stronger in the tube containing the zinc, indicates the prcieiicc 
of nitrites and of nitrates. 

BARLEY. 

The nioislure, bushel weight, ^assy and half-glassy kernels, 

are determined in the sanM way as given under malt, while the 

yjetd is determined as for grits. For sulphur test see under 

CBOWTH. 

, Steep 100 kernels of barley for 36 hours in water of room 
temperature. After steeping, place the kernels with their root 





en,1s downward in the 100 holes of a porcelain plate constructed 
tor the purpose. Cover the barley wiih a thin layer of clean sand 
well saturated wilh distilled water. The tray containing the lOO 
grains is kept over a dish of water at a temperature of 25-30° C. 
for 4 days. The grown kernels are then counted, and in a good 
barley should atnount lo 95 per cent. In the absence of the 
perforated porcelain plate the too kernels may be tnade to sprout 
alter steeping between layeirsoi'wtllnKiKax.tntiW.i.w v>V^^- 1S««» 



THE brewer's chemical LABORATORY. 989 

at a temperature of 25-30° C. for 4 days, taking out each day 
such barley kernels as have attained a full growth. 

WEIGHT OF 1,000 KERNELS. 

Weigh 100 kernels of barley on a weighed watch glass, using 
the analytical balance. The weight in grams multiplied by 0.353 
equals the weight of 1,000 kernels in ounces. 

MALT. 
The malt is first sifted through a 20 mesh sieve in order to 
get rid of the rootlets and any particles of dust and dirt it may 
contain. 

MOISTURE DETERMINATION. 

Use technical balance. Weigh out about 21-22 grams of the 
sample, grind and weigh exactly 20 grams of the ground malt 
in a previously weighed glass dish. Close dish with a weighed 
glass cover, a*nd dry in a hot air bath for 3 hours at a tempera- 
ture of 100-105° C, removing lid while drying. Cover with lid, 
and aflcr cooling in desiccator, weigh again. The weight of the 
dried malt -|- dish + cover is subtracted from the weight of the 
empty dish -j- cover -{- 20 grams malt, and the difference mul- 
tiplied by 5 gives the percentage of moisture. 

YIELD. 

Use technical balance, weigh out about 51-52 grams of the 
sample, grind and weigh out exactly 50 grams of the ground 
malt. Heat 300 c.c of distilled water in a weighed copper beaker 
to 45" C. add malt and keep at 45° C. for half an hour. Raise 
tcnipiTaiure 5" every five minutes until 70' C. is reached; keep 
between 70-73'' for half an hour. Conversion is complete when 
a drop of ilie mash shows no further blue or reddish color on 
nrj.iiiion of a drop of iodine solution. Ccx>l to about 17° C, dry 
outside of beaker, and rinse stirring thermometer with pure 
water. Weigh up to 400 grams plus the weight of the empty 
beaker, that is, if, for instance, the weight of the dry empty 
beaker was 200 grams, add distilled water until the weight is ex- 
actly 600 grams. Mix thoroughly by stirring with a glass rod Or 
thermometer, and filter into a clean, dry pint Iwttle. If neces- 
sary, refilter the first part of the filtrate a few times in order to 
obtain a clear wort. Let the wort drain, cool to 15" C, and wei^K 
with the picnometer. or an accurate saccVwsLXcwcveXftx , "a."^^ >^>5s» 
obtain the Balling or extract of iW wotI. 



990 THE brewer's chemical laboratory. 

CALCULATION OT THE YISLD. 

The yield is calculated by substituting in the following formutas 
for M the per cent of moisture and for B the per cent of extract : 

(700 + M)XB yield X 100 

= yield ; = yield of malt in Water- 
loo — B 100 — M 

free condition. 

Suppose the Balling was found to be 9 per cent, and the 
Moisture 5.5 per cent, then by substituting in the above formulas 
we have: 

(700 + 5.5) X 9 6349.S 

= = 69,77 yield. 

100 — 9 91 

6977 

= 73.83 yield of malt in water-free condition. 

94.5 

EXPLANATION OF FORMULAS. 

Yield. — As the 50 grams of malt were weighed up to 400 
grams, the proportion is 350 grams of water to 50 grams of 
malt, or calculating on 100, the proportion would be doubled. 
or 700 grams of water to 100 grams of malt. As the moisture 
in the malt was found to be 5.5 per cent, or 5.5 grams per 100 
grams of malt, then the total water is 705.5 grams. Subtract- 
ing the Balling from 100, we obtain the atnount of water in every 
100 grams of wort, or 91 grams. Knowing, then, that every 100 
grams of wort contains 91 grams of water and 9 grams of extract, 
I gram of water holds in solution *,*, of 9. or 0.09S9 grams extract, 
and 705.5 grams of water hold in solution 705.5 X 0.0989 = 69.77 
grams extract, or 100 grams malt have yielded 69.77 grams ex- 
tract, i. e., yield of malt is 69.77 per cent. 

Yield of Malt in ll'aier-free Condition. — The yield, or 69,77. 
comes from only 94.5 grams of dry malt, the remaining 5.5 per cent 
being water. It. then, a yield of 69.77 per cent is obtained from 

1 

94.5 grams of drv malt, one gram of dry malt contains of 

94.5 
69.77, or 0.7583 grams extract, and 100 grams of dry malt contain 
100 times as much, or 73.83 grams extract, or yield of malt in wa- 
ter-iree condition is 73.83 per cent. 



THE brewer's chemical LABORATORY. 99I 

DETERMINATION OF THE GLASSY, HALF GLASSY AND MEALY KERNELS. 

• 

The simplest method of determination is by the bite, glassy 
kernels being hard and offering a strong resistance to crushing, 
while mealy kernels are soft and can be crushed very readily. 
Half glassy kernels are neither soft nor hard, but medium. 

Grobecker^s Grain Tester for the Determination of Glassy, Half 
Glassy and Mealy Kernels. — This is an instrument in which 50 
grains of malt are cut with a sharp blade, so as to leave a smooth 
surface on each grain. Each half-grain is then tested for glassy, 
half -glassy and mealy condition, by applying a sharp knife-point 
and noting the resistance. 

ALBUMEN. 

Weigh out exactly one gram of malt and transfer in Kjeldahl 
flask, after adding 0.7 gram mercuric oxide and 20 c.c. of chemic- 
ally pure sulphuric acid ; proceed as in the determination of albu- 
men in beer, using the factor 0.875 in place of 0.035 to obtain the 
percentage of albuminoids in malt. 

Explanation of the factor 0.S75. — One c.c. decinormal sodium 
hydrate solution = 0.0014 8f- nitrogen. The nitrogen, when mul- 
tiplied by the factor 6.25, gives the albumen, or, 

0.0014 X 6.25 = 0.00875 in one gram (as one gram of malt was 
taken), or 0.875 >n 100 grams. 

GROWTH. 

100 kernels are counted out and sorted in five groups, according 
to the length to which the acrospire has grown. The lengths are 
o — %. % — %, % — %, % — I, and over one or overgrown. To 
obtain the length of the acrospire, the husk of the malt is peeled 
off with a knife point, on the round side of the grain, beginning 
at the root end. The length of the acrospire is then compared 
with the entire length of the grain, and placed in one of the five 
groups. In a good sample the acrospire should have attained 
the length of % — i, in at least 75 per cent of the kernels. 

BUSHEL WEIGHT. 

The apparatus used for this purpose consists of a brass cup 
and a graduated beam, and is known as a "balance" or "grain 
tester." The cup is filled with the sifted malt, or barley, and 
struck off, and the beam so graduated that by balancing the cup 
it will designate exactly the bushel weight, or h/^H ti\%xv>j v^' 
it will weigh to the bushel. 




99^ THE brewer's chemical laboratory. 

Shtktrf.'^m gnins of malt are plRced into a gUas beaker con 
taaning water at ordinaiy temperatore. Barley grafaia, or par 
tiallsr malted grains will sink to-the bottom, and by counting tin 
same, the percentage of sinkers will be obtained. It should no 
exceed 15 per cent in a good sample. 



UASTATIC rOWlR OP MALT. 

Lintner^s If ethod.— A solabie starch sohition Is prepared bf cov- 
ering potato starch with 7.5 per cent hydrochloric add, allowins 
to stand for seven days at ordinary temperature, and for three 
days at 40* C, whereby it loses its property of forming a paste. 
The starch is then rqieatedly washed with cold water (by decan- 
tation) until it shows no reaction with blue litnnts paper. The wa- 
ter is now poured off and the starch dried in the air. This prodnci 
gives a dear sohitioo in water. Two grams of the soluUe starcb 
is dissolved in 100 cc. of water, and a solution of malt extract 
prepared by adding to 25 grams of findy ground malt distille<i 
water to 500 cc This solution is allowed to stand for sis 
hours at ordinary temperature (about ao** C.)* Filter anc 
dilute the clear filtrate with an equal volume of distillec 
water. In ten test tubes, each of which contains 10 cc of the 
2 per cent soluMe starch solution, there is added 0.1, oj2, 0.3, etc 
up to I cc of the malt extract. Mix thoroughly, and allow to 
stand for one hour at ordinary temperature (20° C). Five cc, 
of Fehling solution is then added to each of the ten test tul>es 
and then all are placed in boiling water for ten minutes. The 
test tube in which all of the copper has been reduced is deter- 
mined by filtering and testing the filtrate by means of doubled filtei 
paper that has been previously moistened with a dilute solution 
of acetic acid and potassium ferrocyanide (see Volumetric Es- 
timation of Sugar in Wort). If no red coloration is produced 
on the under side of the filter paper, the copper is complete!} 
reduced. If this was found to require between 0.3 cc. and 0.4 
cc and a more accurate result is desired, then 10 cc of the 
original solution of nuilt extract is diluted up to 100 cc. The 
test is now repeated, using 3.1 cc, 3.2 cc, 3.3 cc, etc., up tc 
4 cc Supposing it wa9 now found to require 3.8 cc, then, as 
the diastatic power is equal to 100 when ai cc of the original 
sjJKiion of malt extract prepared in the above manner, or 0.2 cc. 
^&Ke diluted solution oi maVl txXtv:! completely reduces the 



THE brewer's chemical LABORATORY. 993 

5 c.c. of Fehling solution, 3.8 c.c. or 0.38 c.c. of original solution 
will be equal to a diastatic power of 

100 

X 2 = 52.6. 

3.8 

CORN PRODUCTS AND RICE. 

OIL. 

Grind finely ten grams of the sample. Then place in ex- 
traction tube of a continuous extractor, and extract with 30 
c.c. of ether for three hours, allowing it to collect in a flask 
previously weighed on the analytical balance. After three hours* 
extraction disfill off the ether, by allowing the flask to re- 
main in warm water until the odor of ether is no longer detected. 
Keep in hot air bath (90° C.) for one hour, cool in desiccator, 
and weigh. The increase in weight in grams, multiplied by ten, 
gives the per cent of oil. 

MOISTURE. 

Determined in the same way as for malt, grinding being un- 
necessary. 

YIELD. 

When mashed with 60 per cent of malt, 20 grams of the well- 
ground sample are placed in a weighed copper beaker, and 300 
c.c. of water added. Allow to boil for half an hour, adding, if 
necessary, a small amount of water from time to time in order 
to prevent the mash getting too thick. Cool to 45° C, and add 
30 grams of ground malt, the yield of which has been previously 
ascertained. Proceed now as for a pure malt mash. 

Calculafion. — (B represents Balling of wort.) 

700 -f moisture in 60^ malt and 40^ cereal X B 

= total yield, 

100 — B 
or, 

Yield of 60 per cent malt and 40 per cent grits. 

Find yield of 60 grams of malt; subtract this malt yield 
from total yield, and obtain 3ricld of 40 grams of grits. Then 
by multiplying by 100 and dividing by 40, the jrield of the grits 

is obtained. 

(Total yield — yield of 60 malt) X 100 

40 



994 "^^^ brewer's chemical laboratory. 

ASH. 

Three grams of the ground sample are weighed out in a plali 
nam or porcelain dish, and ignited until ash is white or tb 
weight is constant The vktigfat of the ash multiplied hy lo 
and divided hf 3 is the percentage of ash. 

CORN VLAKKS. 

Analysis the same as com products and rice, except that in lh< 
determiaation of the yield it is mashed directly at 67** C 

BREWING SUGARS. 

EXTRACT AND MOISTURE. 

Dissolve twenty grams of the sample in about 100 cc. of dis- 
tilled water» heat if necessary, until all is dissolved, cool and 
weigh up to aoo grams with distilled water. After mixing thor- 
oughly, take the specific gravity at 15^ C. by means of the picnom- 
eter, and refer the same to Balling's extract tables. The cor- 
responding amount of extract thus obtained, multiplied by ten, 
gives the percentage of extract. The extract minus 100 = pei 
cent moisture. 

COLORANTS. 

EXTRACT AND MOISTURE. 

Twenty grams of the color is weighed up to 200 graflR^ with 
distilled water. After mixing thoroughly take the specific gravity, 
and multiply the corresponding per cent Balling by 10, which 
will give the extract in 100 grams. The extract minus 100 = 
moisture. 

SUGAR. 

Measure out 25 cc. of the above sugar color solution into a 
250 cc. flask, and dilute to the mark with distilled water. After 
mixing thoroughly by shaking, run 25 cc. into a previously pre- 
pared boiling Fehling solution. After adding, let the copper 
solution come to a boil and allow to boil two minutes for sttgar 
colors, and four minutes in case of a malt color. Filter while 
hot, and continue as under the determination of dextrose in 
grape-sugar. Refer the amount of copper to F. Allihn's dextrose 
table. The amount of dextrose thus obtained is multiplied by 
400 and divided by the specific gravity of the first solution, and 
^he result will be the percenlane ol A^xXioae in the coloring. For 



THE brewer's chemical LABORATORY. 995 

a malt color multiply the amount of copper by 353.98, and divide 
by the specific gravity of the first solution to obtain the percent- 
age of maltose. 

ALBUMEN. 

Determined in a ten per cent solution as given under Beer. 

COLOR STRENGTH. 

Measure out 25 c.c. of the solution in which the extract was 
determined, into a 500 c.c. flask, and dilute up to the mark with 
distilled water. After mixing thoroughly, dilute 25 c.c. of this 
solution to 100 c.c. and transfer into a clear white four-ounce 
bottle (tlat). Into a bottle of exactly the same size and shape, 
add 100 c.c. of distilled water. Now add from a graduated bur- 
ette I- 10 standard iodine solution, i-io of a c.c. at a time until 
the same depth of color has been reached. The numbei* of c.c. , 
of I- 10 standard solution required, multiplied by the dilution, 
represents the color strength. In this case the sugar color was 
diluted 800 times. 

HOPS. 

PHYSICAL APPEARANCE. 

Note the general color of the hops and if they have been cleanly 
picked; size and condition of cones, number and size of seeds, 
color and amount of lupulin. condition of lupulin as to taste, 
and aroma. Note if the lupulin is greasy or sticky. 

SULPHLTl. 

Soak for half an hour twenty grams of hops in 250 c.c. of dis- 
tilled water. Meanwhile prepare a generator for hydrogen gas. 
Place in an Erlenmcycr flask of about 150 c.c. capacity a piece 
of zinc (five grams) free from sulphur and 20 c.c. of c. p. dilute 
hydrochloric acid. Stopper loosely with a cork, holding a strip 
of filter paper on the under side. Moisten the filter paper with 
a dilute solution of sugar of lead (acetate of lead). If the strip 
remains white after the apparatus has been run for half an hour, 
the zinc and acid are pure. Now run in some of the water 
which has extracted the hops for half an hour. If the strip of 
fihcr paper is colored brownish to black in five minutes "much 
sulphur" is present in the hops; "medium" if the colo^ appears 
in Wn minutes, "little sulithur" if the color appears in fifteen 
/ninnti's and a ''slight trace'* if it appears \\\ VvacwV'^ vcvvev>\V^s. 



gg6 THE BSEWEK'S chemical LABCmATOBV. 

MINERAL OIL. 

sFionc cuvnY. 

Into a 100 c.c flask thai has been previously tested and weigbet 
fill the oil at 15* C. to mark, and weigh. The weight of flask ^0 
oil, minus the weight of the emp^ flask, divided by lao, eqnala th 
spedlic gravity, which can be cOBverted into d^rees Beanme b 
referring to table. 

FLASH roiKT. 

Fill about % full a small porcdain crucible of about 25-50 cc a 
padty. Suspend a 360* Centigrade ihennomcter in the oil, ■ 
that the thermometer bulb does not come in contact with the bol 
torn of the crucible. Heat gradually (about 10* a minute) ovc 
a small Bunsen flame, testing every s* for fumes by passing 
lighted ^atch over the surface of the oil and noting the lowc! 
'temperature when a flash appears. 

Into 3 lest tube, containing a small piece of caustic soda, ad 
about 5 c.c. of oil. Boil carefully for a few minutes over a diret 
flatne and allow to stand for a few minutes. If the oil become 
solid it indicates the presence of fatty acids. 
MINERAL Acns. 
Shake thoroughly a small quantity of the oil with distilled watei 
Titrate with decinomial caustic soda solution, using cochineal a 
an indicator. In case the color changes to violet red after th 
addition of o.i or 0,2 c.c, the oil may be considered as free fron 
mineral acids. 

CHEMICALS, STAND.MID SOLUTIONS AND REAGENTS 
Chemicals necessary to make the different standard solution 
and reagents. 

Acid, acetic, glacial I lb. 

Acid, hydrochloric. C. P I lb. 

Acid, nitric. C. P i lb. 

Acid, oxalic, C. P 40*. 

Acid, sulphuric, C. P 1 lb. 

Acid, tannic, pure 4 01. 

Ammonium acetate. C. P 4 01. 

Ammonium hydrate. C. P 4 lbs. 

Ammonium carbonate. C. P ^"'^^ 

^mmontura chloride. C '^ ^'*'- 



THE brewer's chemical LABORATORY. 997 

Ammoniuni oxalate, C, P 

Alcohol, ethyl, gs* 1 qi. 

Barium chloride, C.P M,]h. 

Cochineal 

Copper sulphate, C. P 2 lbs. 

Ether, sulphuric 2 lbs. 

Iodine, resublimed. i o 

Iron chloride, C. P 10 

Lead acetate, C. P ..40 

Litmus paper, red and blue. 

Magnesiun) chloride, C. P. - i^ lb. 

Mercury bichloride, C. P 4 <: 

Mercuric oxide 4 c 

Potassium chromate, C. P 1 c 

Potassium ferrocyanide, C P i c 

Potassium hydrate (in sticks), C. P I 1 

Potassium iodide, C. P 4 c 

Potassium permanganate, C. P 4 c 

Potassium sulphide, C. P 4 e 

Rochelle salt, C. P 2 lbs. 

Silver nitrate, C. P 

Sodium carbonate, C. P 

Sodium chloride, C. P 

Sodium acetate, C. P 

Sodium hydrate, pure : 

Sodium phosphate 

Uranium, acetate 

Zinc, granulated }i lb. 

Zinc, in slicks t^ lb. 

Zinc chloride 

Zinc iodide 

Deeinortnai Sulphuric Acid. — Dilute 3.5 c.c. concentrated chemi- 
cally pure sulphuric acid up to i liter with distilled water. Mix 
thoroughly by shaking. The sulphuric acid is then determined in 
the following manner : 

Run 25 c.c. of the solution by means of a burette into a glass 
beaker of about 100 c.c, capacity, add about 25 c.c. distilled wa.t.« 
and a few drops of hydrochloric acid. Covet ^it^Vw ■wX'Otv ^ -«-a-V'^ 
g)ass and heat to boiling, add 5 to 10 cc-baiWrn ttAo^Xi*^ «^\>j.<\'i'^^ 
which will precipitate the sulphuric acid as a -wtox.* v^tc:w>^»■^^ *= 



99S THK BttBWEK*S CHEMICAL LABattATORV. 

barinm ndphale. Allow to settle at a gentle heat or by pladBg o 
a boiling water bath ontil tolutioa becomet dear. In order to in 
snre a complete precipitation of the sulphuric add, a tew drops a 
bariiKD chloride solution are again added. If no further precipi 
tate ia produced, filter o& the dear Uqnid while hot, diroogh ai 
ashlcM paper filter. The remaining barium sulphate is noi 
washed with boiling water and transferred 'to the filter. In orde 
to wash out all the precipitate contained in the beaker with boilini 
water, a glass rod with a small piece of rubber tubing attached ti 
its end is employed, commonly called a "policenian," Th 
precipitate 00 the filter is now washed with boiling water until i 
few drops of the filtrate, when collected in a lest tube, produces n 
turbidity upon the addition of a few drops of silver nitrate aolti 
lion. Place the filler in a drying oven of about 100' C 
until dry. Ignite in a weighed porcelain or platinum crucible unti 
it assnmes a white appearance. Tbe crucible is then allowed ti 
cool in a desiccator and weighed again. As this is a decinornta 
solution, the precipilale of barium sulphate should weigh o.ag 
grams, or 0.291 grams plus the weight of the empty crucible ii 
order to be correct. Supposing, however, that the weigh! wa: 
found to be 0.339 grams instead of o.zgi grams, Ihen dilute ac 
cording to the following proportion: 

ojgi 10339^ x:iooo 

that is, 858 c.c. of the solution should be diluted up 10 1000 c.c 
In order to be a decinorntal sulphuric acid solution ; 25 c.c. of Ihi: 
must contain exactly 0.291 gram of barium sulphate when pre- 
cipitated with barium chloride in the manner just described, whtcti 
should always be carefully done a second lime, to insure aC' 
curate results. This solution should be kept in a well-sloppere<i 
glass bottle. 

Dreinonnal Caustic Soda Solution. — Dissolve 4.5 to 5 grams ol 
pure dry caustic soda in distilled water, and make up to one tiler. 
Mix the solution thoroughly by shaking and measure out 25 c.c. 
by means of a burette into a dry glass beaker of aboin 100 c.c. ca- 
pacity. Add a few drops of cochineal tincture ; the solution will 
change to a violet red color. Now run in dccinormal solution ol 
I'ulphuric acid slowly, by means oi a burette, into ihe caustic sods 
solution, stopping at the neutral pomt, « v\ve v'^n'. «. ■»i\;\tV v^ 
'vlor of the solution changes itom vVc.\a «i w \m\«. -i«w 



THB brewer's chemical laboratoky. 999 

Read o9 the atnnber of cubic centimeters of Kid it required to 
reach the neutral point Suppose it required 30 c.c, then 35 parta 
even of caaitic soda solution must be diluted to 30 parts by vol- 
ume. In case we liave 950 c.c of the solution on hand, then it 
would have to be diluted to |g of 950, or 1140 c.c, and 35 c.c. of 
this solution well mixed should neutralize exactly 35 c.c. of the 
dccinormal sulphuric acid solution. 

Standard Ammonimn Chloride Solution Used for Atnmonw 
Dflerminalion. — Dissolve 3.15 grams pure ammonium chloride in 
distilled water, and dilute to one liter, mixing well. Then take 
10 cc. of this solution and dilute it to one liter with distilled 
water. Shake well. Each c.c. of this solution contains 0,01 of 
a milligram of ammonia or o.ooooi gram of ammonia. 

Solution of Alkaline Permanganate Used for Albuminoid Am- 
monia Determtnation.-~-Tv/o hundred grams of pure caustic pot- 
ash and eight grams of pure potassium permanganale are dis- 
solved in one liter of distilled water, allowed to boil for fifteen 
minutes in a large porcelain dish, cooled and made up to one 
liter with distilled water. Transfer into well -stoppered bottle. 

Nesslct's Reagent Used for Ammonia Determination. —In 
making this reagent 8.5 grams of corrosive sublimate (mercuric 
chloride) is dissolved in about ijo c.c of boiling water, 17.5 grams 
of potassium iodide is dissolved in 50 c.c of cold water, and the 
corrosive sublimate solution slowly added to the iodide solution 
under constant stirring until a red precipitate is formed that re- 
mains after stirring. Now, add a solution of 60 grams of caustic 
potash in loa c.c of water, and dilute almost to one liter in a 
liter flask. Then add some of the original corrosive sublimate 
solution until a slight red precipitate again appears and remains. 
Fill up to one liter with distilled water, and after letting the 
precipitate settle, pour the clear liquid off into a brown glass bot- 
tle and it is ready for use. 

Acid Solution of Acetate of Sodium. — Used in determining 
phosphoric acid, volumetrically. One hundred grams C. P. acetate 
of sodium and lOo c.c. concentrated acetic acid are made up to 
one liter with distilled water. 

Concentrated C. P. Sulphuric Acid—Sp. g. /.S*— Should be 
free from ammonia and always well stoppered. 

Dilute Sulphuric Acid of Reagent Slrenglh.— 9.>\"ci out -t^.ttVa 
rolame of the chemically pure concentrated *vi\v>\vaT\'i 't'^*^ ■''^'^** 
three volumes ol distilled water. 




CHBHICAL LABOKATOBY. 

Ib dOntidB auKoitnted wcUm ihnjv poor tbc Kid Amtj 
into the water, nercr the mter into the mad. 

DOkU HydrvMorie Acid of R§ag**l Strtnglk.—OM ralima 
of the C P. conccn t nttcd add ii ponred into three volnmes of di» 
tiOed water. 

Hjdroeklorie Acid of tJij SpeeHU Graoity.— To every loo cx 
of C P. hTdrochloric acid (Sp. Gr. 1.3) add 62.5 cc of water 
The ipedfic gravis should then be taken by means of the picno 
meter at 15' C. 

DSute NUfit Acid. — One volnme of concentrated C. P. nitri) 
acid to three volumes of distilled water. 

ZvK Iodide md Slareh SolutioM.—iiix four grams of starcl 
powder in a glass beaker with a little water, and slowly poor tbi 
reanltitig mill^ liquid imder constant stirring into a boiling sola 
tion of twenty grams pure chloride of linc in 100 cc of water 
Continue boiling until the solution becomes somewhat clear, thei 
add two grams of pure zinc iodide dissolved in distilled water 
dilute to one liter, and filter. The clear solution is kept in ] 
well stoppered bottle. It should give no blue color in ten min- 
utes when 0.2 ex. of it is diluted to 50 c.c. and acidified witt 
3 cc reagent sulphuric acid (1-.4). 

Fehling Solution. — Blue Solution. 69.27 grams of pure rC' 
crystallized copper snlphale is dissolved in water and diluted t( 
one liter. 

White Solution.— 346 grams Rochelle salt (sodium potassiun 
tartrate), and 100 grams sodium hydrate (caustic soda), an 
dissolved in water and diluted to one liter. Filler through glast 
wool, 

A mixture of equal portions of these two solutions is called thi 
Fehling Solution. 

Gravimetrically 30 c.c. of each and 60 cc. of water is u*ed 
Volumctrically 10 cc. of each and ao c.c. of waler is used. 

Cochineal Tincture.— ^\x. grams of powdered cochineal is ex- 
traded in half a liter of dilute alcohol (200 cc 95 per cent ethylii 
alcohol diluted to 500 cc with distilled water). Allow to slant 
for a few hours at room temperature, and filter. Keep in wd 
Stcppered bottle. 
Standard Uranium ActMt Solution.— Dissolve 33 to 34 pam! 
0/ uranium acetate in abotil aoo c.c. 4w\.\\\e4 -^tA" - "^^ ^ '^s.- « 
glaciai acetic add, dilute to one Ultr in^i &^4\*4-»i*W- * 



THE brewer's chemical LABORATORY. 1001 

low to itand for a few days in a dark place, and filter. A soltt- 
tion of phosphoric acid, of known strength, is made by dissolving 
10.085 granu of crystallized C. P. sodium phosphate in distilled 
waler to one titer (50 c.c. of this solution contain o.i gram PiOt}. 
When 50 c.c. of this solution is evaporated to dryness in a 
weighed platinum dish a.nd ignited over a Bunsen burner, finally 
over a blast lamp, after cooling in desiccator it should weigh 
0.1874 Kranis. To test the standard uranium acetate solution, take 
SO c.c. of the sodium phosphate solution, acidify with 5 c.c. ol 
acid acetate of soda solution and heat to about 90° C. Now run 
in from a burette the standard uranium acetate, first 5 c.c, then 
¥j cc. at a time, testing after each addition, until a drop, when 
added to a few small crystals of potassium ferrocyanide, gives 
a reddish brown reaction. One C.c. of standard uranium acetate, 
solution should equal 0.005 S''- P>0>, or the 50 c.C. of the sodium 
phosphate solution should require ao c.c. of the standard uranium 
solution to precipitate all of the PiOi. Supposing it took ig c.c 
and we have on hand 980 c.c. of the standard solution; then 

ig : 20 = gSo : X. 
i. e., the solution should be made up to 1031.6 cc, tw 51.6 c.c of 
distilled water is added to the 980 c.c. of the solution on hand. 

Standard Solution of Silvtr Nitrate. — Weigh 18 grams of 
C. P. silver nitrate, and dilute to I liter with distilled waler. A 
testing solution is now prepared in the following manner: Ignite 
moderately about 4 grams of C. P. powdered chloride of sodium, 
cool, and transfer into a clean and dry test tube that can be well 
closed. Place in a drying oven at a temperature of 100 to 105° C. 
for about half an hour, cool in desiccator, and weigh. Carefully 
shake out a small quantity (about o.i gram) into a dry beaker. 
close quickly, and weigh again. The difference in weight repre- 
sents the exact amount of salt taken. Now dissolve in about 50 c.c. 
of distilled water and add a few drops of potassium chromate so- 
lution. Run in slowly from a burette the silver nitrate solution. 
constantly stirring the testing solution until a slight red coloration 
remains. The number of c.c. used, multiplied by 0.00585 should 
be equal to the quantity weighed out. Supposing it required 16.5 
c.c. to precipitate the chlorine in loO milligrams of salt, then the 
solution must be diluted according to the following ^tq^^vjkv-, 
ioo:5.8s = i6.<|-.x. 



t0d2 THE BRBW£K*S CHBltlCAL LABOKATOBY. 

i. e., if 965 c.c. of the decioonnal aolntton is diluted to 1000 ex. 
then it would require 5^5 grami of salt, or i c.c. of the deduoi^ 
mal nitrate of silver solution corresponds to aoosSs g. NaCU or 
003SS B. Ci. 

Ammonia Fluid.— t part of ammoniB water specific p^vitr 0^9I 
and 3 parts of water. 

Sodium Phojphate Sohilion. — For precipitating m^^esia. One 
part of C. P. sodium phosphate in 10 parti of distilled water. 

Ammonium Carbonait Solution. — i part of C. P. ammonium car- 
bonate in 4 parts water; add I part ammonia fluid. 

Ammonium Chloride Solution. — To keep the magnesia in solu- 
tion when precipitating lime. One part C. P. chloride of ammonia 
in 8 parts water. 

Ammonium Oxalate Solution. — i part C. P. ammonium oxalate 
in 25 parts water. 

Barium Chloride Solution. — For precipitating sulphates. One 
p.irt C. P. barium chloride in 10 parts of water. 

Lead Acetate SolHlion. — For sulphur test. Concentrated solu- 

Silver Nitrate Solution. — For qualitative tests. One part of sil- 
ver nitrate in fifty parts of water. 

Potasiium Ferrocyanide Solution. — For volumetric estima- 
tion of sug&r. One part in twelve parts of water. 

Potassium Chromatf Solution.— For chlorine titration. Dis- 
solve one part of C. P. potassium chromate in ten parts of water. 

Potassium Sulf-hidc Solution. — For albumen detennination ; 
Dissolve 40 grams of potassium sulphide in one liter of distitlrd 

Acetic Acid Solulion. — For volumetric estimation of sngar. 
One part glacial acHic acid in ten parts of water. 

Chloride of Iron Solution. — For qualitatiiT test. One part in 
icn pans of water. 

Dccinonnal Iodine ^c/ii/ton.— Dissolve 12.7 grams of iodine 
niid twenty-five grams of potassium iodide in distilled water, 
;ind dilute to one liter. 

Oxalic Acid Solution ,;„ Xormal. — Dissolve 0.63 grams oxalic 
ncid C. P. in distilled water and dilule to one liter. 

/'•■rinansaitate of Potash Solution ,;,. .Vonnal.— Dissolve 0.34 
f;r.iiiis pcrnmngannte of potash in SvuWXti ^awi a^ii fcXiv't vo 
one liter. 



THS BKEWERS CHEMICAL LABORATORY. 1003 

In order to test the above two solutions, take 30 cc of tha oxalic 

acid solution, add 5 c.c. sulphuric acid (1:4). and heat to boiling. 

Ran in dowly from a burette the permauKanate of potash solution 

until it assumes a distinct reddish tinge. The solution, in order 

to be correct, should require ao c.c Suppote, however, it re- 
quired 19.8 c.c, and vk'e have 950 c.c of the solution left, then 

dilute in the following proportion; 

I9.8;ao = 950:x, 
X = 959-5. 

L e., add 95 c.c of distilled water to the permanganate of potash 

solution. 

LIST OF APPARATUS. 

Air Bath (copper) and Support; not smnller than 8kio; used (or 
drying purposes. 

Aspirator Bottle, one gallon, for distilled water; tubulated on 
foot. 

.Analytical Balance, short beam, with rider attachment, sensitive 
to one milligram; and a set of weights from fifty grams down 
to one milligram. 

Technical Balance, capacity one kilc^ram ; set of weights from 
one kilogram down to one cenligram. 

One Platinum dish of lOO c.c. capacity. 

One platinum crucible 10 c.c. capacity. 

Bohemian Glass Beakers — Griffins, low, wide-shape, with lip; ca- 
pacity 150 c.c, zoo and 300 cc. about half a dozen of each. 

Bellows — Foot Blower Blast Lamp for gas and air. 

Reagent Bottles, one pint, about one dozen ; narrow mouth. 

Small Glass Stoppered Reageni Bottles, with chemical names dis- 
tinctly blown in glass. 

Glass Tubing, assorted. 

Glass Rods, assorted. 

Graduates— one 120 c.c, and one 250 c.c. 

Test Tube Brushes, half a dozen. 

Camel Hair Brushes, several. . 

Five so c.c. Burettes, graduated in i"* c.c. 

Bunsen Burners, about half a dozen. 

Iron Stands, with clamps, universal; two. 

Clamps (Hofmann's), several. 

Clamps (Mohr's), several. 

Glass Condensers, about 12 inches \on%; \Vt«e o^ \raoK- 
Iron Wire Gauze, for coverinK tripoda. 



1004 THE BBSWES S CHEUICAI. tABOSATODV. 

Cofk Bonn, one teL 

Coifa and Rubber Stoppers, usorlcd. 

Snail Porcdatn CrodUu, bdghl. i14 inchu; width, iK inche 

half s dozen. 
Crucible Tongue, double bent; one. 
Saccharometer Cylinders. 
Balling Sacc barometer, o to 90 per cent. 
Balling Saccbaromeler, 6 to 7 inches Ions, o to to per cent 
PicntMiKtcr, so cc 

Nessler Cjlindera, 50 ex. capadtj; two. 
Deskcalor, one. 

Porcelain Evaporating Dishes, 4U inclies; half a dozen. 
Porcelain Evaporating Dish, one large, 10 inches. 
Fat Extraction Apparalos; one. 
Munkletl's Swedish Filter Paper No. o; too 7 c. m. and i< 

9 c. m. 
Filter Paper in Sheets, M ream, 20x2a 
Erlenmeyer Flasks. 14 dorco 9-ox. and 14 dozen 16-01. 
Measuring Flasks: 

I liter flask. 

U Titer flask. 

2—250 cc. flasks. 

1-200 cc. flask. 

2— 100 C.C flasks. 
Funnels : 
2— 5-in. 
a-2%-in. 

MorUrs with Pesttes: 

Wedge wood. 5-in. 

Agate, 3-in. 

Iron. 6-in. 
Pipettes: 

1—50 cc. 

2— 2S cc. 



/— 2 ex. 
Rubber Tubing, assorted. 
Spalula. steel, 4 or 5 inches; oi«- 
i*lte Stand; oocl 



THE BREWERS CHEMICAL LABORATORY. 

Test Tube Stand; one. 

Filter Stand; one. 

Test Tubes, 4 and 5 inches in length ; one dozen, 

Kjeldahl Flasks, pear-shaped, long neck; one dozen. 

lOo' Centigrade Thermometers; three. 

360° Centigrade Thermometer; one. 

Oay Triangles ; half a dozen. 

Tripods ; half a dozen. 

Water Bath, 8-inch; one. 

Watch Glasses, assorted ; half a dozen. 

Copper Beakers, half-liter capacity; three. 

Separatory Funnel; one. 

Sand Baths; half a dozen. 

Wash bottle, capacity about 500 c.c. 

One Drying Dish, with ground lid. 







(By Dr. Geon? Holiner 








Specillc 


Percent. 


Epecinc 


PerCBiil. 


6i>ecl5c 


Per t.eni. 




ByWelgbl. 


Omvlly. 


By Weight. 


QraHly. 


By WelKhl. 


o.wei 


1 01 




s.oe 


D.SMR 




W80 






)MS 


S.M 




mos 


i.t7 















Mas 











Ml 


».» 




M04 




o'.ven 


i.a 




9M0 


S.t1 














»» 


t.IT 




me 


B.«! 










l.M 




9001 


s.tn 




l.K 


D 


MST 


8.49 




9M0 










)>3« 


8.H 




mea 






1.0 










9898 


5,89 














flBBT 


B.M 


0.9970 


\.to 




MSI 


lira 




9898 










nan 






gms 










nsi 






mn 




O.fiWT 









siee 










'ffi 





WW 


8.«S 






i.3> 




.89 


1 


tce« 
















K7 






MM 


9,43 


















OBwa 


06 




na 


4:19 








0.BB6I 






mt 


*-a 


OBW 


8. S3 


O.BWD 










09881 






■ IS 




mi 




o.wsn 


fl.7? 


0M68 


.28 





mi 


4:44 


9884 




O.SKT 







mo 


4..'» 


0.9881 






40 


a 






o.Beet 


fl.OT 


oiaflM 

O.BBH 


.45 




i 


11 












Mie 




0:9879 


7; IT 




.flZ 





«eis 






7 2^ 


o.'»(ni 






WH *-«r 












ms I 4.«> 


, «.■««* 




o.mt» 








\ '»'^. 






.'as 


c 


Mil \ b.W 


^ ^-^SS. 




IS! 

O.S045 1 


. .OS 


t 


woe \ a» 


X'-S 


^ \ '*'' 



i.imi 

I. WIS 
I.«(I3 
I.WII 



BALUNg's EXIBACt TAILS, 
vrlllr llr Ccot Bimllli- IVr Cr 



UM i-Vt 





Buum^s 


XTiiACT TABLE— Conttnned 








KSiS. 


ffiS.' 


ffi^.J. 


WA" 


SKSHJ. 


■SSS' 


SS^w. 


rerOiiil 


— «5r 










B.SBO 


1,04» 


"iTTkw' 






lioSM 












11.S71 


.am 




i.oRn 


B.«5 


roioi 


0.000 








.(KTI 




i.oas8 


g.na 




o.osa 




WIS 


ILSIV 


.oat 
















11.043 


.am 






siiss 












.(B7i 


slsas 


lioMl 


S.M3 


liMoe 












S.ffiS 




8.488 


1.040» 






CM7fl 




lone 






8.512 


1.0410 










.0*77 

.a!78 


e!sai 

fl.BSS 


l!08(4 


8.6M1 
S.MO 


!:S1! 


o'.m 




0*79 


;s 










I.M13 






0*80 


i.8oa 


'.OHK 






1:^ 




o:«38 






r.Kit 


.a»i 


7:000 


rosMt 


R.flXt 




o.sei 




0482 


.«7 






.034B 




i!Mia 


".E8S 






.BUI 


















.tot 


;a»t 






bItw 


i:o4i8 


o:b3s 






.KB 




7.0W 


.OBM 


8.731 


I.M1S 


0.867 




0*M 


.Mi 






-OSK) 












LOTS 


!atvr 






sIths 










■i 


.a« 




:raM 




i'.M&i 


o:428 






.aifo 


rlBS 




slew 


1.0*23 


0.4M 




MBO 










8.8U 












ilUBl 






8.B7T 


1.0415 


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THE BREWER'S CHEMICAL LABORATORY. 







P. AUJHH'S DEXraOSS TABU. 




copper. 


irose. 


Copper. 


Doi- 


Cojiper. 


,1S. 


^ Copper. 


Ddk- 


If 


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IDB- 


IDK. 


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as 








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71 


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1 107 


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THB BftEWES*S CHBUICAL LABORATORV. 
TABU — Continued. 



mg. 
19.8 I 



»:. 



THE BREWER'S HICROSCOPICAL 
LABORATORY. 



Balance with a capacity of i kg., and sensitive to I eg. Should 
be incased in a wooden case with glass sides. 

Microscope with a magnifying power of do to 500 diameters. 

Slides are glass slips generally about three inches long and one 
inch wide, oit which the objects under examination are placed. 

Cover glasses are round or square very thin pieces of glass, and 
are used for covering the object after it has beea placed on the 

Cover glasses and slides arc cleaned before using by immersing 



HaiiialimelFr (Yhbsi COODIing ApparBIDS). 

them in a mixture of equal parts of ammonia water and alcohol, 
afterward drying them with a soft linen rag. 

Hacnialimelcr for counting yeasl cells or bacteria in beer. It 
is composed of a slide, in the center of which a square cover 
glass, 0.2 millimeters thick, having a circular opening, is ce- 
mented. Insitle of this opening, and concentric to it. is also ce- 
mented another round cover glass of one-half its thickness (o.I 
millimeter). By covering the larger cover glass with a third, a 
space of 0.1 millimeter is formed between the thin. vmaiV ifia-'tfl' 
and the cover glass, which space serves a.s a Tece9\.a.At lot V^JA-vat 
the liquid to be examined. The deeper citcaVat &v*te. ici^-w*-*^'^^- 
loii 



IOI2 THE brewer's MICROSCOPICAL LABORATORY. 

twecn the slide and coTcr glass holds taj excess liquid sqaecu 
out of the 0.1 millimeter space. 

The thumer, smaller disc of glass is so marked with cro 

Hoea as to furnish 400 sqnares, the total covering a surface < 

I square millimeter so that the volume of liquid between U 

. marked surface and the cover glass will be 0.1 cubic millimetc 

PbHiimm Ncedlf. This consists of a piece of platinum wii 
one end of which is imbedded, hy melting, into the cod of a gla 
rod, and is nsed for transferring or distrihuting samples of ml 
stances to be examined. 

Foreefi, preferably nickel-plated. 




Incubator or Tliermostal is an apparatus in which a constaj 
temperature can be maintained, such as is required in biologic 
investigations. It is made cither of copper or galvanised iroi 
and provided with double walls the space between which 
filled with distilled water, or, preferably, in order to diminish tl 
evaporation, with a mixture of glycerin and water. 

For regulating the heat a IhcriHO-resuUiiir is employed, coi 
sisting of a glass tube containing mercury through which the gi 
passes. The higher the mercury rises, due to expansion by hea' 
ing, the less gas is allowed to pass out of the tube, and inversd; 
tbas regvlating the size oi ttic ftame Vs ^\i\A *wi wiwihator 
fteateA 



THE BREWER S. MICROSCOPICAL LAIlOBATORY, 



1013 



Hot-air Steriliier. This apparatus is used for sterilizing the 
flasks and other vessels. It Is usually constructed of copper or 
galvanized iron, with double walls, and supplied with ventilators 
at the top for controlling the temperature. For this purpose m 
thermometer, with a scale reaching to 400° F„ should be em- 
ployed. 

Steam Steriliger. For sterilizing liquids and other substances 




used in the cultivation of micro-organisms, where no higher tem- 
perature than that of boiling water is desired. This apparatus 
is made of iron or copper, like the hot-air sterilizer. The interior 
is divided into two chambers, with an opening for inserting a 
thermometer. 
Apparatus for Determining the Fcrincntiug Poiuer o\ 'i eo,i^.- 

Thi'c itrvSrp rnnsUts nt g COpper WltCt \»rt\, VMO-^'^^'^^ >0S>VN«» 



This device consists of : 



IOI4 THE UREWEB'S microscopical LABORATORY. 

two nlphnric idd bulbs, with rubber stoppers, thermomct 
dienno-rtgulator and Buiuen burner. 

Water Bollte fat holding distilled water. 

Glass Beakers having a capacity of from one to four ounces. 

ErUnmeyer Flasks; capacity, two to eight otinces. 

Petri Dishes; flat glass dishes, fitting inio each other, used I 
drop cnhurcs, gelatin plates, etc 



I 



'mn 




Drop CnttHrc S'lidrs; glass slips with cavity 
drop or droplet cultures. 

Moist Chambers. Bottcher, confiiiiing of a gbss ring cementt 
on a glass slide. Used mainly for yeasi culture. 

Pil>cttcs, small glass tubes of one c.c. capacity, divided ini 
tenths, for drop cultures and water cxaniinaiinns. 

Freud-rnTcick or Jianst-n Flasks, for eullivalion of yeasts ar 

other micro-organisms in sleritized liquids. The Hi-nius Flat 

is of very simple construction and answers Ihc ^ame purpos< 

CseeiJluslration). 

Test Tubes for cuUivalvon ol trntto-cn^Tiv 



THE brewer's microscopical LABORATORY. IOI5 

beer, wort or yeast The tubes are closed with «b«orbent cotton 
before sterilizing. 
Gypsum Blocks for spore cultures. 




KEACEMTS. 

Iodine Solution for testing for starch. Starch is colored blue 
when brought In contact with this solution. It is prepared as 
follows; Six grains (35 eg.) of iodine and 16 grains (1 gram) 



Mimx,Hitxi.,Jd,jmi.!x^..jm 



of potassium iodide are mixed in a mortar, gradually' adding, 
enough distilled water to make 5 fluid ouTiccSi t^\te ^.^^^ >A vi- 
lutioo. It should be kept in a welVc\osc4 \>oVA« asvi VlcV t-f-v^^* 
to the light. 



IOl6 THE BRBWEh'S mCSOSCOPICAL UiBOBAttMV. 

PotainmmHyiraU Sdaiion for ^Motnng tSbamat and kt 
rom putidcs. Out put poUtainin hydrmte i> diBaahrad 
nine part* distilled vmter. 




AppiniDi [or Teslim! Fermentlaii Pcngi ol Ve»t. 

Iron Chloride Solution for detecting tannic acid. Otie p: 
iron chloride is dissolved in nine parts of distilled water. 

STAIMS. 

Stains are used for the purpose of: 

t. Distinguishing dead yeast cells from live <H)e3. 

2. Recognizing the bacteria more plainly. 




For staining purposes aniline ccdors are employed, and amon| 

these most commonly Eosine, Methylene Blue, Gentian Vio' 

and Fuchsine. 

Easinf Solution, used \n ttie «amvnai.wjn. at <[euts for de 

ceHs. Sixteen Brain* U B"™^ *»^ «««* '** ««vJ«A -la. 



THE BREWBK'S microscopical LABORATORY. IOI7 

dnchms (10 c.c.) of alcohol and enough water added to make 3.5 
ounces (100 c.c.) solution. 

PBEPARATION OF STAINS FOR BACTERIA. 

Concentrated Alcoholic Solutions: 
Methylene Blue, 80 grains (s grams) in 3.5 ounces (100 c.c.) 

o[ alcohol. 
Gentian Violet, 112 grains (7 grams) (in 3.5 ounces (100 c.c.) 

of alcohol. 
Fuchsine, 240 grains (15 grams) in 3.5 ounces (100 c.c.) of 
alcohol. 
The aniline color is shaken for some time with the alcohol, al- 
lowed to settle, and the clear solution poured off. 

From these concentrated solutions, too strong to be used for 
staining, the aqueous solutions are made. One part of the con- 
centrated solution is diluted with four parts of distilled water. 

For general staining of the micro-organisms the following 
solutions are usually employed; 
Zic Ill's Carbol- Fuchsine. 

Fuchsine, 1 gram. 
Carbolic acid, 5 grams. 
Alcohol, 10 grams. 
Distilled water, 100 grams. 
Lo,-mer's Methylene Blue Solution. 

Concentrated solution of methylene blue, 30 c.c. 

Potassium hydrate solution (o.oi per cent), 100 c.c. 

The staining solutions are best kept in medicine bottles of 

about' two ounces' capacity, closed with corks, through which a 

small pipette or glass tube has been inserted. They should be 

kept in a dark place. 



By this term is understood liquids or solids containing sub- 
stances which serve as uourishment for the micro-organisms 
under examination. For the cultivation of rnoulds and yeasts 
the substances usually employed are wort, beer and tvorl gelatin. 
As a large number of bacteria require for their development cul- 
ture media of a neutral or alkaline rtwAxoft, >Aw?j ■w& ■m*. w.w« 
in beer or wort, as these medii Yi«ve an afc\i xt^oSn^. '^"i'* ''^ 



IOl8 THS brewer's UICBOSCOPICAt. LABORATORY. 

dvatifls these bacteria (be nteUaces tued are wuat-vtttr iboml- 
loti) and nttat-watCT gflalin. 

Wort. — Usually hopped wort is used; must be perfectly clear; 
if this cannot be obtained by filtration, if is necessary to darifj 
the wort with egK-albumen. To one quart (i.ooo c.c.) of wort add 
50 grains (3 grams) of dried egB-albumen. shake the mixtnre 
till the albumen has dissolved, then boil until a perfect break baa 
been produced, cool and filler. The clear wort is ponred into 
Freudenreich flasks (10 c. c in each), which are then steriliied 
in steam for half aa hour. 

Beer. — Of clear finished beer 10 c.c. is measured into a Freuden- 
reich flask and sterilized at 150' F. for ao minutes on thtce mc- 

Wort Gelalin. Three oaocu (too Bmns) of gelatin is allowed 
to soak with one quart (i.ooo c.c.) of hopped wort for one 
hour, and then heated in steam till perfect solution takes place. 
As soon as ihe mixture has cooled somewhat. 50 grains (3 grams) 
of egg-albumen, previously dissolved in water, is added, the mix- 
ture boiled again till a perfect break has been obtained, and then 
filtered warm. The clear filtrate is filled into lest tubes, in 
amounts of 5 to 10 c.c. in each, and sterilized like beer. 

Meat-lf'aliT {Bouillon)' — One pound chopped lean beef is 
boiled with one quart of water for one hour, water being added 
to make up for evaporation, and then pressed until one quart of 
liquid has been obtained. This liquid, to which 160 grains (10 
grams) of peptone and 80 grains (5 grams) of sail are added, is 
boiled in steam for three-quarters of an hour, then made slightly 
alkaline with sodium hydrate solution, heated up to boiling and 
filtered. The fihrale should be perfectly clear, of light yellow 
color, and have a slightly alkaline reaction. Sterilize it like 

Meat-W'alcr Gelatin.— \jkt the preceding, with the addition 
of 10 per cent gelalin. 

Agar-Agar.— .\s gelalin melts easily at higher tcmne rant res be- 
sides being liquefied by many organisms, it is often practical to re- 
place it with agar-agar (i to 1.5 per cent). This substance, which 
is not liquefied by any organism, dissolves only after boiling for 
a prolonged time, such solution being very difficult of filtration. 



THB BBEWERS MICROSCOPICAL LABORATORY. IOI9 
THE COMPOUND MICROSCOPE. 
This instrument is composed of the following principal parts : 
Objective, so called because it is nearest to the object under 
examination, is composed of two or more plano-convex lenses. 
Ofw/ar or eyepiece is composed of two plano-convex lenses. 
This receives the magnified image from the objective and magni- 
fies it further. 




irror is used for throwing light on the object under e 
Composed of two mirrors, one of which is plane, the other 
The former is used for lower magnifying power and 
ihe latter for higher. 

Diaphragm regulates the amount of light. The larger Ihe open- 
ing, the more light is thrown on the object. 

The "Iris-diaphragm" consists of a series of thin Wades over- 
lapping each other and placed so that a cctvttaV o^totiiX"! Viirwv*A,, 
which can be made larger or smaiiei b^ tntia* ci^ a.Vi'it, 



I030 THE BREWER S MICROSCOPICAL LABORATORY. 

Abbe lUitmmatmg Afpanius consists of mirror, tri»-£s- 
phragni an4 a sjstem of lenses, or so-cailed "condenser." 

Bate or Foot serves for keying the microscope firmly in po^ 
tkuL 

Tube or Tmbet hold the ocular and objective at Ihe proper di>- 
Unce from each other. 

Large Screw la nsed for focusing Ihe object roughly. 

Mieromettr Seretv- — After the object has been focnaed hj 
means of the large screw, the micrometer screw is employed in 
order to bring out the 6ner details. 

Stage is that part on which the object rests. 

COCDS. 

The foctu is the point where all rays concentrated by a lens 
or mirror meet. An object is "in focus" when il is seen the 
dearest 

nsLb 

Field (of view) is the amount of surface visible through the 
microscope. 

LIGHT FOR THE MICROSCOPE. 

The light which is received from a white cloud is preferable 
to that from the blue sky. Direct sunlight should be avoided un- 
less it is subdued by means of a white curtain. 

For artificial light, a gas lamp, provided with a Wclsbach bur- 
ner, is to be recommended. A blue glass disc is then placed on 
the diaphragm. 

STERILIZATION. 

Sterilization is Ihe process by which germs conlained in 
liquids or solids are destroyed or removed. The method employed 
depends on the nature and condition of the object to be sterilised, 
or made sterile, i. e., free from germs. 

Simple utensils, as glass rods or platinum needles, arc steriliied 
by heating them in a gas flame for a short time. 

Petri dishes, glass flasks, test tubes, etc. are sterilised in ■ 
dry-heat sleriliier for one hour and a half al 300° F., the 
openings of bottles and tubes being closed with cotton before 
^/eriV/'z/nj-, 
Larger closed vessels are wlhcr sIfcerKitti Vj >kSCvo,m -m.-ux "-m 



THE brewer's microscopical LABORATORY. I02I 

them or by direct steam, the openings being closed with sterilized 
cotton or cotton filters. 

Water is sterilized by direct boiling for half an hour. 

Air is sterilized by passing through a filter containing sterilized 
cotton, the germs being retained in the cotton. 

Culture media (wort) are sterilized by heating in the steam 
sterilizer for half an hour. Gelatin is best sterilized by keeping 
for 20 minutes at 150" F, on three successive days. The object 
in this interrupted method is to destroy the spores of those or- 
ganisms that survive the first heating and develop subsequently, 
being then less resistant. 

Liquids can also be made germ-free by filtration through 
porcelain or clay filters. 

STAINING BACTERIA. 

A small quantity of the substance under examination is dis- 
tributed imiformly in a drop of water on a cover glass, and dried 
by gently heating over a gas flame. The cover glass is then 
drawn slowly, three times, through the flame, then enough stain- 
ing solution added, so that the cover glass is covered with the 
same. After one-half to one minute the staining solution is 
washed off with water, the preparation is then dried with filter 
paper and placed in a drop of water on a slide with the stained 
side downward. If it is desired to keep the preparation perma- 
nently, the water is removed entirely from the cover glass, which 
is then cemented to a slide by a drop of a mixture consisting of 
equal p^rts of Canada balsam and xylol. 

PURE CULTURES OF MICRO-ORGANISMS. 

A pure culture is a culture containing one species only, and 
consequently consists of the progeny of one single cell. 

For making pure cultures of micro-organisms, the following 
methods may be followed: 

PLATE CULTURE. 

The gelatin contained in two test tubes is liquefied at 95° 
F. By means of the platinum needle a small quantity of the 
material is introduced in one of the test tubes, and thorou^bLW 
mixed with the gelatin. The platinum tvtft^^ v& ^c^'^it^ >2cw ^C«x^ 
mixture several times, and each time mset\.eA. m ^Ocft. ^^k.^^^'^2^ 



I032 THE brewer's MICROSCOPICAL LABORATORY. 



wkli gdatin, which is also tfaoioqghly mixed bgr gently shaknig 
The contents ar^ then poured into a sterilized Petri dish. 

STREiOL CULTUBE. 

A test tube of gelatin is liquefied and poured into a Petri dish. 
The platinam needle is dipped into the liquid containing the 
micfo-Organisnis and drawn carefully over the surface of the 
hardened gelatin three or four times. The colonies from the 
last streaks are more widely separated from each other and 
often are pure cultures. 

DILUTION METHOD, ACCORDING TO HANSEN. 

A small quantity of yeast is diluted so far with sterilized 
water, that each drop contains about lo yeast cells. A drop 
of this mixture is transferred to a flask containing 20 cc 
sterilized water, and thoroughly shaken. This mixture will then 
contain about 10 yeast cells. Twenty flasks containing sterilize<] 
wort are prepared, and i cc. of the diluted yeast introduced 
in each flask. The inoculated flasks are shaken thoroughly, and 
then left standing at yy"* F. Those flasks, which after two 01 
three days show only one colony at the bottom, contain pure 
cultures. 

GELATIN OR MOIST CHAMBER METHOD, ACCORDING TO HANSEN. 

Liquefied wort gelatin is mixed with a small quantity of yeast 
which has first been strengthened in sterilized wort. The mixture 
should be so far diluted that a drop placed on a slide and ex- 
amined under the microscope with a magnifying power of about 
100 diameters will show only few and well-isolated cells. A 
drop of the gelatin mixture is then spread on a cover glass that 
has been sterilized by heating in a flame, and placed on a moist 
chamber with the gelatin downward. On the bottom of the 
chamber a small drop of sterilized water is placed in order tc 
j furnish enough moisture, and an air-tight connection between 

^ ; cover glass and ring made by vaseline. 

! The positions of those cells in the gelatin, which are sufficiently 

free and isolated, are marked while under the microscope, and 

their growth noted from day to day, in order to ascertain if any 

other yeast cells or bacteria develop in the neighborhood of the 

marked cells. If this is not tVi^ cas^, \Vv^ colonies developed 

from these cells can later be used a& ^v«t otoix^^. 



THE BREWEK'S MICROSCOPICAL LABORATORY. IO23 



The yeast is diluted with sterilized wort c 
and wort-gelatin. By means of a sterilized drawing pen, dipped 
into the liquid, 30 to 40 little points or dashes are put 00 a 
cover glass in four or five rows. The glass is now placed on a 
moist chamber and kept at ?7° F. The yeast should, if necessary, 
be diluted so that the droplets contain only a very few cells. 
Those which only contain one ceil are noted by numbers, con- 
trolled under the microscope, and, if pure, the colonies can be 
transferred, by means of the platinum needle, to sterilized wort. 

EXAMINATIONS OF MATERIALS. 

For adulteration with corn. The sample is ground as fine as 
possible, a small quantity distributed in a drop of water on a 
slide, covered with cover glass, and examined with a magnifying 
power of 350 to 300 diameters. The starch granules of rice are 
much smaller than those of corn, and arc sharp-e^gcd. while the 
granules of the latter are round -edged, and often have an open- 
ing in the center. (See "Brewing Materials," 471. 472.) 



For starch. A small piece of the sample is placed in a drop 
of iodine solution. If starch was added to the isinglass, the 
grains appear blue, while the rest is colored yellow. Should be 
examined with a magnifying power of about 60 diameters. 

Clarifying Test. — 50 eg. (8 grains) is cut into small pieces and 
soaked for one hour in 5 c.c. of water (in case of fish isinglass 
10 eg. (2 grains) of tartaric acid should be added). After soak- 
ing i« finished 5 c.c. of boiling water, and then 10 c.c. of beer is 
added. Of this mixture 2 r.c. is added to one pint of beer. The 
bottle is allowed to stand for 48 hours in a cold place, after which 
the clarifying power of the isinglass is noted. If the isinglass is of 
good quality the beer should appear clear and the isinglass have 
settled on the bottom. 

LUPUUN. 

For tannic acid. A small quantity is mixed with a little water 
and a tew drops of iron chloride solution added. It tannic »t.v!. 
has been mixed with the lupuUn, \ht 'omn.>3Wt Va. m>'>m.™ ■* 
Mwsb-Uack color 00 being broufht m c»o»*a ■^'Scv -Cwt "^■''= 
chloride. 



I024 THK BREWERS MICROSCOPICAL LABORATORY. 

For sand. The sample is shaken with water in a test tube and 
allowed to stand for a few minutes. The sand being heavier will 
settle to the bottom while most of the lupulin remains on the top 
of the liquid. If the sediment is examined microscopically, the 
grains of sand appear colorless and sharp-edged, while the Inpitlin 
is yellow and round. Should be examined with a magnifying 
power of 80 to 100 diameters. A good sample of lupulin shoitld 
contain but little sand. (See "Brewing Materials."} 

BARLEY, MALT AND HOPS. 

For mold. The examination is carried on with low magnifying 
power (about 60 diameters). If mold is present it will appear 
as fine cobweb-like threads. These can be removed by means 
of a needle, and are best subjected to microscopical examination 
in a drop of glycerin at a magnifying power of about 150 to 300 
diameters. 

To stain molds, Loeffler*s alkaline solution of methylene bine, 
which stains the mycelium, but not the spores, is to be preferred. 

WATER EXAMINATION. 

A turbid, foul-smelling water cannot be used for brewing pur- 
poses. The turbidity and bad odor are usually caused by the 
action of micro-organisms. But often a water appears clear and 
free from any odor, and yet contains large numbers of 
germs, many of which can do extensive damage in the brewery. 

In order to ascertain if a water is suitable for brewing pur- 
poses, it should be subjected to a microscopical and bacteri- 
ological examination. 

If the water shows turbidity or particles in suspension, it is 
advisable to gather the flakes or particles by allowing them to 
settle in a sedimentation glass. The clear water can be poured 
off and the sediment subjected to microscopical examination. 
Among the substances most commonly fotmd in such sediments, 
besides bacteria and yeast cells, are infusoria, diatoms, vari- 
ous colorless algx, among them the so-called water pest (crcno> 
thrix) and molds. In addition to living organisms, inorganic mat- 
ter, as sand and iron, often occurs in the sediment. 

Simple microscopical examination is not suflBcient for the pur- 
pose of determining the number oi mVcxfi-OTiBanisms that may be 
'^isuned in a sample of water, flait wmdots 'm % «»*fc ^x^Xmt 



THE brewer's microscopical LABORATORY. I025 

ing frequently too small to allow any accurate results being 
reached. It is therefore necessary to employ the bacteriological 
examination, which can be made in different ways. 

For Hygienic Purposes. — Meat-water gelatin is used. A cer- 
tain quantity of the water is mixed with the liquefied gelatin 
and poured into a sterilized Petri dish, allowed to become solid, 
and kept at ordinary temperature for a few days, after which 
the colonics developed from the micro-organisms contained in the 
water are counted and their species determined. 

This examination is of no interest to the brewer, as this cul- 
ture medium is not employed in the production of beer. What 
the brewer wants to know is, how many and what kind of or- 
ganisms are present in the water that are capable of developing 
in wort and beer, and as a large number of those organisms 
which will grow in meat-water gelatin cannot develop in beer or 
wort, the results obtained by the meat-water gelatin exann'na- 
tion would be either worthless or misleading to the brewer. 

The simplest way of examining a water fur brewing purposes is 
Lindner's drop culture method. 

Lindner's drop cui-ture method. 

Ten c.c. sterilized wort is measured off in a test tube by 
means of a sterilized pipette. One c.c. of the water is then added 
to the wort by means of a pipette of i c.c. capacity, subdivided 
into I -10 c.c. The mixture is thoroughly stirred by drawing up in 
the pipette and allowing it to run out, repeating this process till 
the germs are well distributed. The water is thus diluted ii 
times. By means of the same pipette the two plates of a 
Petri dish are covered with small drops of the mixture, and the 
amount rscd, whether i c.c. or a fraction of i c.c, is noted. The 
dishes can be kept at ordinary temperature under a glass globe 
under which a small vessel of water has been placed, in order to 
prevent drying up. After two or three days the germs will have 
developed enough to make a number of the drops turbid. The 
turbid ones are counted, and give the numl)er of germs contained 
in the amount of diluted water used. Suppose that lOO drops 
made i c.c, and 50 colonies developed, then. there were 11 times 
as many germs contained in i c.c. of the or\^\\va.V >wa^Rx. Vs^ 
all the drops became turbid, a new examvaaAXoxi ^ca:^^ '^^ ^xssA'^ 



I096 THE BREWEK'S MICROSCOPICAL LABORATOKY. 

dilnting ibe water a gEmcer number of times with wort bcfot 
nuldng the cnl lures. 

The turbid drops should be subjected to microscopical cxamiiui 
tkm. so ihat a general idea of the character of the infection ma 
be obtained. 

Hansen's msthod or watd exauinaiioh 

Hansen's investigations showed that not all the germs, iriuc 
will develop in wort gelatin, are capable of growing in wort o 
beer. Besides, the water can contain organisms which will tbftT 
very wdl in wort or beer, but not in wort gelatin. If wort gcU 
tin is used for the cxanunatioa of brewing waters, the reaidt 
might, therefore, be misleading, as they would not corre^otk 
with the conditions fonnd in the brewery. 

To overcome this difficulty the following method was devised 

Fifteen Freudenreich flatks, ea<:h containing 20 c.c. of wort 
another fifteen, each containing 20 cc. of beer, and one conlaii 
ing 5 cc. of ivori. are sterilized by steam. To the 5 c.c. of steril 
wort are now added 5 c.c. of ihe water to be examined and mixe 
thoroughly. 

Measure jo c.c. of wort into each of 15 Preudenreich flask: 
and 20 c.c. of brer inlo each of 15 other similar tiasks. 3nd steri' 
ize in steam. To 5 c.c, wort sicrilized the same way. and cor 
tained in another flask, add 5 c.c. of the water and mis thoroughly 
Of this mixiuTc. one drop {0.04 c.c.l is addod to each of th 
30 wort and beer dasks by means of a sterilized pipette. Th 
Ha^ks arc kept at a temperature of 77° F. for 14 day: 
after which they are examined. If only some of the flasks hav 
become turbid, there is reason to believe that each of these con 
tained only one germ, but if all Ihe bottles have turned, it i 
necessary to repeat the examination with a correspondingl 
smaller quantity of water and larger quantity of sterilized wori 

.As each of the tiasks received D.04 c.c. of the mixture o 
wort and water, we are enabled by the number of turbid flasks l< 
approximately determine the number of germs capable of develop 
ment in woit or beer. 

Sup|>o<ie that the mixture was made of equal volumes of wor 
or beer and water, the amount of water used for 15 flasks wouli 
then be 

15X0-04 



THE BREWERS M [CROSCOPICAL LABORATOHV. 



!, 5 fladu become turbid, there would be 5 germs 
n 0.3 ex. water, or about 17 germs per e.c. 



WICHMANN S METHOD or WATER E 

Wichmann's method aims at the determination, not of the num- 
ber of germs contained in the water, but of the energy with which 
such germs are able to attack the beer or wort. This is the de- 
termination of the so-called destructive power of a water on wort 
or beer. Four flasks each with 10 c.c. oE either sterilized wort or 
beer are inoculated with I, %, K and 'A c.c. of the water, and 
placed at 77° F. for five days, during which some or all the flasks 
become lurbid. If now the respective numbers (i, 2, 3, 4) of the 
flasks are multiplied by factors for which the figures 10, 8, 6, 4 and 
3 were chosen, corresponding to the degree of turbidity appearing 
in the flasks after the first, second, third, fourth or fifth day, and 
the products added, the sum of the products gives the expression 
for the destructive power of the water. The following example 
shows how this result is calculated: 



2 3 6 2X6= 12 

3 3 6 3X6= 18 

4 4 4- 4>i4 = i6 

Dcstriittive power of the water tor wort = 54 

When using beer, which does not become turbid so readily as 
wort. VVichniann multiplies the figure found as above with 1.67, 
nnd calls the product the destructive power of the water on beer. 

AIR EXAMINATION. 
Micro-organisms are not only carried into the brewery with 
the raw materials, but also, to a great extent, by the air. The 
number of germs contained in the air differs considerably ac- 
cording to time, temperature and altitude. The air is purest 
when all dust has been carried to the ground by rain; most im- 
pure when the wind raises dust. Regular air examinations are 
very inslruciive to the brewer. They enable him to learn to what 
extent thi' air in the brewery is contaminated, and whether Ib-va 
contamination has its origin in the bicmw^ WstU, w totE«.'i \^'awv 
outside. 



IQ28 THE brewer's MICROSCOPICAL LABORATORY. 



\ 



The simplest way of examtntng the air is to expose m 
a F^ri dish containing wort gelatin, for a certain leiigtfi < 
time. After three to five days the colonies, which have devdopi 
from the germs falling down on the gelatin, are counted. A 
cording to Petri, the germs contained in lo liters of air sett 
down cm lOO sq. c of gelatin in from three to five minute 
If wort gelatin is used molds and yeast will develop to a great 
extent Hence, it is better to employ sterilized wort or bei 
This is done as follows: 

In one of the plates of a Petri dish lo c.c. sterilized wo 
is measured off. This plate is exposed to the air for ten to fi 
teen minutes, care being taken that no dust falls on the oovc 
The number of germs which have dropped into the wort can I 
determined by making a drop culture of the infected wort I 
means of a sterilized pipette the wort is mixed thoroughly ai 
afterward distributed in small drops in another Petri dish, so as 1 
make about lOO drops in all. The amount of wort used 
noted and the culture kept at ordinary temperature. After thr< 
to four days the number of turbid drops is counted, some i 
which may have more than one colony. 

Supposing forty drops became turbid, of which five had tv 
colonies each, the forty one each, then 40 + (2X5) = : 
germs developed in 100 drops. If three c.c. wort hs 
been required to make the too drops there would altogeth 

45 X 10 
be = 150 germs that fell from the air into the 10 cc. < 



ll! 



•3 



wort of the first Petri dish. 

If air contains more than 10 germs per liter it is to be coi 
sidered too impure for use in the brewery. 

MICROSCOPICAL AND BOTANICAL EXAMINATIO 

OF YEAST. 

In the examination of yeast the following points should 1 
kept in view: 

Purity, that is. absence of organisms, and admixtures of uno 
ganized matter, as albuminoids, particles of hop-resin, start 
grains, oxalate of lime. 
Condition, whether strong ot ^«Sk- 
Fermenting Power. 



THE brewer's microscopical LABORATORY. TO29 
INDICATIONS OF SOUND, WEAK OR DEAD CELLS. 

With the aid of a sterilized platinum needle a sufficient quan- 
tity of yeast is distributed in a drop of distilled water on a slide 
and subjected to microscopical examination. The yeast cells ap- 
pear as larger or smaller oval or round bodies, some of which 
show one or more buds, which appear as protuberances of the 
cell wall. The contents of the cells consist of a clear, homogeneous 
substance (protoplasm), surrounded by a membrane which is 
the cell wall. 

Strong and vigorous cells appear well filled with protoplasm. 
If there are specks filled with cell sap (vacuoles) it indicates that 
the yeast is getting weak. If the cell content is strongly granu- 
lated, the cell shriveled and pointed at the ends, and appear- 
ing like having a double cell wall, it is dead. As aniline dyes 
are taken up only by dead cells these stains can be used to de- 
termine the number of dead cells in a yeast. A drop of yeast is 
mixed with two to three drops of cosine solution and allowed to 
stand for a few minutes. Then the mixture is diluted with 
sufficient water, so that after a microscopical preparation has 
been made, from 100 to 150 cells are seen in each field. By count- 
ing the number of stained and unstained cells, the dead ones ap- 
pearing stained, while the live cells remain unstained, until about 
1,000 cells, altogether, have been counted, the approximate num- 
ber of dead cells contained in the yeast is obtained. This count- 
ing should be repeated in two or three different preparations in 
order to get a correct average of dead cells. 

A good yeast should not contain more than 50 dead cells per 
1,000 yeast cells. 

DETECTING IMPURITIES. 

The presence of bacteria, albuminoids, hop-resin, starch and 
oxalate of lime can also be detected by microscopical examina- 
tion. 

Aibuminoids and hop-rcsin particles appear as larger or smaller 
bodies of irregular shape, which are dissolved by adding a 
small drop of potassium hydrate solution to the preparation. If 
an alcoholic tincture of alkanet root is added, the hop-resin 
particles will assume a red color. 

Starch granules can be recognized by ;vt\ ^<\A\\\aw cA \o^v^^ '^^- 
\ution by which they are colored b\ue. 



tOJO THE BREWER^S MICB0SODPICAL LABORATORY. 



'1' 



Cfystals of oxalate of lime appear as small, qaadnagQlar, o 
orless bodies. 

Bacteria, — ^As small particles of albuminoids or glottn can 
easily mistaken lor bacteria, it is necessary to remove tliem 1 
fore the yeast is examined for these organisms. For this pi 
pose a drop of the yeast is mixed with two drops of potaani 
hsrdrate solution, and diluted with sufficient distilled water. F 
the microscopical preparation the numbers of bacteria and yet 
cells in each field are noted until about i.ooo yeast cells hare be 
counted, and the counting is repeated in two or three prepai 
lions as when counting dead cells. 

If a yeast contains mora tiuui fifteen bacteria per 1,000 ci 
it is to be considered too much contaminated. 

If the number of bacteria in a yeast is less than one per i^ 
yeast cells they are sometimes overlooked. In such cases 1 
plate culture in Petri dishes can be employed, or still better i 
following method: Sterilized wort is inoculated with t 
sample, and the culture kept in the thermostat at 77* F., and a 
for some time after fermentation is over. If the yeast ^ 
free from bacteria the fermented wort will remain clear, ev 
after being kept several days in the incubator, no film formi 
on the surface, and no bacteria will be found in the yeast se< 
ments. On the other hand, if living bacteria are contained in 1 
yeast their presence is proven by the formation either of a film, 
turbidity, or of both, and the sediments will contain bacteria. 

Wild Yeast. — In order to determine >\hcther a yeast contai 
wild yeast or not, the simple microscopical examination is r 
sufficient, as many varieties, according to the conditions un<j 
which they are cultivated, are capable of assuming differc 
forms, and it cannot, therefore, be judged with certainty, if ss 
sage-shaped or elongated cells are found in yeast, that these a 
cells of wild yeast. 

The presence of wild yeast is detected by Hansen's meth( 
which is based on the fact that the wild yeasts form their spoi 
more quickly than cultivated yeast. With the platinum needle 
small quantity of yeast is transferred to a flask containing abc 
10 c.c. of sterilized hopped wort. The mixture is kept I 
twenty-iowT hours at ordmaTv temv^x^lure. Next day the wi 
is poured oft and fresh sltrVVwA ^-ow. ^M<iA., -mv^ >^^ ^aofiL 



THE brewer's microscopical LABORATORY. 1031 

then kept at Tf* F. for twenty-four hours. The yeast sediment 
is poured on a sterilized gypsum block, which is placed in a 
glass dish, half filled with sterilized water and covered with a 
loose glass cover. The yeast layer should be neither too thick 
nor too thin, as in the first case the formation of spores is 
hampered, and in the second case the detection of the spores is 
made more difficult. The culture is placed in the thermostat, 
where it remains for forty hours at yy"^ F. After this time the 
spores of wild yeast will have been formed, while the majority 
of the cultivated bottom- fermenting yeasts form their spores 
much later. 

The cultivated top-fermenting yeasts will also form their 
spores after forty hours at yy"" F., but the spores of these, as well 
as those of cultivated bottom-fermenting yeast, can easily be dis- 
tinguished from those of wild yeast. The young spores of wild 
yeast have an indistinct cell wall, while the contents are strongly 
refractive and of an homogeneous nature. The spores of cul- 
tivated yeast are larger, have a distinct wall, and the contents 
are granulated and show vacuoles. 

Mycodcrma. — If a yeast is to be examined for mycoderma, a 
small quantity is inoculated in sterilized wort, and the flask 
placed at yy° F. for two to three days. If mycoderma is present 
a thick, greyish-white film will form on the surface of the wort, 
and the microscopical examination of the same will show the 
characteristic shapes of mycoderma cells. 

FERMENTING POWER. 

Besides the microscopical examination of the yeast it is also 
of great importance to determine the fermenting power of the 
same. This is done as follows: A quantity of the yeast is 
poured out on several layers of filter paper and allowed to dry 
fairly well. A solution is made of 40 grams of cane sugar 
(saccharose) with enough distilled water to make 400 c.c, 
five grams of the dried yeast weighed off and mixed with the 
sugar solution in a bottle. The bottle is now closed with a 
sulphuric acid bulb and weighed. It is then placed in a water- 
bath with a constant temperature of 86° F. for twenty-four hours, 
after which the bottle is weighed again. TVv^ \o^^ \^ >^€vsg5>x. 
caused hy the escape of carbonic ac*\d %as, ^\n^^ ^^c«. ^^^^ccnr.vN-v^^'S 



1032 THE BREWERS MICROSCOPICAL LABORATORY. 

pCMTcr of the yeast A good breweri' yeast should dcrelap 
leaM five grams of carbonic acid in twenty-four hours. 

DETECTING CAUSES OF BEER TURBIDITIES. 
Turbidities of beer can be caused bf: 

1. Yeasls (cultivated and wild yeasts and mycodenna} 

2. Bacteria. 

3. Albnminoids. 
4- Starch. 

5. Hop-resin. 

If the turbidity is due to yeast the intensity of the turbidity 
delemnned by counting the yeasl cells by means of a hatmalini 
ter. The cells in the sixteen fields, each composed of twenty-li' 
small squares, are counted, and the number o( cells thus obtaini 
is multiplied by ten, giving the number of yea^l cells contain) 
in one cubic millimeler. The counting is repeated Iwo or thr 
times, that is. two or three different preparations are made and 1I 
cells counted. 

By means of the gypsum block culture wc are enabled to d 
■ermine whether the beer is infected hy wild yeast or not. Tl 
presence of mycoderma is proven if, after infecting a small quai 
tity of sterilized wort with llie beer, a film is formed on the sn 
face after ihc mixture has been standing two or three days . 
ordinary lemperaturc. This film must then be subjected 1 
microscopical examination, as other micro-organisms can ah 
form films on beer or wort. 



In order to distinguish between bacteria and small particles 1 
nllnimcn present in the beer, the lalltr is mixed with a fe 
drops of potassium hydrate solution and then slightly hcate 
when Ihc allitmiinoids will be dissolved. The bacteria are th. 
counted by means of the hxni at i meter, as when counting yea 
cells. 

One himdrcd to two hundred bacteria per cubic raillitneti 
make the IiciT liazj, whi\e jCO ot more make it more or lei 
turbid. 



THE brewer's microscopical LAl^ORATORY. IO33 

ALBUMEN TURBIDITY. 

This turbidity is best determined by the following method : 
After the beer has been well shaken, it is poured into two glass 
beakers of 100 c.c. capacity so that it stands about one to two 
inches high. One of the beakers is then warmed to about 88° 
F. and the heated beer compared with that in the other beaker. If 
it has become clear, the turbidity was caused by albumen. 

Beer that has been steamed at too high a temperature, very 
often becomes turbid by albuminoids. This turbidity does not 
disappear on simply warming the beer. The addition of a few 
drops of potassium hydrate solution, followed by heating, will in 
most cases partly or entirely clarify the beer. 

STARCH TURBIDITY. 

The cause of this turbidity is readily found by the addition of a 
solution of iodine. A quantity of the beer is poured into a test 
tube and a few drops of iodine solution added. If starch is pres- 
ent, the beer will appear either blue or black, according to the 
quantity of starch it contains. If the beer contains erythro-dex- 
trin. the liquid will become red or brown when iodine solution 
is added, according to the quantity. 

HOP-RESIN TURUIDITV. 

This turbidity is of rare occurrence. It can easily be detected 
in the following way : A quantity of the beer is poured into a 
small glass beaker, and a few drops of alcohol or ether added. 
The beer is then well stirred with a glass rod. If it becomes 
clear, the turbidity was due to hop-resin. 



LUBRICANTS AND LUBRICATION. 



The qnestion of proper lubrication of the different i 
used in the brewery and ttuh-bouse, in fad, anywhere else, is 
matter of no small importance. 

The amount of power necessary to drive a machine, and th 
mcani the coal pile, aa well as the life and proper mnninK < 
the machines, is greatly inAaenc«d by proper lubtication of tl 
Btiding surfaces or bearings. 

Although it is, of course, good business policy lo purchase 
lubricating oil, elc, as cheaply as possible, neierthelcss, Ih 
striving for economy is apt to be carried liw far, so that It hi 
in many instances become a "penny wise, pound foolish" polic 
A high quality lubricant can be purch.iM;H only at a corresponi 
ingly high price. 

A second mistake often made is lo use one kind of lubricai 
for loo many purposes, ibereby enabling the purchase of 
larger quantity al one lime. It i« evident thai a lubricant be 
adapted for use on shafting or heavy slow running machine^ 
not snilable for high sperd light machinery. 

Another error is the application of too much of the lubricai 
to bearings that do not need it, or would not, if kept properl 
adjusted. One often tinds machinery literally "swimming in oil. 
whicb ii a wasteful proceeding, and .should this excessive applic: 
tion be necessary in order to keep tbe bearings from heating, it 
a reflection eiibcr upon the maker of the machine for accurac 
and material used, or upon the skill or care of the mechanic i 
charge. An exception to this are tapping machines and ceriai 
l>'pcs of high speed machinery tbe bearii:gs of which ttte Inbr 
cited upon tbe oil-bath principle, but here special construction i 
provided lo prevent the oil from .splashing about. 

The proper con^ilTuction of Iht bi:aring< has also a great dei 
to do with economical lobiicalion «ncc & ^To^t\^ 3.«:\msmA\xw 



LUBRICANTS AND LUBRICATION. t035 

ing requires less oil and will retain it longer than a loosely con- 
structed one, the latter allowing the oil to run out as fast as it 
is supplied. 

A considerable aid to proper lubrication is given by the oil 
cups with adjustable feed now in use. by means of which the oil 
supply can be regulated, and several hours' supply filled at one 
time. 

THEORY OF LUBRICATION. 

If two substances are rubbed against one another their motion 
is retarded by what is called friction. The smoother the sur- 
faces of these substances can be made, the less friction will there 
be. This friction is caused by the high points in the surface of 
the one sinking into the depressions in that of the other and 
thereby retarding their motion. A surface that may appear 
smooth to the eye is in reality quite rough, as can be seen if a 
piece of highly polished steel is examined under a magnifying 
glass or microscope. This friction, be it ever so small in the 
beginning, soon becomes greater in an ever increasing ratio. 
This is due to small particles of the substances l>eing broken off, 
and the surfaces thereby roughened, the particles assisting in 
further abrasion or grinding. This can be illustrated by rubbing 
two pieces of glass together, when it will be found that at first 
they hardly make any impression upon one .inother, but if the 
rubbing is continued they will become "ground" or **frosted," and 
a layer of powdered glass will be formed between them. 

ACTION OF LIIRRICANTS. 

If these surfaces moving past each other can be kept apart so 
that their high points or ridges cannot strike against each other, 
it is evident that there can be no abrasion or "wear and tear." 
This separation is accomplished by means of lubricants, that is, 
substances that are viscous or "sticky" enough not to be readily 
squeezed out from l)etween the surfaces, and at the same time 
fluid enough not to retard the motion of the surfaces. These 
lubricants form a thin film between the surfaces and keep them 
apart while moving. The lubricant must, furthermore, be of such 
a nature as to have no action upon the material of which the 
moving parts consist, for if it contains acids the latter will at- 
tack metallic parts and be likely to cause the opposite result from 
the one desired. 



1036 LUBRICANTS AND LUBRICATION. 

Aim-nacnoii metals. 

If the surfaces of two substance!! of i^ual' hardness mb to 
gether it is likely that they will wear equally. If on the othe 
hand the substances are of different hardness, the softer will b 
the one that wears more. On this aecounl one of the movin) 
parts is generally made of a softer material, or, where the aami 
material is used for both, one is fitted or lined with a softer ma 
terial that can be readily removed and replaced. 

In modern machinery this softer material is a metal called anti 
friction metal, and is principally of two kinds: bearing metal 
consisting of an alloy of copper, tin and zinc, and babbitt irclal 
made from tin, antimony and copper. 

KINDS OF LUBRICANTS. 
The Itibricants, or their substitutes, now in most ^enerql iisi 
cnn he classed as follows: 

1. Mineral oils. 

2. Fised oils and fatf, 

3. Blown or thickened nfls. 

4. Blended oils. 

5. Besin (rosin) oil. 

6. Lnhricants. cnnlnininj; siwp. 
?. Greases. 

R. Solid liihricnnis. 



Cnidc petroleum is the source of the mineral Inhricating oil! 
now in gtcncral ii*:c. Some kinds of crude nil arc used in prac- 
tically their natural stale fnr luhricnlinR heavy he.irinfri. hut lh< 
bulk of the crude oil is subjected to distillation. This furnishes 
an almost endless numbrr of different products. 

These products are. however, not simple suhsiancc. hut mix- 
lures of different hydrocarbons, the hoiliiif; poinls of which ar* 
limiled wilhin narrow confinrs. Out of the diffrrcnl prodticl? 
oblained the followinst may be mentioned; 

CytiiKg.-ii. — A pa* at ordinary lemper.iHire. nsed in the monn- 
facinre of ice. 

tihi/iol.-ni: — .\lsii .1 t(ns. wscd for mcdicinil purposes, 
PcfruUitm £■//) IT.— Liquid, W\s M ifio" 10 i.^i" F ; used as 
solvvnt tor fatty oils, etc 



' LUBRICANTS AND LUBRICATION. IO37 

Gasoline, — Liquid, boils at 160** to 190® F.; used for oil ex- 
traction from seeds, etc. 

Naphtha. — Liquid, boils at 176" to 250° F. ; used for burning. 
and as a solvent for resins. 

Ligroine. — Liquid, boils at 176° to 250° F. ; used as a solvent. 

Benzine. — Liquid, boils at 250** to 300° F. ; used for cleansing 
and as a substitute for turpentine. 

Kerosene or Burning Oil. — (Standard white, prime white and 
water white.) Used for burning in lamps; must stand "fire tost," 
that is, it must not develop ignitable gases below a certain 
temperature (no** to 150° F.). 

Lubricating Oils. — What remains of the natural oil after the 
removal of the above named substances by distillation is called 
residuum, and is used for the manufacture of lubricating oils, 
paraflTme and vaseline. 

Distilled Oils. — The rcsiiluum, after the removal of the lighter 
oils, is allowed to stand for some time, and then transferred tn 
so-called **tar stills." in which the lubricating oils are distilled 
off by superheated steam or in vacuo. Oils produced in such 
manner are called distilled or paraffine oils. The first distillate 
furnishing light lubricating oil for light m.ichinery is called 
"neutral oil." and is used for mixing with fixed oils. Upon 
further distillation the heavier oils called "spindle oil" and "en- 
gine oil" are obtained, and finally an (m1 distills over at about 
600" F., which is used as "cylinder oil." What is now left be- 
hind is further treated and furnishes paraffine wax and vaseline. 
The flistilled oiN are then chemically treated for further puri- 
fication and bleaching with dilute sulphuric acid, which is then 
removed by water and a S(>lution of caustic .<ioda. 

To avoid decomposition by high heat the petroleum is prefer- 
ably distilled with steam under high pressure or in vacuo. After 
the lighter oils have been driven out, and Uie volume reduced, 
the remaining black, viscous oil is also called "reduced oil." and 
is used for heavy machinery. It may contain tarry matter, which 
is obiectionable. For the manufacture of cylinder oils special 
kinds of petroleum are used, which are carefully reduced at low 
temperature and in vacuo: the reduced oil is then filtered through 
<inimal charcoal repeatedly. 

The removal of the light oils is someUtw^^ ^;^TT\fc^ ovaN. vcv o^^cv 



f 



1038 



LUBRICANTS AND LUBRICATION. 



/ 



shallow tanks, in which the oil is exposed to sunlight whfle float- 
ing upon water warmed by steam. Such oil is called "sunned oiL' 

A characteristic of nearly all mineral lubricating oils is tbcii 
fluorescent appearance when contained in bottles or transparent 
vessels. 

Shale OiL — Crude shale, a substance similar to petroleum, foam! 
mostly in Europe, gives products similar to crude petroleum tq 
which it is now mostly replaced. 

ParaMme is found native as a fossil wax, and is contained ii 
the least volatile part of petroleum residues, from which it ii 
obtained by cooling to a low temperature. It is also largdj 
made from bituminous shale. 

Paraffine is a white, waxy substance, without taste or odor. 
It is insoluble in water and cold alcohol, soluble in petroleun 
ether, kerosene and warm fixed oils. It is not acted upon to anj 
extent by acids or alkalies. 

Vaseline or petroleum jelly is also prepared from the leasi 
volatile portions of petroleum. It is separated from the cr>'stal- 
lizable paraffine, and purified. Vaseline is a pale, yellow, trans- 
lucent substance. It finds some use as a lubricant, but its prin- 
cipal application is for medicinal purposes. 

FIXED OILS. 

These are so called on account of being fixed, that is. not 
volatile, or capable of being cvapi>rated or distilled. 

Fats. — Fixed oils and fats derived from animal and vegetaUc 
tissue are practically identical except in consistency, the fats be- 
ing solid. Fats, however, become oils when heated, and fixeij 
oils become fats when cooled. 

Fixed oils and fats differ from mineral oils in their behavioi 
toward oxygen. The former combine with it. thereby becoming 
thicker, even solid, while the mineral oils are inert toward 
oxygen. 

Sp09ttaneous Combustion. — This absorption of oxygen by fats 
and oils is accompanied by a rise in temperature, the more so, 
the larger the surface of the oil. Rags or machinist's waste sat- 
urated with oil present a large oxidizing surface and will, on 
this account, especially if inclosed in a box, etc., absorb oxygen 
^o fast as to become ignited by vi*W\ \^ generally tenned spon- 
neous combustion. 



LUBRICANTS AND LUBRICATION. IO39 

Mineral oils, as they have no affinity for oxygen, are not sub- 
ject to spontaneous combustion, and when mixed with fixed oils 
reduce the Habihty to combustion in proportion to the amount 
present. This oxidizing or *'drying" property renders some of 
the fixed oils unfit for lubrication, prominent among which is lin- 
seed oil, being on that account most useful as a paint oil. Those 
possessing this oxidizing property the least, and that are used, 
therefore, mostly as lubricants, are cottonseed, olive, castor and 
rape oil of the vegetable oils, and spern^, ncatsfoot and lard oil, 
also tallow, among animal oils. 

The mineral lubricating oils are not acted upon by caustic 
alkali, that is, do not saponify. Fixed oils can on that account 
be easily distinguished from them. 

BLOWN OR THICKENED OILS. 

These oils arc manufactured by blowing a jet of air through 
heated fixed oils, principally cottonseed and rape oil. The oils 
thereby become thicker and more viscous. These oils arc not 
used alone as lubricants, but mixed with mineral oils to in- 
crease the body or viscosity of the latter. 

BLENDED OILS. 

Mixed or blended oils consist of varying proportions of min- 
eral and fixed oils mixed so as to be best adapted for the purpose 
for which they are to be used. 

As mineral oils are cheaper than fixed oils, and as the latter 
are not suitable for every purpose, this mixing has the advan- 
tage of furnishing an oil that is better suited for many purposes 
than would either alone. As mineral oils are best adapted for 
high speed and light pressure moving parts, and fixed oils for 
slow speed and heavy pressure parts, the best results for inter- 
mediate speeds and pressures can, therefore, he obtained with 
properly mixed or blended oils. This mixing cannot, however, 
be always resorted to, as the solid hydrocarlwns, paraffines, etc., 
contained in some mineral oils are precipitated by this mixing. 

RESIN (rosin) OIL. 

Resin oil is the product of destructive distillation of common 
resin. It is a viscid liquid of dark brown color, with a strong 
fluorescence. It contains a considerable proportion of unchanged 
resin, carried over by the oil. Its specific gravvl^ \^ Vi\\^, x^'Wfe- 
ing from o.p6 to 0.99, and 8on\etimes ti\\xO\ >ci\^finfc\. \v. >s» '^^=^ 



I 
; [ 1040 LUBRICAffTS AND LUBRICATION. 

used by itself as a lubricant, but to some extent as an adulterant 
for other lubricants. 

LUBRICANTS CONTAINING SOAP. 

These arc often used as a thickening medium for mineral oils. 
j If enough soap is added a gelatinous grease is formed. The 

I soap generally used is aluminum soap, made by saponifying va- 

Irious fixed oils with caustic soda and stirring this into a solution 
of alum. A precipitate of oleatc of aluminum is thereby obtained 
;■ ' which, after drj-ing. etc.. is added to the lubricant. 

Ahiminum soap has practically no lubricating quality and is 

■" therefore considered as an adulterant; in fact, it is claimed by 

some to decrease the efficiency of the lubricant. Regular soaps, 
made with oils an<l caustic soda alone, are also used, but mostly 
as an additir^i to oils to produce lubricating grease. 

GREASES. 

j These nearly all have lallow as their base mixed with various 

oils, although various soaps are also used instead of the tallow. 
AxU Grtosc. — This consists usually of re>in grease prepared by 

; treating resin oil with slaked lime, and stirring this into more 

resin oil. or with petroleum or coal tar oil. 

SOLID LVCRICANTS. 

These consist mostly of talcum or soapstonc. and plumbago 
and gra[>hile. the latter Ix-ing the one almost exclusively used. 
Solid lubricant"! are used for very sImw speeds and great pre>- 
sures. and will remain in s«»nie bearings where proase or oil would 
run i.>ui. .Solid luhricimis are also used for lubricating link belt- 
ing running over sprocket wheels, which, if lubricated with oil, 
would throw oi'i or splash the oil by centrifugal f(.)rce. or if rim- 
ning in dusty piacts yaiher grit. etc.. which wuuld cause undue 
wear. 

OILS KoK HOT Ok O'LIt L"sE. 

Residts selecting oils best adapted fur speeds or pressures, the 
temperature t>f the niminii parts nnist als«> be considered. 

Cold Test ihls. — These oils are used for lubrication of re- 
frigerating machines, and must have the property of remaining 
liquid at temperature> of from 15° to o"* F. without congealing or 
>oJidifying. 
//of Test Oi7j.— Cylinder o\\s. wsed for lubricating piston and 
valves in the steam cylinder, must V».n^ \3a^ o^V^iw.^ V^^si^ftxty of 



LUBRICANTS AND LUBRICATION. IO4I 

cold test oils, viz., they must remain viscous and not decompose 
at the high temperatures of pressure steam in the cylinder. 
Cylinder oils should have an evaporating or decomposing point 
much higher than the temperature at which used, this ranging 
from soo" to 600° F. 

CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF LUBRI- 
CANTS. 

The properties to be considered in judging the fitness of a 
lubricant are (see also "Brewers* Chemical Laboratory") : 

I. Viscosity or "body" of the lubricant at the temperature at 
which it is used; 

i». Temperature of solidifying or thickening point; 

3. Flash point, the temperature at which the lubricant begins 
to give oflF inflammable vapors, which, however, are extinguished 
if flame is removed; 

4. Fire test point, at which these vapors burn continuously; 

5. Amount of volatile substances contained; 

6. Drying, gumming or oxidizing property of the lubricant ; 

7. The proportion of admixtures of other fats or oils; 

8. Acidity, effect on metal surfaces; 

9. Mineral admixtures or adulterants. 

LUBRICANTS FOR DIFFERENT PURPOSES (THURS- 
TON). 

Low temperatures, as rock drills, etc. — Light mineral lubricating 
oils. 

Very great pressures, slow speed. — Graphite, soapstone (tal- 
cum) and other solid lubricants. 

Heavy pressures, slow speed. — The above, and lard, tallow and 
other grreases. 

Heavy pressures, high speed. — Sperm oil, castor oil, heavy min- 
eral oils. 

Light pressures, high speed. — Sperm, refined petroleum, olive, 
rape, cottonseed oils. 

Ordinary machinery. — Lard oil. tallow oil, heavy mineral oils. 
and the heavy vegetable oils. 

Steam cylinders. — Heavy mineral oils, lard, tallow. 

Watches and other delicate machinery. — Clarified sperm, neats- 
foot, porpoise, olive and light lubricating oils. 

For mixture with mineral oils, sporm oil is best, Va.x^ ci'\ 'cwi.Ocv 
used, and olive and cottonseed oUs are ^00^, 



LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER 



I 



The legal relations- of the brewer are more complicated tha 
those of most other manufacturers and merchants. He is subje 
not only to all the ordinary duties which are incumbent upc 
every inhabitant, but also to many special ones that are impose 
upon the manufacture of. and traffic in, intoxicating beverages I 
the Federal, State and Municipal governments, for purposes part 
of regulation, partly of taxation, and often for both purpose 
Inasmuch as the brewer quite frequently not only manufactun 
and sells to the consumer and retailer but is obliged to look aft< 
the retail business and assume responsibility for the dispenser < 
his products, he is brought into constant and immediate conta< 
with the operation of all the laws that affect the liquor traffic. 

It is not intended here to give information as to the ordinal 
rights and obligations of the brewer as a manufacturer ai 
merchant, which he has in common with all other classes < 
business men. but only the extraordinary or special relatioi 
that connect him with the various governmental agencies as 
manufacturer of, and dealer in. intoxicating beverages. As f; 
as possible, the intricacies of legal phraseolog>' will be avoide 
and the sense of the respective laws and regulations gfiven in 
transcribed form so as to be readily intelligible to the non-leg 
mind. 

TAXES PAYABLE TO THE UNITED STATES COVER! 

MENT. 

Under the Internal Revenue laws of the United States and tl 
executive regulations of the Internal Revenue office a gallon < 
beer, ale. porter or other fermented liquor means a measure coi 
i taining 231 cubic inches. 

A brewer is every person who manufactures fermented liqiio 
0/ any name or dcscripUon, ioi s^\^, iiov^ malt, with or witho 

adjuncts. 



LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER. TO43 

THB STAMP TAX. 

On all such fermented liquors a tax is levied which, beginning 
July I, 1901, amounts to one dollar and sixty cents ($1.60) per 
barrel, flat, that is, there is no rebate on this amount. Parts and 
multiples of barrels pay proportionate amounts. 

Accordingly, the tax on barrels, and fractions and multiples of 
barrels, t^ginning July i, igoi, is : 

One-eighth barrel ^. 20 cents. 

One-sixth barrel 26% cents. 

One-fourth barrel 40 cents. 

One-third barrel S3^ cents. 

One-half barrel 80 cents. 

One barrel $1.66 

Two barrels (hogshead) $3-20 

Until June 30, 1901, the tax amounts to two dollars ($2.00) per 
barrel. Accordingly, the tax on barrels, and fractions and mul- 
tiples of barrels, until June 30, 1901, is as follows: 

One-eighth barrel 25 cents. 

One-sixth barrel 33% cents. 

One-fourth barrel 50 cents. 

One-third barrel 66% cents. 

One-half barrel i dollar. 

One barrel 2 dollars. 

Two barrels (one hogshead) 4 dollars. 

On this tax there is allowed a discount of 7% per cent which 
is deducted at the time the tax is paid to the collector. 

The above are the fractional parts and multiple of one barrel 
authorized by law. If a package contains any substantial amount 
in excess of its nominal capacity, it pays tax for the next bigger 
fraction. Thus, a package containing more than one-eighth and 
less than one-sixth is accounted one-sixth. 

The tax is paid by the purchase of stamps, which are issued 
by the Federal government and sold to brewers by the Collectors 
of Internal Revenue. In purchasing such stamps, the regulations 
of the Internal Revenue office must be strictly followed. Such in- 
structions can be obtained in printed form from the collector of 
the district in which the brewer does business. 

NOTICE BY BREWERS. 

Following the natural order oi ptoceAwie, >Jci^ ^x^*^ ^'^^^ ^^ 
a brewer starting out in business \s lo fw\t V\\\v >i?cv^ o.c^^^v^'^ 



LI£GAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER. 

istrict where he intends to carry on his business a notice 
ig the name of the person, firm or company, and of the 
bers of any such company or firm, their residences, a deacrip- 
of the brewery premises, the title of the brewer thereto, and 
name of the owner of the land. In case of a corporation the 
les of the shareholders need not be given, but those of the offi- 
i. The notice is made out in duplicate on blanks which the 
lector s office will supply on request This notice is repeated on 
ly 1 of each succeeding year as long as the business is con> 
lued. Bottling plants are not to be described in this notice, 
he notice nmst be signed by the brewer himself or an author- 
ed agent or attorney; in case of a partnership, by a member 
icreof in the firm name, or other person authorized as before; 
n case of a corporation, under the seal and by the proper oflBcer. 

SPECIAL TAXES. 

At the time when the above notice is filed, the brewer most 
pay the special brewer's tax, which is $ioo a year, where he mana> 
factures 500 barrels or more per year, and $50 where he manu- 
factures less than 500 barrels per year. 

Besides, if a brewer sells malt liquors not of his own manu- 
facture, at retail, that is. in quantities less than five gallons at 
one time, he is subject to a retail dealer's tax of $20. If he sells 
such liquors at wholesale, that is. in quantities of five gallons or 
more, he is subject to a wholesale dealer's tax of $50. This 
does not apply where he purchases malt liquor from another 
brewer in his owp casks upon giving the proper notice to the 
collector as elsewhere explained, but in that case the amount so 
purchased is included in calculating the liability to the special 
brewer's tax of both the manufacturer and the purchasing brew- 
ers, i. e., in determining whether they manufactured 500 barrels 
a year or less. 

GIVING BOND. 

When giving the notice of his intern ion to carry on the brewin 
business the brewer must give a bond in a sum e(iual to thn 
times the amount of tax. which, in the opinion of the collectc 
the brewer is liable to pay during any one iiioinh. He must gi 
a new bond cverv four years or at anv oiher time it the collect 
requires it. The bond is for the faithful performance of all 
duties required of him wilb Tekict\cc \v> \W v\^. ^\^\\ks can 



LKGAL RELATIONS OF THR HRKWER. IO45 

obtained from the collectors. The sureties on the bond must have 
no interest in the business. 

BOOKS AND RETURNS. 

Every brewer must keep a separate book in which is entered, 
from day to day, the kind of malt liquor produced, the estimated 
quantity produced, in barrels, and the actual quantity sold or 
removed for consumption or sale in barrels or fractional parts of 
barrels. A certain form of book is recommended for this pur- 
pose by the Internal Revenue office, and can be obtained from 
certain stationers. 

In another book he must enter, from day to day, an account 
of all the materials purchased by him for the purpose of pro- 
ducing such fermented liquors, including grain and malt. Brew- 
ers must make apparent in this book the disposition made of all 
materials entered which are not used in the production of fer- 
mented liquors. 

The entries in both these books, the beer Ijook and the materials 
book, must be verified on or before the tenth day of each month. 
by the oath of the persons who made them, the oath to be written 
in the book at the end of such entries in the form prescrilx'd 
in the instructions obtained from the collector. Where the owner, 
agent or superintendent did not himself make the entries, he 
must subjoin his oath to the truth of them, for which oath the 
form is al<o given in the instructions. The books must be open 
at all times for the inspection of the collector or his proper 
representative. 

On or before the tenth day of each month the brewer must ren- 
der to the collector, in duplicate, a statement taken from his books, 
of the estimated quantity, in barrels, of malt liquors brewed, and 
the actual quantity sold or removed for consumption or sale during 
the preceding month. This statement is to be verified by oath 
before the collector or his proper deputy. A certain blank is pro- 
vided by the collector's office for these statements. 

Fermented liquors removed without stamps to a warehouse in 
the district must be returned as part of the stock on hand at 
the brewery. Where such removal is to another district, such dis- 
trict must be stated ; where to more than one district, the word 
"other" is inserted in the blank instead of the number of the dis- 
trict ; and a voucher giving a detailed statement mwsV •3^cL^^vw^-^vN>i 
the report. 






LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER. 

A brewer who tells at retail, besides affixing the tax stamps to 
the vessdi, is required to keep w) account of (be qaantitT m 
■old, with the number and size of the vessels, and lo make a 
'monthly sworn report of such sales. 

The report must be signed bj the person by whom it is ren- 
dered, and if not verified by himself, he mnst canse ti (o be verified 
by some person having personal knowledge of the business and 
being otherwise fully quahfied by his position to make the oath. 
Tills includes being fully empowered by the principal to veri^ 
the statement, which authority, in case of a corporation, shouM 
be conferred by resolution. The person verifying should af^ecd 
his title to his signature, as attorney, agent, etc 



OBTAININC AKD AFFIXING THE STAMPS. 

The brewer bars stamps as he expects to require them, from 
the collector of his district, and can secure ttiem in another dis- 
trict only if Ihc collector of his own district cannot deliver them 

Stamps car be delivered by the cnlleclor only upon the written 
order of the brewer made in a certain forrn. of which blanks will 
be supplied by the collector as required. 

It is essential to hare on hand stamps for all kinds of packages 
that are expected to be used, as only one st.imp must be used on 
any one package, unless it is bi^er than a hogiihead. tl is not 
allowed to use two or more stamps of smaller denomination lo 
make up the value of one of larger denomination, as Iwo 
quarters for one half-barrel, etc. 

The re-use of stamps, that is. the use of one stamp more than 
once, is prohibited absolutely, and there is no exception to this 
rule. If packages returned to the brewery should still have the 
stamps on ihcm. the brewer must destrcq- such stamps, no matter 
how they came to remain on the package. 

The law requires that when a keg or other vessel of beer is 
removed from the brewety or warehouse (except under permit 
as elsewhere explained) the brewer shall aifix the stamp denoting 
the requisite amount of tax upon the spigot-hnle. in the head of 
the package, which stamp shall he destroyed tiy driving through 
the same the faucet through which the liquor is to be with- 
drawn, or an air faucet of equal si^e. at llie lime ibe vessel is 
tapped, in cise the vessel is lapped through the other spigot-hole 
(of which ifiere shall be bul V-wo. wse in the head and one 



LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER. IO47 

in the side). Furthermore, the brewer shall at the time of affix- 
ing such stamp cancel the same by writing or imprinting thereon 
the name of the person, firm or corporation by whom the Hquor 
was made, or the initial letters thereof, and the date when can- 
celed. 

if a brewer sells at retail at the brewery he must affix and 
cancel the proper stamps on the vessels, and keep an account 
of the quantity so sold and the number ami size of vessels in 
which it was contained and make a monthly sworn report thereof 
to the collector. 

These provisions make it necessary that the stamps should be 
well secured to the vessels, and not easily removed therefrom 
except by intentional effort for that purpose. The following 
method of preparing and affixing them is therefore recommended : 

Dissolve one pound of chloride of sodium (common salt) in 
two gallons of cold water; spread this over the backs of the 
sheets of stamps with a broad, thin brush, and then dry them. 
They are now ready to be affixed. In applying the stamp to the 
cask, first take liquid silicate of soda of medium density ; rub it 
well into the irregularities of the surface of the wood with a 
brush, and apply the stamp quickly while the wood is quite wet. 
When the stamp is dry, a second coating of the silicate should 
be spread over the face of the stamp; and if the barrels are to be 
exposed to the action of the weather, or to be stored in damp 
places for considerable periods, the stamp should be secured by 
four tacks to prevent its peeling off. 

In renewing the stamp upon a barrel used a .second time, the 
tacks should be withdrawn and the stamp carefully scraped off. 

REMOVAL TO WAREHOUSE. 

In order to remove malt liquor from the brewery to a ware- 
house or depot or other place of storage, permits must be ob- 
tained from the collector of the district where the brewery is 
located, and the tax stamps need not be affixed until the liquor 
leaves such warehouse. Lager beer may be so removed in quan- 
tities not less than six barrels in one vessel, and ale or porter or 
other malt liquor, fifty barrels. The permits are required to be 
affixed to the vessels in which the liquor is removed. 

Application for such permits is made on certain blanks pre- 
scribed by the Internal Revenue office, and when the permits are 
delivered, a receipt in certain form is given by th^ bt^^^\. • 



IO4S LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER. 

The brewer, upon receiving the permits, will at once secnn 
affix them to the heads of the barrels near the chime and immei 
ately- under the bung stave. At the time the permit is affixed 
will cancel it by writing or stamping across the face thereof 1 
name, the location of his brewery, and the date of the cancellati 
of the permit. As soon as the permits are affixed and within fi 
days after their delivery to the brewer, he will notify the collect 
of the fact, in order that the collector may record the date 
affixing, on the stubs of such permits retained in his offii 
Dates on these permits should be written or stamped with grc 
distinctness. If the packages are too long on their way, they m 
be detained and the brewer required to prove absence of fraud 
lent intent. 

If the warehouse is in another district the brewer must prompt 
notify the collector of the latter district of the receipt of t 
liquor at such warehouse, such collector having been previous 
notified of its removal by ihe collector of the district in whi 
the brewery is located. 

The permits must remain on the packages until they are i 
moved from the warchousp and the tax stamps affixed, when t 
permits must be scraped off and destroyed. Tax stamps are c 
tained from the collector in who^t district the warehouse is 1 
cated. All h'quor so removed to other collccii*»n districts is c 
tcred in their books and reported in the monthly returns. 

SOUR OR DAMAGED LIQUOR. 

If liquor has become sour or damaged so as to be incapal 
of use as a beverage, it may be sold for manufacturing purpos 
and removed from the brewery in vessels unlike those ordinari 
used for fermented liquors, containing not less than one ban 
each, and having* the nature of their contents marked upon thei 
without affixing the permit or stamp. 

BOTTLING BEER. 

Beer cannot be bottled in the brewery. A separate bottlii 
I building must be provided which is separated from the brewc 

' by a public thoroughfare and has no communication with t 

brewery. However, this bottling plant may be connected wi 
the brewery by a pipe for the purpose of running the beer to 
bottled through it. If there is no such pipe connection, the be 
must be dUcd into stamped packages and taken across the- roj 
into^thc bottling departtT\enl. BoVvV\v\^ \t\TcvtTvv<iA Uqjuor fro 



! 



LEGAL RRLATIOX? OF TIIK I!UK\VKK. 



1 04< ) 



open and unstamped vessels is not permitted: neither i-^ {\w ,nU\\- 
tion of water, fermenting agents, extracts, etc., allowed previous 
to bottling. The steaming, washing and storage of bottles (m 
brewery premises is not permitted. 

If a brewer wants to run a pipe line from the brewery to his 
bottling plant for the purpose of running bottle beer through it, 
he must proceed in a certain prescril)ed way. He mu>t give a 
supplemental notice to the collector in duplicate on blanks pro- 
vided by the collector, containing among other things an estimate 
of how often beer will Ik thus removed to the bottling hou>e. 
The !x>ttling house must be just as distinct from the brewery as 
where the l)eer is removed in a stamped package*^. 

The brewer must construct a mea>uring cask or tank in the 
brewery for the lx>ttle beer, admitting of ready me.n<unMnent and 
having a capacity erpial tr) the amount of li(|uor to be removed for 
bottling in twenty-four hours. More than one such ci>tern may 
be authorized by the collector, if necessary, tf) su|)ply the bottling 
house for twenty- four hours, and none must have a capacity of 
less than ten barrels. The tank is re(iuired io be securely co\- 
ered, and if an opening is desired, it mu>t be so arranged that it 
can be securely looked. A glass gauge must be attached in order 
to observe the level »>f the liciuor in the tank. Stop-cocks must 
be provided tt> control the tlow into, and out of, the measuring 
tank, and must be capable of being locked. Xo such tank can l)e 
used until after it has been examined by a deputy C(»llector and he 
has attached his certificate thereto. 1 he vessel and its attach- 
ments may l>e examined at any time by Internal Revenue officers. 

The i)ipe, or c<»nduit, must l>e securely connected with the meas- 
uring tank in the brewery. Xo opening is permitted in the pipe 
line. 

ihe measuring tank may, if preferred, be placed in the bottling 
hou.se. In that case the pipe line which is to carry the Ixfcr to 
the bottling shop can be placed underground (mly by running it 
through a tunnel of sufficient size to adniit the convenient pa^sage 
through its entire length of the revenue officer, who is reouired 
to examine the pij>e line. The pipe mu.st be so placed as to admit 
of ready examination at any point. Each measuring tank must 
have a separate supply i>ipe. 

Before a pipe connectirui to the IxHtle shop can be use<l, a plan 
and description of the plant in triplicate \t\v\s\. W v'tv;\>\\\v.C^ wev n^v^^^ 



1050 LEGAL RELATIONS OP THE BREWER. 

paper or tracing linen, 15x20 inches in size, one to be posted in the 
brewery, one kept by the collector, and one to be sent to the 
Commissioner of Internal Revenue. This plan must show in 
detail the exact location of all vessels, conduits, casks or imple- 
ments used in the transfer of the liquor ; also the capacity of the 
measuring tank, the course of the pipe and the thorcnighfares 
crossed by it, the boundary line of the brewery premises, and the 
nature of the business conducted in all buildingrs located within 
ten feet of the pipe line. Any alterations in any of the parts re- 
quired to be shown must be displayed by a supplemental plan. 

To avoid needless trouble and expense it is best alwajrs to 
submit such plans in advance to the collector of the district, who 
will examine and certify them, if found correct. 

The stop-cock controlling the inflow of liquor into the measur- 
ing tank on the brewery premises, and the opening in the top of 
the tank, if any, are secured by padlocks, and the stop-cock con- 
trolling the outlet into the pipe by a seal lock. Locks and seals are 
supplied by the collector. If the measuring tank stands in the 
bottling house, the inflow cock is controlled by a seal lock as 
well as the outlet. These two cocks must never be unlocked at 
the same time, but either may be opened as suits the convenience 
of the brewer. 

When the brewer wants to send beer to the bottling house, he 
makes application to the collector or his proper deputy, on a 
form prescribed by the Internal Revenue office, stating the amount 
to be transferred, which must be enough to supply the bottling 
house for at least twenty-four hours, and never less than ten 
l>arrels at one time. Request is also made for the attendance of a 
deputy collector. 

The deputy collector, after locking the supply pipe of the 
measuring tank in the brewery and the opening in the top, if any, 
noting the quantity in the tank and observing that the proper seal 
is in the lock at the junction with the pipe line, will remove the 
seal lock from the latter, enabling the brewer to open the stop- 
cock. After the liquor desired to be sent to the bottling house 
has entered the pipe, the deputy collector closes the stop-cock 
and secures it by the lock, first inserting the proper seal. He 
then unlocks the supply cock of the tank and the opening in the 
top, if any. and leaves them open until the next lot of liquor is 
sent to the bottling house. 



LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER. IO5I 

The brewer must then present to the deputy collector the num- 
ber and value of tax stamps corresponding to the amount of 
liquor withdrawn from the tank, having previously written or 
printed on the margin of such stamps the name of the hrcwer. 
firm, or corporation, or the initials, and the date of the transfer 
of the liquor. The deputy collector cancels the stamps by a die 
or punch and transmits them to the collector of the district. 

The brewer must report the amount of liquor transferred to the 
bottling house and the number and denominations of stamps used, 
in his monthly report, in a separate item. 

Where the measuring tank is located upon the bottling premises, 
the stamps must be canceled upon the entire quantity of liquor 
in the cistern before any of it is withdrawn therefrom. 

If it is necessary to connect any of the apparatus in the bottling 
house with the refrigerating machine or air pump in the brewery, 
the pipes making such connection must be exposed to view for 
their entire length and subject to ready examination by revenue 
officers at all times. All such additional appliances must be ex- 
hibited in the plans submitted to the collector. 

MARKING CASKS. 

Every brewer must brand all his trade packages before removal 
from the brewery, with his or the firm's or corporation's name 
and place of manufacture. 

If he purchases liquor from another brewer, he may. upon 
previous written notice to the collector in a form prescribed by 
the Internal Revenue office, furnish his own vessels branded as 
though for his own beer, and have them filled by the manufac- 
turer, who must affix and cancel the proper stamps. The manu- 
facturer enters such beer in his beer lK)ok and makes a special en- 
try of it in his monthly return to the collector, as "sold at brew- 
ery at wholesale." The purchaser also enters it in his beer book. 
together with the stamps affixed by the manufacturer, and when 
the beer is sold, makes a ftK>tnote in his monthly report in the 
form prescribed by the department. These special entries are re- 
quired to be made in red ink. 

TO CARRY OS BUSINESS AT ANOTHER PLACE. 

If by reason of accident by fire or flood, or the brewery under- 
going repairs, or other cause which is sufficient in the opinion 
of the collector of the district, a brewer desircj 10 carry on his 
business temporarily at another place in the same or ati ^d- 



165^ LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER. 

joining district, he must ai^ply to the collector for a pcnnit, which 
is issued for a certain time, and the hrewer need not pay another 
special tax. Consent to snch temporary change must be indorsed 
on the brewer's bond by his sureties. 

SELUNG WORT. 

If a brewer sells unfermented wort to another brewer for the 
purpose of being used in productqg fermentation or enlivening 
fermented liquors, he must obtain a permit for the removal of 
such wort from the collector of his district and remove such wort 
within the time specified and the regulations prescribed. The 
stamp tax is paid by the purchasing brewer on the finished liquor 
produced by the admixture of such wort. Brewers should, if posr- 
sible, use for such purposes, vessels unlike those ordinarily used 
for fermented liquors, containing not less than one barrel each and 
having the nature of their contents marked upon them. 

PENALTIES. 

Failure to make correct entr>* and report of fermented liquors 
as required by law. or attempt to evade the payment of the tax 
on them, failure to do any of the things required by law to be 
done in this connection, or making false entries or reports is 
punishable by forfeiture of all the liquors made and all the 
vessels, utensils, and apparatus used, also b>- a fine of $500 to 
$1,000 and imprisonment for not to exceed one year. 

Neglect to keep hooks as required by law, refusal to furnish 
the required amounts and duplicates, or refusal to allow the proper 
officer to examine the books, is punishable by a fine of $300. 

Refusal or neglect to affix and cancel the tax stamps required 
by law, or the affixing of a false or fraudulent stamp, is punish- 
able by a fine of $100 for each package and imprisonment up to 
one year. 

Fermented liquor found after removal from the brewery or 
warehouse, except upon permit, without payment of the tax re- 
quired, is liable to seizure and forfeiture. The absence of proper 
stamps in snch cases is notice to all persons that the tax has 
not been paid, and is prima facie evidence of the non-payment 
thereof. 

Where liquor is removed under permit and without stamps, the 
permits must be affixed, canceled and destroyed as prescribed by 
the Internal Revenue off\ce. vmdei V\\c %tim<i ^twAvv^s 2.^ provided 
^ to stamps. 



LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE nUEVVER. IO53 

Withdrawing fermented liciuor from any unstamped package for 
the purpose of bottling, or carsying on the business of bottling 
fermented liquor in any brewery, or premises having communica- 
lion with the brewery, or any warehouse, except as provided for 
bottling houses, is punishable by fine of $500, and the property used 
is liable to forfeiture. The same penalties apply to the violation 
of any of the regulations in regard to bottling. 

Anyone who removes, or connives at the removal of. fermented 
liquor through a pipe line without the payment of the tax. or wiio 
attempts to defraud the revenue in any manner in connection 
with such business, is liable to forfeiture of all the liiiuofb made 
by and for him, and all vessels, utensils and apparatus u>ed in 
making them. 

Defacing or removing the marks branded on trade packages, ex- 
cept by the owner or authorized agent, is punishable by a tine 
of $50 for each package. 

Refusal or neglect to afiix and cancel the stamps required by 
law, and affixing a false or fraudulent <tamp. is punishable by a 
fine of $100 for each package and imprisonment for not nu:)re than 
one year. 

The removal, sale, receipt, or purchase of fermented liquor in 
an unstamped package, or package not having the proper permit, 
or having a false r)r fraudulent stamp or permit, with knowledge 
that it is such, or of a package on which a canceled stamp is 
used a second time, is punishable by fine of $100 and imprisonment 
for not more than one year. 

Withdrawing fermented liquor from (or tapping) any package 
without destroying or defacing the stamp, or from an unstamped 
package, or a package fraudulently stamped, is punishable by a 
fine of $100 and imprisonment for not more than one year. 

Selling, making or using any counterfeit stamp, permit or die 
for making counterfeit stamps or permits, or removing a stamp 
for the purpose of re-using, or re-using any stamp, or receiving, 
buying, selling or giving away, or having in one's possession any 
fraudulent stamp, is punishable by fine of $100 to $1,000 and im- 
prisonment for from six months to three years. 

Removing or defacing a stamp or permit on any package con- 
taining fermented licpior, except by the purchaser or r>wner or 
his agent, is punishable by fine of $50 for each package ai\cL <:x<i-'5.\.^'5» 
a liabi'ity in damages to the owuet. 



I054 LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER. 

BXFOKTIMG FERMENTED UQUOK IN BONa 

The system of allowing retMites of tax on beer exported 
been abandoned. The present system provides for exporting 
bond, the brewer giving a bond to the Collector of Internal Re 
nne providing for the payment of double the amount of tax oo 
liquor in regard to which the regulations are not ofalMnred. 1 
bond must be for not less than double the amount of tuc on 
estimated quantity of liquor to be exported during three monl 
and in no case less than $i»oool 

In case of direct exportation in original packages from 
brewery, or transfer to a bottling plant for export, stamps i 
coupons are issued by the collector. The brewer affixes to e 
package directly over the spigot-hole, the export stamp with 
requisite number of coupons, so that the last coupon on the sta 
will correspond to the size of the package. Thus one barrel ^ 
have the stamp with six coupons attached. The end of the sta 
not pasted on is fastened to the package by tacks. Where 
liquor is transferred to a bottling establishment such stamps n 
be destroyed by driving a spigot or air faucet through at 
time the liquor is drawn off. The stamps must be so affixed aj 
admit of a spigot being driven through without injury to 
serial number and denomination of the attached coupons to 
removed by the bottler. 

If fermented liquor is to be conveyed to a bottling establi 
ment by a pipe line, the brewer must notify the collector, who 
send a deputy to supervise the transfer, which is made as wt 
the beer is not intended for export. The brewer and bottler n 
each keep a memorandum of the quantity of liquor transfci 
with the date of transfer. 
^ The collector issues export labels to the bottler in books 

200 e«ich, the stubs being returned to the collector when the b 
has been used up. The liquor must be bottled not more t 
forty-ciglit hours after its arrival in the bottle shop, the hot 
keeping a memorandum of each lot bottled, giving quantity 
ceived, name of brewer, number and size of packages with 
port stamps, date when packages were tapped and prices of exf 
stamps removed, number and size of bottles, and number i 
contents of cases in which bottles have been placed with numt 
o/ export labels. 
In drawing from the or'ig\t\a\ v^aicVa.^.^ \\v^\»vW^ Tcv>»x^Km 



I 



LEGAL RELATIONS OK TllK IJKKWKK. I055 

faucet through which the liquor is drawn, or an air faucet, tliroiigh 
the brewer's export stamp, and detach the undestroyed part t)f the 
export stamp from the package and forward it to the colk'ctr)r. 
Each lot of liquor must he kept separate, as it nuist be accounted 
for separately. The liquor nuist be cased for export within 
twenty-four hours and securely fastened, and each case have the 
export label affixed with the requisite number of coupons showing 
the quantity, in gallons, contained in each case. Where the quan- 
tity is not in even gallons, and the fractional part is less than one- 
half, it is excluded from the quantity represented in the export 
labels, the discrepancies thus arising being adjusted in the 
bottler's monthly statement to the collector. 

On the first day of each month the brewer who has removed 
fermented li(iuor, and the lH)ttler who has received such liquor. 
makes a monthly declaration, under oath, in duplicate to the 
collector as to such liquor so removed and received, the form of 
such decalaration being obtained from the collector. Each day's 
transactions are reported separately in the proper colunm. 

Fermented li(iuor to be exported may be entered for export in 
any outward port or at any frontier port, or at an interior port for 
transshipment to an outward or frontier port, or when it is to 
go through a fr(.>ntier port in sealed cars over bonded routes, 1l 
may be entered at any port from which such cars clear for 
export. In any case, the exporter must, six hours before ship- 
ment, file with the Collector of Customs (not the Collector of 
Internal Revenue) an export entry in the form to be obtained at 
the collector's office. This entry may be made by an agent having 
a power of attorney from the exporter, if the latter does not live 
at the place of entry. The exporter nuist also file with the 
Collector of Customs a bill of lading. 

If the articles arc entered at any port for exportation through 
another port, the exporter must state in his entry the routes over 
which they are to be shipped. In case of shipment through 
frontier ports in sealed cars, the exiwrter may apply to the 
collector of the port of entry to have the goods locked and 
sealed. In the latter case, a transportation manifest and through 
bill of lading must be filed. 

If from any cause the required proofs cannot be furnished or 
regulations complied with application iot m\\Q\ vwasX Xtfs. vec^^^ 
to the Collector of Internal Revcuu^i >n\vo V^s ^Qss>^vL'ax^s:'^ ^^ ^ 
factSf 



1056 LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER. 

TONICS, ETC. 

The war revenue law of 1898 provides for a tax on medicinal 
proprietary articles and preparations, among which are tonics, and 
all medicinal preparations or compounds which are held out 
or recommended to the public by the makers, vendors or pro- 
prietors as proprietary medicines or medicinal proprietary 
articles or preparations, or as remedies or specifics for any 
disease, diseases or affection whatever affecting the human 
or animal body. This tax is as follows : Where the retail price 
or value of the package is five cents or less, one-eighth of a 
cent ; where the retail price or value is 5 to 10 cents, two-eighths 
of a cent; where the retail price or value is 10 to 15 cents, 
three-eighths of a cent ; where the retail price or value is 15 to 25 
cents, five-eighths of a cent, and for each additional twenty-five 
cents or fractional part thereof, five-eighths of a cent. 

The law further provides in regard to such articles that this 
stamp tax shall apply to all medicinal articles .... which 
are . . . advertised on the package or otherwise as remedies or 
specifics for any ailment or as having any special claim to merit, 
or to any peculiar advantage in mode of preparation, quality, 
use or cfTect. 

The Internal Revenue office holds malt extracts and similar 
preparations, which are advertised as tonics, or held out as 
having a tonic or other medicinal effect, to be subject to this tax. 
and iniiK>ses it upon the tonics and similar beverages sold by 
brewers in i>ucli a way as to create the impression that they arc 
desirable for their medicinal properties. Where they are not so 
advertised or nanud. they are not subject to this tax. 

A decision given in Fcbruarj-. 1901. by the United States 
District Court at Kansas City. Mo., holds that an article taxed as 
beer cannot be taxed once more as a tonic, and the claim of a 
brewing company for rebate of the tax paid on a tonic manufac- 
tured by them was allowed. The question has not yet been finally 
deternu'ned. however, and for the present the ruling of the Inter- 
nal Revenue office stjinds. 

If tonics or preparations of this character are represented to 

the public as medicinal preparations, and are in fact medicinal 

preparations, and are so sold by druggists or other retailers in 

^ood faith, such druggists or retailers do not require a retail 

liquor dealer's license irow v\\<: VtvWt^ "t^v^v^^ ^QN^i^crofttit But 



LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER. IO57 

if such compounds are sold as beverages, the druggists are sub- 
ject to the regulations of retail liquor dealers, notwithstanding the 
fact that the compound may be used as a medicine and was so 
intended by the manufacturer. It follows that the mere addition 
of a medicinal drug does not of itself take the sale of the com- 
pound out of the regulations for retail liquor dealers. 

WHAT IS INTOXICATING LIQUOR? 

There is a prevalent misapprehension as to the term "intoxicat- 
ing" liquor or beverage, and the attitude of the United States 
government with reference thereto. 

As far as the Internal Revenue taxes are concerned, it makes 
absolutely no difference whether a fermented beverage is intoxi- 
cating or not. It may contain i, or 2, or 6 per cent of alcohol 
or any other amount. The question is only whether it is a malt 
liquor or fermented beverage. If so, it is liable to the stamp tax. 
and the dealers are liable to the wholesale or retail dealers' li- 
cense fees, as the case may be, and tonics are subject to the addi- 
tional stamp tax for medicinal preparations. 

The question assumes an entirely different aspect with reference 
to local regulations, that is, state laws and municipal ordinances 
regulating, restricting, or prohibiting the liquor traffic. Here the 
question whether a beverage is intoxicating or not, is generally 
paramount. The matter depends on the wording of local laws. 

As a rule, the question whether liquor is intoxicating or not, is 
a question of fact to be determined in court by the jury, or judge 
in the absence of a jury. In some cases beer is presumed to be 
intoxicating and need not be shown to be so, as in Indiana. Kan- 
sas, Minnesota, Massachusetts (?). In some instances, the per- 
centage of alcohol that a beverage may contain without being in- 
toxicating is fixed by law or ordinance at 2 per cent. In most 
cases, the intoxicating quality of the beverage is a matter of evi- 
dence in each case. 

If a brewer wants to pui on the market a ^'temperance beer" 
for sale in prohibition districts, the local laws of the particular 
state or district should be looked up. 



1 

f 

,1. 



1058 LBGUkL RELATIONS OF THB BREWER. 

UQUOR LAWS OF THE STATES AND TERRTTORI 



/ 



There is no general local opdoo law, but by special ad 
sale of liqwM' is prc^bited in many localities, and decdons on 
question providol in others. 

License fees under the general law are zi follows : Retail sdl 
on boats and railroad cars, $250; in places under 1,000 inhabita] 
$150; between 1,000 and 3.000, $aoo; between 3,000 and mjL 
$375; more than loyooo, $3^; dealers in lager beer oobr. o 
fourth of the above rates; wholesale dealers, componoden a 
rectifiers, |20o; distillers (not of fruit), $35; iM-ewers, $iao; bo 
ing alleys, billiard tables, dice boxes, etc., all require licenae. 

Fines up to $1,000 are imposed for selling to an appicol 
without written consent of the master; to minors without o 
sent of parent, guardian or physician; to intemperate or insa 
persons; for selling without license; selling within one mile c 
church or a place of religious worship; permitting the use 
premises for illegal sale ; selling on Sunday or election day ; m 
ing or selling adulterated liquors; employing minors to : 
liquors. 

ABIZONA. 

Boards of trustees of cities, towns and villages have authoi 
to license, regulate or prohibit the sale of liquor. Quart< 
license fees are payable as follows: Selling in quantities of t 
gallons and upwards, where quarterly sales amount to $20,< 
and upward, $125 ; sales of $12,000 to $20,000, fee $100 ; sales 1 
der $12,000, fee $75 ; in quantities of one pint to two quarts, $30: 
quantities less than one gallon in cities, towns or villages of I 
and more population, $50; 200 to 800 population, $40; less tl 
200 population, $20; at wayside houses, $12; distilleries and bn 
eries doing a business of $10,000 and upwards. $40; $5,000 to $1 
000, fee $20; less thaii.$5.ooo, fee $10. Local authorities may i 
pose additional license fees. 

Fines up to $300 are imposed for the following offenses : S 

ing to a common drunkard or minor ; keeping open on Sunday 

selling liquor without a license or refusing to exhibit license 

proper officer on demand ; selling to an Indian ; permitting mint 

to remain in a place where Uc\uors are sold ; selling liquor wit 

out a license. 



LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER. IO59 

ARKANSAS. 

High license and local option prevail in this state. The ques- 
tion of license or no license is submitted at a general election and 
covers a period of two years. If a majority of the adult inhabi- 
tants, including females, within three miles of any schoolhouse, 
academy or institution of learning, shall petition the county court, 
such court may make an order prohibiting the sale of liquor for 
two years. Prohibition is also in force in some districts by 
special act of the legislature. 

If license is voted, the license is issued by the county court in 
rural districts and by the municipal authorities in incorporated 
municipalities. License fees arc: Retail, $500 county tax and 
$300 stale tax; wholesale malt liquors, $50 state tax, and $100 
county tax. Municipal licenses are in addition to state taxes. 
The licensee also pays two per cent of the taxes as collector's 
fees, and $2 for clerk's fees. He must give a bond of $2,000 to 
pay all damages caused by reason of liquor sold in his house, and 
all money lost by gaming on his premises. Debts for liquor can- 
not be recovered. Wines from grapes and other fruits sold by 
the maker are exempt. 

Fines are imposed up to $500 for furnishing liquor to students 
in any incorporated institution of learning; selling liquor within 
one mile of a camp meeting, except by regularly licensed tavern 
keeper or grocer at their regular place of business; selling 
liquor on election day or Sunday; allowing minors to play games 
in any dramshop or saloon ; selling to minors without the written 
consent of parent or guardian ; minor purchasing liquor without 
informing the dealer of his or her minority; allowing gaming, 
quarreling, fighting or disorderly conduct; selling to a soldier 
of the United States army without consent of an officer; selling 
without license, except in original packages of not less than five 
gallons; selling liquor in prohibition districts; selling without 
a license; shipping C. O. D. without the label: "This package 
contains intoxicating liquors"; keeping a "blind tiger" or similar 
device; a member of a club purchasing liquor for the use of 
members. 

Any person making wine from fruit grown by himself may 
sell it in quantities not less than one quart without a license, and 
licensed liquor dealers may sell wine, ckc^v^ *\w V>^:aK\<vi.% ^^^Vnkc*. 
the sa]e is prohibited by law. 



LBGAL RELATIONS OF THE BRBWBB. 



Under die conatitation, any coan^, cit^, Iowd or townsUp ma 
make and enforce withia its limits all sncb local policy saoitai 
and other regnladoua as are not in conflict with gtoenl lawi 
Tberc is no genera] law regulating the retail liquor traffic Eac 
axnmimit; accordingly regulates the traffic to suit itself, snbjec 
to the following license fees for the sale of liquor in qoastitie 
not less than one quart (wholesale) : Monthly sales Of |iOO^ 
or more, $50 per month; monthly sales of $75/100 to ftiKMXK 
$37.50 per month; and SO on through eleven classes to month! 
sales less than ¥1^50. $1 per monthi 

There are fines provided up to |i,ooo and in some cases im 
p'risoninent for the following offenses : Selling Uquor wilhi 
one and one-half miles from the grounds of any asylnin for dii 
ablcd volnntecr soldiers or sailors, etc. ; selling to a minor mule 
18 years or permitting him to visit a place where liquor is sol 
for the purpose of engaging in games of chance; fnmishin; 
liquor to a person addicted to the inordinate use of liquor afte 
notice that the person is so addicted; selling anything but pur 
wine by that or similar names; allowing the sale of liquors in th 
stale capitol; carrying on business without a license; aetling to a: 
habitual drunkard; fraudulently adulterating or diluting liquor 
selling liquor to anyone under the age of 16; employing female 
in saloons; selling within one mile of a religious field meeting 
selling liquor in any place of public amusement; selling -at o 
within one mile (or two miles in one case) of certain puMic in 
stitutions ; selling on election day. Selling to an Indian is made 

The regulations of the traffic differ widely in diflferent part 
of the state. In the city of San Francisco a retail dealer t 
licensed by the board of police commissioners and if they ar 
not favorably disposed he must get the written recommendatioi 
of twelve citizens owning real estate in the block or square whcr 
the business is to be carried on. Dealers selling $15,000 worth ani 
over per quarter pay $41 per quarter; those selling less, pay $21 
Physicians and druggists do not require a license, but must no 
sell by the glass or to be consumed on the premises. 

Bar rooms must be clo5ed from midnight to 6 a. m. Liquor mns 

not be sold to minors under 18 years, and minors must no 

enter saloons upon penalty oi ?\oo lo $joo fine. Public dmnk- 

wowsj is a. misdemeanor. Any Niotexvoft ol ft«. t 

de a mi'sdenteanoT. 



LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER. IO61 

COLORADO. 

This State has a gfeneraj license law, the fees being fixed at 
not less than $600 a year in cities, $500 in towns and $300 else- 
where; one-half this amount may be required for a license to 
sell malt liquor only. Licenses are issued by the municipal au- 
thorities of cities and towns, elsewhere by the cotimty commis- 
sioners. The authorities may license, regulate or prohibit the 
liquor traffic. The cities of Colorado Springs and Greeley are un- 
der prohibition by virtue of covenants in the deeds from the origi- 
nal proprietors of the sites. Licensees must give a bond of $2,000. 
Liquor dealers arc liable in damages for injuries from selling 
liquor producing intoxication only in the case of selling to 
drunkards after notice not to do so. 

Fines up to $1,000 are provided for the following offenses: 
Selling adulterated liquor, or liquor branded or marked otherwise 
than to indicate its true character; importing into the state any 
adulterated liquor, or offering for sale any liquor, unless the 
package shows the name and address of the manufacturer; keep- 
ing open on Sunday or election day; selling without a license; 
selling to an Indian; to an habitual drunkard, knowing him to 
be such; to United States soldiers or state militia, within three 
miles of a camp of the latter; allowing minors around the place 
or selling to them, unless accompanied by parent or guardian; 
selling within a mile of a worshipping congregation, except at 
regular places ; selling within five miles of any camp or assembly 
engaged in the construction or repair of a railroad, canal, reser- 
voir, public work, etc., except in municipalities that have been 
established six months prior to the beginning of such work; 
keeping a saloon into which any female is allowed to enter; 
keeping open from midnight to 6 a, m. 

CONNECTICUT. 

License and local option prevails. Each town votes whether 
to have license or not. If it decides to have license, a board 
of three county commissioners issues the licenses. Application 
for a license is in writing, indorsed by five legal voters and tax- 
payers, none of whom is a licenseholder or applicant, or in- 
dorser on any other application for license. The application is 
published for two weeks, and any citizen may file obiectiss"K5*. 
The applicant is required to show \\ssX \v^ v^ ^ vaAVs&Jv^ "^^"^^siJ^- 
If the license is granted the applicant must s>3lV^Vj "^ XsotA. ^^ 



I06t LBGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER. 

a ntretgu who is not a Uqtior dealer, in the snm of $300. No 
surely can go 00 more than one bond. If the licensee ptores an 
tmsititabk person or violates the law, the commissioners may 
revoke the license. A licensee convicted of a violation of tiie law 
forfeits his license and cannot take another for a year. .The 
license fee to sell liqnor is $100 to $5oa Druggists may use Uqaor 
in prescriptions and sell them on the prescription of a practidag 
physician^ hut no druggist may sell liquor to be dnndc on the 
premises. The law prohibits sales of liquor on Stmday, on elec- 
tion day, after midnight, to minors, to intoxicated persons, to 
habitnal drunkards, to a man after notice from his wife not to sdl 
to him, or to a woman after similar notice from her husband. 
Search and seizure of liquors unlawfully kept is provided for, also 
dvil liability in case of injury by intoxicated persons. 

DELAWARE. 

Licenses are issued by the clerk of the peace, on approval of the 
application by the court of genera! sessions, the application hav- 
ing been previously filed with a certificate of twelve (in Wil- 
mington, twenty-four) citizens, and published three times in 
two newspapers. Any retailer or druggist of good character, 
whose stock is of the value of $500, may be licensed. Druggist 
must sell in quantities not greater than a quart; other traders, 
half a gallon. No liquor must be sold on Sunday or election day, 
or to minors, insane persons or drunkards. Penalties are $50 to 
$100 for the first offense; forfeiture and disqualification for two 
years on second offense. Licenses are not personal, but re- 
stricted to certain premises of which the applicant is the owner. 
Judgments for violation of the law form liens on the premises. 
Druggist limited to sales of $75 a year. All manufactured liquors 
pay a tax of 10 cents a gallon. Relatives of known drunkards 
may recover actual and exemplary damages from persons selling 
them liquor, in case of accident. License fees are: In towns 
over 10,000 inhabitants, $300; elsewhere, $200; druggists, ^20; 
retailers of merchandise, $100. No blinds, screens or frosted 
glass are allowed under penalties of $50 to $100. 

DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 

Licenses are issued by an excise board of three commissioners. 

Applicants must be 21 years of age and never have been con- 

ricted of a violation of the Viquot Uvjs 01 o^ ^;ku\bling. In the 

Titles of Washington and Geoig^lovjiv v\ve ;i^v'ivt^<^^Tv TKaaxNsw^ 



LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER. IO63 

the written permission of a majority of the residents and owners 
of real estate on the side of the square on which the proposed bar 
room is to be placed, and if on a comer,- a majority on both streets 
must approve. Outside of these cities consent must be had of a 
majority of residents and owners within 250 feet on each side. 

Hotels having 20 chambers for guests need not niake annual 
application for renewal of license, but during good behavior pay 
only the fee. Minors under 16 years must not be served or 
employed on licensed premises. Sale of liquor is prohibited on 
Sunday and from 12 to 4 a. m. Fee for wholesale license is 
$250, for a bar room, $500. Druggists may sell only upon pre- 
scription. 

Penalties for selling without a license are : First offense, 
$250 to $800, with or without imprisonment for two to six 
months; second offense, the same fines, with imprisonment from 
three to twelve months. 

For violation of conditions of license the penalties are: First 
offense, fine of $50 to $200, and for every subsequent offense, 
25 per cent of the previous fine added, or imprisonment for six 
months, or until the fine is paid. No license can be granted after 
a second conviction. Penalty for aiding or abetting any viola- 
tion of a license is a fine of $50 to $100, or imprisonment for 
one month. No place can be licensed within 400 feet of a school- 
house or church. 

FLORIDA. 

License, with local option, is the law. Local option elections 
are held in election districts. Where the sale of liquor is per- 
mitted, licenses are issued by city and town councils. Before 
obtaining a license a permit must be obtained from the board 
of county commissioners. There are fines of $50 to $500 for 
selling from 6 p. m. preceding an election day until 6 a. m. the 
day after, selling without a license or permit, selling in a pro- 
hibition district, to a minor or an intoxicated person, within five 
miles of any religious camp-ground except in incorporated cities 
or towns by regular dealers, selling on Sunday, and selling any 
unwholesome drink. 

GEORGIA. 

High license and local option prevails. Where, by vote, tK^e^ 
sale of liquor is not prohibited, the genet^A ^\^\.^ \vk t^sb^"^'^vc\'sl 
the traffic applies. Licenses arc ^ranl^d ot x^\>\%^^ ^"^ ^^^ 



1064 LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWBK. 

HfdJBify of the ootmty. Ths Uocmw ttkei m cntfi wtB/t to mD 
to a minor without consent of parent or. gomrdian, and ghci a 
bond of $500 to keep an orderly house. The oounty idail 
lioense fee is $25. Liquors are inspected l^ an officer Tf*^*-* *^ 
by the ordinary. Selling without license, on Sunday, and the 
usual run of offenses, are prohibited. Where, in prohibitioii dis- 
tricts, the sale of certain kinds of wine is pennitted, deafen in 
such wine, who are not manufacturers, pay a lioense lee of 
$1,000^ and such wines are sold in quantities not len tlaa one 
quart, and not to be drunk on the premises. The sale of Uqoor 
within three miles of any church or schoolhouse is proliibit!ed» ex- 
cept in incorporated towns and cities, and except for donie Hfc 
wines, for physicians and for manufacturers, selling to anthorised 
dealers in packages of not less than 40 gallons. 

A local option election is held on the written request of 10 
per cent of the voters of a county, not oftener than every two 
years, and must be a separate election, not to be held within one 
month of any general election. Cider and domestic wines, and 
wine for sacramental use, and pure alcohol, sold by druggists 
for useful purposes, are generally excepted. 

License fees vary greatly. The city of Atlanta has three 
licenses: One \»holesale, for the sale of liquors of all kinds 
in quantities of one gallon or more, $25; retail, for consumption 
on the premises, $1,000; retail, for malt liquors only, $25^ The 
fee may be as high as $2,000 for a retail license. 

The licensee gives a bond of $2,000. Licensed premises must 
be closed from 10 p. m. till 5 a. m. No obstructions to view from 
the street are allowed. 

Conviction of offense against the license law works a forfeiture 
of the license. Penalty for drunkenness is a fine up to $100 or 
imprisonment for 30 days, or both. 

There is a dispensary law in existence, which, however, has 
been adopted only in the city of Athens. 

IDAHO. 

High license is the law of this state. The county authorities 

have power to issue licenses after a bond for $1,000 has been 

furnished to keep an orderly house, obey the law and pay all 

hnes and damages. Incorporated cities and towns may impoae ad- 

ditional license fees and cotvd\l\ow. ^wHY town or city which cast 

ISO votes for governor at tVit \asV. v^es*^i^a%^«!^^wl 



LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER. I065 

$500 license; other places, $300. Bona fide hotels, three miles out- 
side cities, towns or villages, pay only $100. Licenses for liquor, 
not to be drunk on the premises, are $200. The mayor and com- 
mon council of Boise City have power to license and tax the retail 
trade. Damages may be recovered from liquor dealers for selling 
to habitual drunkards or minors, after notice not to do so. Drug- 
gists may sell liquor on the written prescription of a physician, 
and may sell wine for sacramental purposes, and alcohol for me- 
chanical and scientific purposes, without a license. 

Fines up to $500 are imposed for keeping open on the day 
of any general election; selling liquor to a minor; druggist sell- 
ing liquor to be drunk on the premises; keeping a disorderly 
house; selling to an intoxicated person; selling without a license; 
selling to an habitual drunkard, after notice from justice of the 
peace or judge of probate not to furnish liquor to such person; 
selling to an Indian ; fraudulently adulterating or diluting liquor ; 
. selling liquors within one mile of any religious meeting. 

ILUNOIS. 

License and local option prevails. A vote on the question of 
license or no license must be taken upon the request of a majority 
•of the voters in any district or municipality. If license is favored 
by the vote, city councils and boards of trustees in towns and 
villages have power to regulate and prohibit the liquor traffic. 
The license fee is not less than $500; for selling malt liquors only 
it is $150. Outside of cities and villages licenses are issued 
by the county board, who cannot, however, issue any for places 
within two miles of any incorporated city, town or village, the 
authorities of which have the power to regulate the liquor traffic. 
Druggists may receive permits to sell for medicinal, mechanical, 
sacramental and chemical purposes only. 

A dramshop is defined as a place where liquors are retailed 
in quantities of less than one gallon. 

In the city of Chicago, by special provision, licenses are 
granted by the mayor to persons of good character who give bond 
in $500, with two sureties, to comply with all city ordinances. 
Places must be closed from 12 to 5 a. m. The license may be 
revoked by the mayor for violation of ordinances or conditions of 
bond. Licenses are payable in quarterly instalments. 

Fines of $5 to $100 are provided; Foi s^Wvtv^ \v^o\^ n*\^\s^ 
two miles of any agricultural, horticu\tMi^\ ox ta^Oaa.xv\caX \».v 



I066 LBGAL DELATIONS OP THE BREWBS. 

witnui one fluie ot nii|[iOQi cunpHiiccciiiiif tor wfpim 
on SimcUqr; lor tdlinff- without a lioente; for idling to mtiMifs 
w i th ou t written order of parent, goftrdian or family ph yikia «» 
or to habitttal drunkards. All acts forbidden by law, when no 
other penalty is imposed, w made misdemeanors, punishable Iqr 
fine ftp to $100. 

Li(|Uor sellers are liable in damages for any injuiy anyone 
may sustain in person, prop erly or means of support by reaaoft 
of the sale or giTing away of intoxicating liquor. 

INUAMA. 

High license and a modified form of local optiop prevails. 
Petitions for licenses must be signed by a majority of the voters 
in the township or ward, and a bond of $3,000 given, with the 
penalty of forfeiture of the license for violation of the act, and 
disqualification for five jrears. A remonstrant against a license 
has the right of appeal from the grant of a license. In cities of 
more than 35,000 inhalMtants licenses are granted by the com> 
men councils; elsewhere by the county boards. The state fees 
are: For selling liquors, $100; for selling vinous and malt 
liquors, $50. Cities may charge up to $250 additional; incor- 
porated towns up to $50 additional. The licensing power extends 
four miles from the corporate limits. Places where intoxicating 
liquors are sold in violation of law may be abated as public 
nuisances. The licensee must give bond in $2,000 to secure the 
payment of fines and civil damages. 

Fines of $10 to $500 are provided for adulterating wine, grape 
juice or intoxicating liquor, or selling such adulterated articles; 
for using any active poison in the manufacture of liquors, or 
selling liquors so prepared ; for selling to an intoxicated person, or 
one in the habit of getting intoxicated, after \vritten notice of 
such fact from any citizen of the place where such person resides ; 
for selling to minors; for keeping a disorderly house; for selling 
on Sunday, legal holidays, election day, or between 11 p. m. and 
5 a. m. ; for a druggist selling liquor otherwise than on a physi- 
cian's prescription; for selling liquor in booths, etc., within one 
mile of religious gathering or ag^ricultural fair, not to apply to 
regular dealers at their usual place of business. Common coun- 
cils may impose fines up to $500 for any violation of an ordinance, 
and may tax breweries and disliWeiks and their depots or 



LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER. I067 

The so-called Nicholson law provides fines of $10 to $100 for 
violating any of the following provisions: Liquor selling in 
quantities of less than one quart must be carried on in a room 
separate from any other business; no amusements, music, etc., 
are permitted, no screens are allowed. The room must be locked 
during hours when liquor selling is prohibited, and all persons 
excluded therefrom. It must be situated on the ground floor 
or basement fronting the street, and so arranged that the whole 
of the room is in view from the street. Minors are not allowed 
to loiter in saloon, and no liquor must be sold to them. If a 
remonstrance in writing is filed, signed by a majority of the legal 
voters of any township or ward, against the retail sale of liquor 
by any applicant for a license, the board of county commissioners 
are prohibited from granting a license to such persons for two 
years from the filing of such remonstrance. 

INDIAN TERRITORY. 

The introduction of spirituous liquors or wine, except siich 
supplies as may be necessary for the United States troops, under 
the direction of the War Department, is prohibited; also the 
selling to an Indian. Officers of the Indian service and com- 
manders of military posts may seize any liquors introduced. The 
penalty for violation is imprisonment up to two years and a 
fine up to $300. 

lOWA. 

The manufacture and sale of any intoxicating liquor, or keeping 
the same for sale as a beverage is prohibited by the constitution. 
This prohibition is enforced by a number of acts of the legislature. 

The so-called Mulct Law provides for a tax of $600 a year 
upon persons other than pharmacists holding permit^, who engage 
in selling liquor. In any city of 5,000 inhabitants or over, after 
a written statement of consent signed by a majority of the voters 
in the city shall have been filed with the county auditor, the tax 
may be paid quarterly in advance, and such payment shall be a 
bar to proceedings under the statute prohibiting the liquor traffic 
upon the following conditions: 

The taxpayer must file with the county auditor a copy of a 
resolution passed by the city council, consenting to the sale of 
liquor, and a written statement of consent from all freeholders 
owning property within 50 feet of the premises v^Vvw^ Nj^^XsNv^v^'tt.'?. 
is to be carried on, no such business lo be condMc.!^^ h«\"<Ccvvcv '^^ 



io68 



LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWEK. 






\A 



leet of any dnuch or achoolhoiisc. The tMxp&ytr naM fie 
bond. Bnsiness nuut be carried on in a single loom, widi li 
one entrance or exit opening npon a public bosiness street; t 
room mast have the bar in plain sight from the street, it nn 
have no furniture except behind the bar; the names -c»f all ei 
plogres must be filed with the county auditor. The place most 
conducted in a quiet and orderly manner, there must be ^ 
gambling, music, dancing or other forms of entertainment in t 
room or in any adjoining room or building, if controlled by t 
same party. There must be no obscene or impure decoratioi 
no females must be employed. The place must be kept dos 
b etw een lo p. m. and 5 a. m., also on Sundays, election days 
legal holidays. Minors, drunkards, or intoxicated persons mi 
not be allowed in the place and no liquor be sold to them 
to any person who has taken any of the recognized cures i 
drunkenness. Liquor must not be sold to any one after notice f re 
relative or guardian. The liquor dealer mpst report his place 
the county auditor if it has not been listed for taxation. 

If these conditions are violated, the bar to proceedings und 
the prohibitory laws ceases to operate, if the city council or to^ 
trustees direct it, or a petition signed by a majority of the vote 
request it. 

In order to bring cities and towns of less than 5,000 inhabitas 
within this act, it is necessar>', in addition to all the above ms 
ters, to file with the county auditor a written statement of co 
sent sigfncd by 65 per cent of the voters in the county and outsi 
the limits of the cities having a population of 5,000 and over. 

Cities and towns have power to collect additional taxes of t 
same character and to regulate the liquor traffic 

The law is not to be construed as legalizing the liquor traflf 
nor the tax to be construed as a license, nor to protect the viol 
tors of prohibitory laws from any penalties except that certa 
penalties are suspended upon the conditions above enumerated. 

The so-called Manufacturers' Law permits the manufacture 
intoxicating liquors in communities which have adopted t 
Mulct Law, provided that a written statement of consent is 
taincd from one-half the voters in cities and towns having a po 
ulation of over 5,000, and from 65 per cent of the voters in otb 
<:omniunities. 

There are fines up to $iACX> lot «fi\\vc\% VvvVva \^ tods of m 



LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER. IO69 

agrictiltural fair; manufacturing or selling liquor of any kind 
except as above outlined; selling to a minor, intoxicated person 
or one in the habit of becoming intoxicated ; carriers transporting 
liquor without certificate of the county auditor that the consignee 
is authorized to sell liquor ; selling on election days or within two 
miles of the limits of any municipal corporation; druggist selling 
liquor as a beverage; selling within three miles of the state agri- ' 
cultural college; or within one mile of a religious field meeting; 
adulterating liquors or selling adulterated liquors; selling to an 
Indian or an intoxicated person ; keeping a club room with liquor 
for members or others. 

Druggists may obtain permits to sell for pharmaceutical or 
medicinal, sacramental or chemical purposes. 

Buildings where liquor is unlawfully sold are declared nuisances 
and may be abated; all movable property in them is to be 
seized and sold. 

KANS.VS. 

Constitutional prohibition of the manufacture and sale of intoxi- 
cating liquors, except for mcflicinal, scientific and mechanical pur- 
poses, is the fundamental law. The laws that have been enacted 
in regard to the matter contain but a long list of penalties for 
violations or evasions of the organic law. 

Druggists can obtain permits to sell liquor from the probate 
judge of the county for a fee of $5. They can sell only on pre- 
scription or upon the purchaser's affidavit setting forth the pur- 
pose for which the liquor is required. The affidavits are kept on 
file and delivered to the probate court. Druggists are fined $100 
to $5CK) for violating any one of numerous regulations with which 
the sale of liquor by ihein is surrounded. 

The manufacture of liquors for medicinal, scientific or me- 
chanical purposes is allowed upon permit issued by the probate 
judge, to be sold only in the original package. A person may 
make wine or cider from fruit grown by himself and for his own 
use, and wine may be sold for communion purposes. 

All places where liquor is unlawfully sold are declared common 
nuisances and may be summarily suppressed. 

Fines are provided for selling or giving away liquor under a 
great many diffarent circumstances. Physicians are fined for 
prescribing or administering liquor, except in case of actual ticcd^ 
or for the purpose of enabling any petsotv \o tN^^t 'axv-'j '^"^'c*- 
vision of law. 



I07O LBGAL RELATIONS OP THE BRBWEB. 



• • 



I 



Hi^ Ikense and local optioa prevails. Elccdona ace bdd 
in any county, city» tourn, district or precinct* upon the petitioa 
of 25 per cent of the voters, to decide whether or not any 
intoxicating liquor shall be 8ol4» not oiPtener than once in three 
. years. Where no license is voted, this does not prohibit mamilM- 
turcrs or wholesale dealers selling in good faith and in the ttsnal 
course of trade, in quantities not less than five gallons, not to 
be drunk on the premises. Licenses may be imposed 1^ the 
municipal authorities on distillers, brewers and wholesale dealers^ 
besides retailers. 

License fees, outside of incorporated cities and towns, are: 
To keep a tavern, with privilege of selling malt liquors, $50; the 
same, with retailing spirituous and vinous liquors, $100; the 
same, with retailing spirituous, vinous and malt liquors, $150; to 
retail malt liquors, $50; to retail spirituous .and vinous liquors^ 
$100; to retail spirituous, vinous and malt liquors, $150; to 
distillers, at their place of business, not less than one quart, not 
to be drunk on the premises, $75; manufacturers of vinous 
liquors and peach and apple brandy, $25; merchants, to retail in 
quantities not less than one gallon, not to be drunk on the prem- 
ises, $75; druggists, in quantities not less than one quart, not to 
be drunk on the premises, and on prescription for medicinal pur- 
poses in less quantities, $50. Retail licenses in cities of the first 
class, $150 to $1,060; in cities of the second class, $50 to $150; in 
cities of the third, fourth and fifth classes, $250 to $1,000; in cities 
of the sixth class, $150 to $500. Outside of cities and incorporated 
towns the county board issues licenses. 

Fines up to $500 are imposed for adulterating anjrthing intended 
for drink ; keeping open on Sunday or election day ; selling with- 
out a license; selling within one mile of a place of divine wor- 
ship ; selling to a minor without written directions from parent or 
guardian ; selling to an inebriated person ; selling in a room where 
pool-tables, etc.. are kept; knowingly selling liquors adulterated 
with any injurious drug or chemical preparation; druggists fail- 
ing to keep register as required, or selling otherwise than on 
prescription ; selling from a temporary place within tvvo miles of 
any militia encampment; violations of city ordinances; allowing 
gaming; keeping a disorderly house. Municipal authoritict have 
power to regulate the traffic and im^se ovVitt lM:^ie&. 
Specisil provisions are made lot re^vAaXAtv^ ^\%>L'C\Knr^ 



LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER. I07I 

LOUISIANA. 

The liquor traffic is taxed in accordance with the extent and 
character of the business. Besides a retail license, which must 
be not less than $100 per annum, taxes are levied on the busi- 
ness of distilling and rectifying alcoholic or malt liquors, brew- 
ing ale, beer, porter, or other malt liquors, according to the gross 
annual receipts. There are twenty classes, the tax being graded 
accordingly. Where the gross annual receipts are $2,250,000 or 
more, the tax is $3,000; for $2,000,000 or more, $2,500, and so on 
by different stages to the twentieth class, which comprises houses 
with gross annual receipts less than $15,000, on which the tax is 
$15. For every business of bar room, cabaret, coffee-house, cafe, 
beer saloon, liquor exchange, drinking saloon, grogshop, beer- 
house, beer garden, or other place where anything to be drunk on 
the premises is sold, the license is based on the gross annual re- 
ceipts, as follows: Receipts, $50,000 or more, fee $1,500; thence 
down to $100 for receipts of $3,000 to $5,000. Municipal and 
parochial authorities may impose fees and equitable graded 
licenses. 

The following offenses arc punishable by fines up to $1,000: 
Selling liquor on election day ; keeping a disorderly house ; selling 
to persons under 21 years, unless emancipated, or upon order of 
parent or tutor; selling to habitual drunkard, after proper notice 
that he is an inebriate ; employing any female ; physician prescrib- 
ing with intent to evade the la^\'; for selling liquor on Sunday; 
selling without a license; not posting the license in a conspicuous 
place. 

Concert saloons require the consent of a majority of the prop- 
erty holders and residents within a radius of 300 feet from the 
front door, and must not keep open from 5 a. m. to 6 p. m. 

Hotels and boarding houses may furnish wine for table use 
on Sunday. 

Police juries of the parishes, the municipal authorities of the 
several towns and cities, and the city council of New Orleans 
have exclusive power to regulate or prohibit intoxicating liquors 
and to grant or >\ithhold licenses according as a majority of 
the voters may determine by ballot, elections to be held on this 
question whenever deemed necessary by the municipal author- 
ities, not oftener than once a year. 



1072 



LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER. 



MAINE. 

A prohibition state. A constitutional amendment authorizes th< 
governor and council to appoint a commissioner to furnish mu- 
nicipal officers of towns with pure liquors, to be kept and sold 
for medicinal, mechanical and manufacturing purposes. Prices 
are to be at a profit of 6 per cent above cost. The municipal 
officers are allowed to buy liquor from no one but the commis- 
sioner or persons to whom he has sold. The commissioner is 
required to keep a record of the towns to which liquors are sold, 
the persons buying, the kind, quantity and prices. The monici- 
palities appoint agents for the sale of liquor in their respective 
towns, who also keep full records. The manufacture of liquors, 
except cider, is prohibited under penalty of $i,ooo. No liquor is 
allowed to be sold, except through the agencies, and fines are 
provided for otlicials violating the law. Places where unlawful 
sales take place are declared public nuisances, liquor unlawfully 
kept may be confiscated and the person keeping it imprisoned 
and fined $ioo. 

Fine of $5 to $20 for selling or giving liquor to an Indian; for 
unlawfully keeping or selling liquor and keeping resorts for tip- 
pling, $100 to $1,000; for soliciting or taking an order for the 
sale or Jclivcry of liquors. $20 to $500: l\'r bringing into, or 
transporting wiihin the stale liquor to be sold unlawfully. $50 to 
Jfioo; carriers transporting liquor, up to $J00; for selling liquor 
in violalion i-f law. $50 for first ottcnsc and $J00 for cver>' sub- 
sequent otTense; for being a comr.:on seller of liquors, $100 for 
first, an-l ?JCO for subsequent, offenses; lor selling unwholesome 
drink or adi:iierat:ng, up to ?i.ooo; for offenses "for which no 
punisli:]ien: i> pri-viiled by statuie." up. to $5*.X); for advertising 
sale, or keeping for sale, of liquor. $20. 

MAKVI.AND. 

Xo pcneral law pr«. vaiU. differv.-nt loca-ities IxMng legislated for 
•separately. In a general way the i^revailinp >ystcni is one of 
license. 

An ne: f-'-r the city r.f Ba:ti:norc proviiie? for a licen.^ing 
l^^ar-.! of :l'.ree coir.missioners. appointed by the povernor. License 
n.ay be |?'a::*.C'I to any cirizen of temperate habits and good moral 
character. Tl-e application nu:st Iv supported by ten voters in the 
w'.in], piiMlsh' d and publicly hoard, if opposed, after which the 
yotc of f/je commissioners on \W cv\ic>x\ox\ \w\i?.t be recorded. 



LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER. IO73 

The board is bound to refuse a license if the place is not neces- 
sary for the accommodation o£ the public or the applicant is not 
a fit person. Violation of a state law relating to the sale of 
liquor is required to be followed by revocation of the license. 
The fee is $250 for hotels, restaurants, grocers, distillers, brew- 
ers or wholesale dealers, one-quarter going to the state, (he 
balance to the city. Sale of liquor is prohibited on election day 
and Sunday, except to guests in hotels, also between the hours of 
midnight and 5 a. m. Druggists may sell upon written prescrip- 
tion and must keep a record of sales. 

Penalties for selling liquor without a license, $500 to $5,000, or 
imprisonment for three to twelve months; for violation of law 
or conditions of a license, fine of $100 to $500; for a second 
offense the license is revoked and a fine of $500 to $1,000 im- 
posed, and the offender may also be punished by imprisonment for 
three to twelve months. 

MASSACHUSETTS. 

A general license law, coupled with local option, prevails. The 
question of license or no license is submitted to a vote in each 
city or town annually. If the vote is in the negative, no license 
can be granted, except to druggists for medicinal purposes. There 
are six classes of licenses, each valid for a year: (i) To sell 
liquor of any kind to be drunk on the premises, minimum fee, 
$1,000; (2) malt liquors, ciders and light wines containing not 
to exceed 15 per cent of alcohol, to be drunk on the premises, 
minimum fee, $250; (3) malt liquors and ciders, to be drunk on 
the premises, minimum fee, $250; (4) liquors of any kind, not 
to be drunk on the premises, minimum fee, $300; (5) malt liquors, 
ciders or light wines, not to be drunk on the premises, minimum 
fee, $150; (6) druggists, for any kmd of liquor for medicinal, me- 
chanical and chemical purposes only, upon certificate of the pur- 
chaser, fee, $1. No sales are allowed from midnight to 6 a. m. or. 
on Sunday, except by innkeepers; liquors must be good and un- 
adulterated; no liquor must be sold to drunkards, intoxicated 
persons or minors; no disturbance of the peace, indecency or 
illegal gaming is allowed on the premises. Where liquors are 
sold, not to be drunk on the premises, no public bar shall be 
kept, and a license as innkeeper or common victualer must be 
obtained. A bond of $1,000 is required. Penalties fot nns^^sCnss^ 
of the conditions of licenses are $50 lo ^S^^* ^^ Kw^xYs^crKcsx^^xV \ot 



1074 LEGAL RELATIONS OP THE BBBWBR. 

one to six mootht, or both* besides forfeitare of ficenae mad 910- 
hibitioa from secoring snoCfaer for one yev. Fines are pfovidsi 
for selling to minors, etc. Licensing officers may enter licensed 
Kemises at any time to observe the conduct of boainesSy or obtaia 
samples for analysis. A state inspector and assayer of Jiqnocs 
is to analyze all san^les sent to htm by the proper aathoritica. 
Search for liquors unlawfully k^t* and their seizure, when found, 
is provided for, also the arrest and detention of intoxicated per- 
sons until they disclose the places where they oblaiaed the 
liquor. 

Screens or other obstructigns of view of the interior oi m place 
where liquor is sold are prohibited. 

Fines for violating any provision of a license, $50 to ^900. 

Special dub licenses for a fee of $50 to $9X> nay he nsned 
in towns where liquor licenses are granted. 'Elsewhere such 
clubs are to be deemed common nuisances, and fines of ||9D to 
$100, for keeping them, are assessed. 

Intoxicating liquor means all beverages containing more than 
I per cent of aicohcl. 

No licenses of the first three classes shall be issued for a plaoe 
on the same street within 400 feet of a public schooL 

Additional fines: Fifty to $100 for common victualer keeping 
open between 12 and 5 a. m. ; $50 for dispensing liquors on dec- 
tion day, except innkeepers may sell to duly registered guests; 
$50 to $100 for selling liquor under the first three licenses on kgal 
holidays, or election day ; for selling liquor to be drunk on prem- 
ises, employing anyone under 18 years of age. 

The number of places licensed under the first five classes shall 
not exceed one for each 1,000 of population, except in Boston, 
where the ratio may be one to 500. Towns having an increased 
population in summer may grant special licenses, in force from 
June I to October i, at the ratio of one to 500, based on an 
. enumeration in June. 

MICHIGAN. 

License and local option is the law. The board of supervisors 
of a county nuist order an election on the question of prohibiting 
the liquor traffic, not oftcner than every two years, tq>on the 
petition of one-fourth of the electors of the county, and if the 
rote is in favor of prohibition, the board must issue an order 

accordingly. 



LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER. IO75 

Where the sale of liquor is permitted, license fees are imposed 
as folloifrs: For retailing all kinds of liquor, $500; for malt 
liquor only, wholesale and retail, $300; for spirituous liquors, 
wholesale, $500; for the same, wholesale and retail, $800; for 
brewers, $65; for manufacturing spirituous liquors, $800. Retail- 
ing means selling by the drink, in quantities of three gallons or 
less, or one dozen quart bottles or less. Druggists may sell 
without license for chemical, scientific, medicinal, mechanical or 
sacramental purposes. 

The sale of liquor in places of amusement is prohibited. Fines 
up to $500 are assessed for selling liquor to inmates of the 
soldiers* home; for selling to drunkards, tipplers or disorderly 
persons ; for selling to minors, except for medicinal or mechanical 
purposes, without the written order of parent or guardian, to a 
drunken person, to a person in the habit of getting intoxicated, 
to an Indian, or a person of Indian descent, to anyone, when for- 
bidden to do so in writing by the husband, parent, wife, child, 
guardian, employer, supervisor, mayor, director of the poor, 
supervisor or alderman, etc.; to any person to be used as a 
beverage, or to be drunk on the premises ; for any violation of the 
liquor law not otherwise provided for; to sell to students at 
any public or private institution of learning, or allow them to play 
billiards or games of chance in a place where liquor is sold; for 
allowing a minor to visit or remain in a room where liquors are 
sold, unaccompanied by his father or guardian; for keeping open 
on Sunday, on election days, on legal holidays, and until 7 a. m. 
the day after, between the hours of 9 p. m. and 7 a. m., except in 
cities and incorporated villages the time of keeping open may 
be extended to 11 p. m. ; for obstructing the view of the interior 
of premises where liquor is sold during the time when such 
places are required to be closed; for selling liquor at summer 
homes, camp-meetings, etc. 

The adulteration of liquors with any articles poisonous or in- 
jurious to health or knowingly selling such liquor, as well as sell- 
ing liquor from any barrel, etc., not branded with the name of the 
manufacturer and with the words, "Pure and without drugs or 
poison" is prohibited. Violations are punishable by fine of $50 to 
$500, as is also the "manufacturing, brewing, distilling, selling or 
having or offering for sale, any liquors contaium^ ^w§ ^viasXxc^.^ 
not normal or healthful, or deleterious or <\^U\tv\wvV8\ X.o V^a^"^^- 



10/6 LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER. 

The usual dvil liability is imposed by statute on liquor dealers 
for any injuries resulting from the intoxication of a person, and 
the dealer's bond of $3,000 to |6»ooo is available to secure such 
damages, as well as fines for violations of the law. 

MINNESOTA. 

High license and local option prevails. Local optica is 
provided for villages and for counties, but not for cities. A 
vote is taken on the petition of ten or more voters at the next 
ensuing annual election. If license is favored, the general li- 
cense law becomes applicable, otherwise the sale of liquor is 
prohibited. 

Applications for license are published and objections to 
them heard by the village, county or city authorities, and if 
the applicant has violated any liquor law within a year, the 
license must be refused. The licensee gives a bond of $2,00Q 
City councils have power to tax, license and regulate breweries 
and distilleries. 

The license fees are $1,000 or upwards, as the city council 
may prescribe, in cities of 10,000 and upwards; elsewhere $500 
or upwards. Druggists may sell on medical prescription without 
license. Physicians who prescribe to evade the law are subject 
to fine. All places where liquor is sold must be closed from 
II p. m. to 5 a. m.. except hotels. Violation of this rule is 
followed by forfeiture of the license, and fine. The licensing 
authorities may revoke the license for violation of any of the 
liquor laws or conditions of the license. If a license is revoked 
for selling to a minor or drunkard after notice not to sell, the 
offender is disqualified for five years from holding a license. In 
other cases, revocation disqualifies for one year. Conviction of 
selling to a minor, to an habitual drunkard or intemperate per- 
son after notice forfeits the license. All convictions of viola- 
tions of the license law arc certified by the court to the licensing 
authorities. Xo license shall be issued \\ithin 1,500 feet of any 
public school in localities outside of incorporated cities, villages 
and boroughs. 

Penalties are up to $300 for keeping open on election day; 

for selling at retail without license or off the premises described 

in the license; selling to a minor; to a student at any institution 

of Icnrning: to an habitual drunkard or intemperate drinker, or 

an //jrox/cntcd person; keeping o^etv otv S»>axvdaY; selling to In- 



LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER. IO77 

dians; selling in the state capitol grounds during sessions of the 
legislature; selling within one mile of the state fair grounds, or 
within half a mile of Hamline University, or one mile of the 
University of Minnesota, or two miles of a religious meeting, ex- 
cept regular licensees; selling between 11 p. m. and 5 a. m. ; 
for allowing any game except billiards and pool or allowing 
minors to play at dice, cards, billiards or pool; selling without 
a license; operating a *'blind pig" or "hole in the wall;" for 
druggist allowing liquor to be drunk on the premises; for selling 
liquor in a prohibition district. 

In the city of Minneapolis the so-called "patrol limit act" 
prevails. It limits licensed places to a certain territory, which 
is practically the business portion of the city, and applies equally 
to hotels as to dramshops. 

MISSISSIPPI. 

License and local option prevails. Elections on the ques- 
tions of prohibiting the liquor traffic may be held not oftener 
than every two years. No retail license shall be granted in any 
supervisor's district, city, town, or village if the majority of the 
voters have petitioned the authorities not to grant such license, 
within twelve months after such petition is presented. Where 
license is permitted, the corporate authorities of cities, towns 
and villages may grant licenses for the sum of $600 to $2,500. 
Outside of such municipalities the boards of county supervisors 
issue licenses for a fee of not less than $600. Besides, the fol- 
lowing taxes are imposed by the state: Bottling establishments 
$20, breweries $150, dealers in hop tea, hoppenweis and similar 
drinks $25 ; dealers in vinous or spiritous liquors ir* quantities of 
I to 5 gallons, $300; the same in quantities of 5 gallons or more, 
$100; wholesale liquor dealers in cities of S,ooo or more inhab- 
itants, $100; the same in cities of 2,000 to S,ooo, $50; the same 
elsewhere, $25; distilleries, $50. Retailers may sell at whole- 
sale. In the Yazoo-Mississippi delta district retail dealers pay 
$100; bottlers $10. 

Fines up to $1,000 are imposed for selling liquor within 
two miles of any place of religious worship except regular 
licensed dealers at their regular places of business ; keeping open 
on Sunday or election day; selling without license; keeping 
disorderly house; allowing gaming; selling to intoxlcal^d ^^^x- 
sons ; to persons in the habit of getting \tvtoxicaXfc^\ ^si \.tv^v^'^^ 



I078 



LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER. 



i 
I 



and to minors; landlords allowing tenants to sell nnlawfu 
selling in prohibition districts; selling at places of amuscm 
or public assemblages; putting up screens or other devices to c 
ceal the interior of the place; selling within five miles of 
state university. 

Any person may sell wine made of grapes grown by h 
self in any quantity not less than one gallon, at the reside 
or vineyard of the seller, to a sober person ^ho is not in 
habit of becoming intoxicated, without license, but this does i 
apply where an election has resulted against the sale of liqu 



/ 



MISSOURI. 

High license and local option is the prevailing system, 
election to decide whether or not liquor shall be sold m 
be held upon the application of one-tenth of the voters in s 
incorporated city or town with a population of more than 2.5 
or a like proportion in a county exclusive of such cities or tow 
The election must not be held within three months of any otli 
If the vote is against liquor, the sale of it is prohibited uin 
penalties of $300 to $1,000 fines or imprisonment for 6 to 
months, or both. An exception is made in favor of wine 
the sacrament and alcohol for medicinal, mechanical, artistic, a 
scientific purposes. A local option election cannot be held oftei 
than once in four years. 

Where liquor is allowed to be sold the retail limit is th 
gaIlon>. and liquor dealers nuist have licenses. Application ; 
a licen-e is made to the county court and must be supported 
a city or town of 2.500 or c»ver by a majority of the taxpayi 
in the same blfxk. elsewhere by a majority of the taxpayers 
the city, town or township and also on the block. The petiti 
nmsi U' renewed every year. The court may grant or refi 
the license, and if the petition is signed by two-thirds of the tr 
payers and the applicant is of go«:^d character, it must be grant 
Kvcry six months the licensee gives a sworn statement of 1 
quantity and value of all liquors received by him and pays there 
an ad valorem tax equal to that paid by merchants on merchandi 
He pive-i a bond of $j.ooo for obedience to the law. The licei 
fees are semi-annual and at the following rate: For state pi 
pnsc> $^^0 to ?-200. for county purposes $250 to $400. Local i 
thontics mny impose an add\v\oT\^\ v^^. In cities the maj 



LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER. IO79 

and assembly have power to regulate the liquor traffic; retail 
license fees must be not less than $750. 

Fines up to $1,000 are provided for keeping booths, tents, 
etc., within one mile of any religious field meeting; for keeping 
open on Sunday or general election day; selling to Indians, in- 
toxicated persons, habitual drunkards; selling without a license; 
druggists selling in quantities less than four gallons, except on 
written prescription of a physician or for art, mechanical and 
scientific purposes, failing to keep a record of sales in the proper 
way, or suffering liquor to be drunk at or about his place of 
business; selling by peddlers, or on carts, carriages or boats; 
knowingly selling to a student of the state university or any 
school, college or academy; selling to minors or having a minor 
play at any game without written permission of parent, master 
or guardian; selling intoxicating liquors to be drunk on the 
premises where made ; selling to an inebriate after notice from a 
relative not to do so; having any music, billiard or other game 
or allowing such to be carried on in th? premises. Forfeiture of 
license with disqualification for two years may follow for selling 
on Sunday. Forfeiture must be ordered for keeping a disorderly 
house. 

The selling of any unwholesome drink without making its 
nature known to the purchaser is fined up to $1,000. To manu- 
facture or sell any ale or beer containing any substitute for 
**hops, pure extract of hops, pure barley malt, or wholesome 
yeast" is punishable by fine from $500 to $5,000. All beer is 
required to be inspected by state inspectors, and a tax of one 
cent a gallon for inspection and two cents for labeling each 
package, except on beer exported from the state, is levied. 

In the city of St. Louis a list of all licensees is furnished 
the controller twice a month and the police report on all dram- 
shops. Obscene and immoral pictujes are prohibited. No 
woman reputed to be immoral is allowed to be employed as 
bartender or waiter or to sing or dance in an improper manner. 
Saloons are prohibited within 500 feet of the five principal parks. 
Three citizens may make a sworn complaint to the mayor of a 
disorderly saloon, the mayor must cite the keeper before him, and 
if convinced of the truth of the complaint must revoke the li- 
cense. Licenses cannot be transferred. 



io8o 



LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER. 



Il 



■< { 



r 



n 

\ 



'■\ 



MONTANA. 

License and local option prevails. Upon the petition of o 
third of the voters of any county an election is held to < 
termine whether liquors shall be sold, such election to be h 
not oftener than once in two years. If the vote is in favor 
the sale of liquor. licenses must be procured from the coui 
treasurer, and in cities and towns another one from the muni 
pality. The licenses for retailing, that is, selling liquor 
quantities less than one quart, are for six months; in citi 
towns, villages and camps with a population of lo.ooo and o^ 
and within one mile therefrom, $300; the same of 3.500 to i 
000, $250; the same i.boo to 3.500, $240; the same ,^00 to 1,0 
$200; the same under 300, or elsewhere. $150. Licenses are i 
transferable. Wholesale licenses are determined by the avcra 
monthly sales as follows: For sales of $100,000 or more. ^ 
per month; $75,000 to $100,000. $60; $50,000 to $75,000. $40; $L| 
000 to $50,000. $25: $30,000 to $40,000. $20: $20,000 to $30.0 
$15; $10,000 to $20,000. $12; $5,000 to $10,000, $8; $2,500 
$5,000, $5: $1,250 to $2,500. $4: $400 to $1,250, $3: less than $4< 
$1. Brewers or sellers of malt liquors in quantities of more thai 
pallons. pay license? according to their monthly sales as follov 
Sales of $3,000 or more. $50; $1,000 to $3,000, $25: $500 
$1,000. $12.50: less than $500. $7.50. Distillers, manufacture 
and rectifiers of spirituous liquors pay a license of $600 per ye 
Manufacturers of malt who do not make malt liquors pay $i.c 
per quarter. City and town councils have power to issue 
censes in adilition. not to exceed the amounts of the state licens 

Fines are provided up to $500 for selling \\herc the liqu 
traffic is prohibited: selling without a license; selling on clecti 
flay while the polls arc open : selling liquor in any theater 
other place of amusement, or employing a female to sell liqu 
in such a place: selling within one mile of any camp meetir 
except at regular licen*!ed places: adulterating or diluting li«iu 
with fraudulent intent : selling within two miles of any railro; 
in the course of construction, except in cities or towns. 

NEBRASKA. 

High license with local option by counties prevails. T 
Iicen>inf; niithoritics are the county commissioners, except 
Omaha, where the board oi fvte ^tvA vo\\ct c.ovv\missioncrs p< 



LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER. IO81 

form this function; in Lincoln, where an excise board exist§; 
in other cities, the city council; in incorporated villages, the 
board of trustees. Application is made with the approval of a 
majority of the freeholders of the town or precinct, and if ob- 
jection is made, a hearing must be appointed. The authorities 
may refuse all applications, and must do so if the applicant has 
had a former license revoked or violated the liquor law within 
a year. 

The license fees are not less than $1,000 in cities with a 
population of 10,000 or over, and not less than $500 elsewhere. 
The licensee gives a bond of $5,000. No one may be surety on 
more than one bond. Druggists may get permits without fee 
to sell liquor for medicinal, mechanical or chemical purposes. 
Licensees must keep doors and windows unobstructed. 

The civil liability of the licensee extends to all damage sus- 
tained by the community or individuals from his traffic. He 
must support paupers, widows and orphans who become so by 
intemperance from liquor supplied by him, and pay all expenses of 
civil or criminal prosecutions gn"owing out of, or justly attributed 
to, his traffic. 

Fines up to $1,000 are imposed for the following offenses: 
Selling within forty rods of an agricultural fair; selling without 
license; violating any excise rule prescribed by the proper au- 
thorities; selling to minors, apprentices, insane persons or hab- 
itual drunkards; selling to Indians who are not citizens; selling 
liquor on election days or Sundays; druggists failing to keep 
the required records of all sales; for "treating or giving any 
liquors" in any saloon or public place where they are kept for 
sale; within three miles of open air religious meetings, except 
regular licensed places. 

Persons may, without a license, sell wine made from grapes 
grown by them in the state. A fine of up to $100 is provided 
for putting adulterated liquor into a vessel having a mark of a 
maker of wine from grapes in the state, for the purpose of de- 
ceiving a person; also selling liquors adulterated with poisonous 
ingn"edients or any other substance. 

NEVADA. 

Licenses are issued by the county commissioners who have 
authority to license, tax, regulate or prohibit draroaVvof^^^ ^\k..% "sccA. 
in unincorporated cities and towns to W^i'j 2k. Vml ^a^^^ycv ^XvO^s.-^^ 



IC63 LEGAL KELATIONS OF THE BREWER. 



ti^aor inerdianti, tocwers, tnanufactiiTcrs of liqvon and bee 
•iilooaa, bar^ buTCXHni, oeUan, etc Lkense fees for sik in qmi 
tities not les* than one quart are as follmks per month: For sah 
of $100,000 or more in a month. $50 per month; sates |75,ooo t 
$100,000. fee $37-5o; $50,000 (o $75,000, fee $35; and so o 
down to $1,000 a month or less, fee $3.50. Retail licenses (In 
than one (^■■'1) *i^ >1 the rate of $to a month, unless in hotel 
located one mile from any city or town, «hen $15 is paU 
Peddlers, etc, pay $25 a month. To conduct a hurdy-gnrd; 
house, dance house, concert saloon, etc., $500 every three month 
in addition to the retail license. Traveling agents pay $200 1 
year. Wine or liquors produced from the agriculttir^ product 
of the state may be sold by the manufaclurcr, and liquors nse< 
by druggists and physicians in the preparation of medicines. 

Fines nut up to $1,000 and are for the following offenses 
Doing business without a license; selling on election day; via 
lating municipal ordinances; keeping a booth for selling liquo 
within one mile of any leligious meeting: knowingly scltini 
poisonous or adulterated liquors; selling lo a minor or mcota 
imbecile without an order from parent or 'guardian, or lo ai 
Indian ; failure to keep the license posted in a conspicuous place 
keeping or renting a saloon with an entrance on a principa 
street where liquors are served by females; keeping open be 
tween midnight and 6 a. m., except hotels. 



Prohibition prevails. The sale of liquor, including beer, i 
prohibited by law. not by tlie constitution. The manufacture a 
liquor, however, is not prohibited, and breweries and distillorie 
exist. The governor appoints an agent for the exclusive sale o 
liquors for use in the arts and for medicinal, mechanical, chem 
ical and religious purposes only. Sales are made to town agent 
appointed by the municipalities. Domestic wine or cider is no 
prohibited, nor the sale of spiriltious liquors imported into Ih 
»lale and sold in the original packages. Municipal ofiiccrs ar 
liable to fine for failure to prosecute for violations of the l.tw 
Other persons prosecuting violators receive one-half of the fin 
collected. Persons arrested for drunkenness will not be pun 
ished if they disclose the persons from whom rhey procured th 
liqaor and testify against them. Cit««nn, «nn&, ceataniaat 



LEGAL RELATIONS OF TUE BREWER. IO83 

« 

and places of amusement may be searched for liquors, and all 
liquor found and instruments used in their manufacture and sale 
in violation of law, seized and forfeited. 

Selling spirituous liquor by persons other than authorized 
agents entails a fine of $50 for first offense and $100 for subsequent 
offenses ; $100 fine for a common seller of spirituous liquor ; like- 
wise $10 and $50 for selling malt liquor or cider ; for soliciting or 
taking orders for liquors, $50 and $100; for bringing liquor 
into the state for unlawful use, * $50; for wilfully letting any 
person use one's premises for the illegal sale of liquors, $200; 
for furnishing liquor to a minor, pauper, spendthrift or idle 
person under guardianship, except by permission of guardian, 
up to $20; for adulterating liquors with any substance poison- 
ous or injurious to health, or selling them, up to $1,000. Liquors 
kept in violation of law inay be seized and forfeited. 

NEW JERSEY. 

License and local option prevails, the question whether li- 
censes shall be issued being decided not by vote of the electors 
but by the authorities of each municipality. The law authorizes 
each municipality to regulate the liquor traffic in its jurisdiction 
and to appropriate to its own use all the fees received from 
licenses. There is, therefore, no uniformity in the regulation 
or taxation of the traffic. 

NEW MEXICO. 

City councils and boards of trustees in towns have authority 
to license, regulate or prohibit the sale of liquors. Minimum 
fees are: Wholesale license, $100; brewers', $60; distillers', $200; 
retailers' in places up to 500 inhabitants, $100; 500 to 1,000, $200; 
above 1,000, $400. 

Fines up to $500 are imposed for selling to a minor with- 
out the consent of parents or guardian ; doing business without 
a, license in places where license is required; adulterating liquors 
with any deleterious substance; allowing minors to play games 
on the premises; furnishing liquor to an Indian, except the 
Pueblos; drinking, using, selling or disposing of liquor on elec- 
tion day; selling to an habitual drunkard, knowing him to be 
such, or to a person in the habit of getting intoxicated, after 
notice, or to an intoxicated person. 
. Druggists way sell on physician's pitsetv^xSoTv •a.-cA Xvajas^^' 



I084 LEGAL RELATIONS OK THE BREWER. 

be mamifactured from fmiu growD in the temtoir and aold i 
qnanlitics of not leu than one quart. 

NEW VOBK. 

The following abstract of the Liquor Tax Law. as it is off 
dally known, or the Raines La«, as it is popularly called, i 
taken from Mida's Oimpenditun of Information for the Liqna 
Interests: 

The word liquor shall mean all distilled or rectified ^iriti 
wines, nult and fermented liqOofS. 

All liquor tax certificate! will be issued by the state conunii 
sioner practically without discrimination to anyone who pay 
tbe required fee, whether it be for a dive or a palace. Ever 
liquor tax certificate in New York City will cost 98oo a year 
in Brooklyn, $650; in Bu6Fa]o and other leading cities, fsoo; ii 
cities under 50,000 inhabitants, $350; in towns under lo^cnc 
$300; in villages under 5.000, $200; in any other place, fioo. Tb 
tax certificates for the sale of bottled goods and liquors not t 
be drunk on the premises grade from $500 in New York Cit 
to $50 in the smallest boroughs. Every dining car, buffet ca 
and steamboat will be charged $30O for a liquor license. 

Towns can vote on local option every two years. The consen 
of two-thirds of the owners of dwelling houses within 200 fee 
of a place must be secured before a certificate will be granted. > 
bond double the amount of the lax must be furnished, which i' 
liable for every violation of the liquor lax law. The tax cerlificati 
must be posted in a window facing the slrect on the ground Hoot 
if the entrance is on that floor. No dry goods, grocery, provisioi 
or drug store keeper can sell liquors to be drunk on the preniisei 
unless in sonic place entirely distinct from the regular place o: 
business. 

Only citizens of the United Slates and of New York can secun 
tax certificates. No liquor can be sold in any building belongin{ 
to the public. No bar can be within 200 feet of a school housi 
or church, except in hotels. No liquor can be sold anywhere ot 
Sunday or between i and 5 a. m. on week days, except in hotel! 
with meals or in rooms. No screens or shades can be drawr 
to conceal the interior of [he place during prohibited hours 
Any person selling liquor without a ta.»: certificate shall be fine^ 
not less than twice the amount of the annual tax. This woul^ 
make the fine $1,600 in New York Ciiy. Anyone violating lh< 
orovisions of this act s\vaU be &ne4 i«\. wwtt ftaa %tf« m im- 



LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE HREVVER. IO85 

prisoned for one year and forfeit the year's certificate. Two 
convictions will bar for five years the securing of a new certificate. 

All clubs in which liquor is distributed must pay the same tax 
as hotels and saloons. They are not subject to visitation by ex- 
cise inspectors, except on the direction of the excise commissioner. 
They may distribute liquors to their members at any time, pro- 
vided they were incorporated prior to March 23, 1896, the date 
when the original tax law was signed. Clubs organized since 
that time will not be permitted to distribute liquor on Sundays, 
election days, or between the hours of i and 5 o'clock in the 
morning. ^ 

Hotels, within the meaning of the law, are such as have at 
least ten bedrooms for guests above the basement floor. These 
must be separated by partitions not less tlian three inches thick, 
which must extend from floor to ceiling. Independent access 
to every room must be provided from a hallway. Every room 
must have at least 80 square feet of floor space and 600 
cubic feet of air space. A window must be provided for every 
room. The hotel dining room must contain at least 300 square 
feet of floor surface, and have accommodations for at least twenty 
diners. The bar may not be in the dining room. Guests of hotels 
arc defined to be persons who hire rooms at regular rates not 
merely to be served with drinks, or such as resort to the liotel 
for meals at the regular hours when meals arc served. 

Beer bottlers have to pay a tax of $100 for every delivery wagon 
they employ. The pharmacists* tax has been reduced to $25 in the 
city and $5 in the country town. A dealer in liquors who know- 
ingly employs in his business a man who has been convicted of a 
felony is guilty of misdemeanor. Liquors may not be sold to a 
minor to be used by another. Permits to sell liquor all night at 
balls and entertainments may br obtained of the mayors of cities 
of the first class for $5 a night. Any citizen may secure an in- 
junction to restrain the illegal sale of liquor. Violators of the 
law in New York City are to be tried exclusively in the Court 
of Special Sessions. (No jury.) 

NORTH CAROLINA. 

A license tax of two per cent on the total amount of pur- 
chases is paid by a person who buys liquors for the purpose of 
selling them. Druggists pay $50 per annum for dcaliu^j, vcv 
liquors, but can sell only on the prcsefvvVXmx o\ t^ -sj^wx-OCxOvnxsj^ 
flhyncian; a violation of this provision \s ^\\\\\^?^>\^ "^^ "^ '^'^'^ 



I086 LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER. 

demeanor. A license tax is payable semi-annnally in advance fay 
any person selling liquors, or any social dab or associatioo 
handling liquors for the use of its members or guests, for selling 
in quantities of five gallons or less, $50 for each six months; 
for selling in quantities of five gallons or more, $100 every six 
months; for selling malt liquors only, $10 for six months. 
Wines of one's own manufacture or spirits may be sold in 
quantities not less than one quart at the place of manufacture 
or within 100 yards of it. Counties may levy an additional tax not 
greater than that imposed by the state. Incorporated cities and 
towns may lay an annual tax, not to exceed $25, for retailing 
liquors, or selling in quantities of one quart or less, except drug- 
gists. 

It is a misdemeanor punishable by fine to adulterate liqoors 
or knowingly sell adulterated liquors, or liquors containing 
properties or ingredients poisonous to the human system; to 
retail liquors otherwise than prescribed by law; to sell to an 
unmarried person under the age of 21, knowing him to be such; 
to sell liquor on Sunday; for a druggist to sell otherwise than 
en the prescription of a practicing physician. 

Fines are imposed as follows: $10 to $50 for selling liquor 
within four miles of the state university, or to any student at 
such university without permission in writing from some mem- 
ber of its faculty; $100 to $1,000 for selling liquors within five 
miles of a polling place within t^\clve hours of a public election- 
Wines made from fruit raised in the state and unfortified 
may be sold in bottles corked and sealed up. not to be drunk on 
the preiniscs. in any quantity. This does not authorize sale of 
wine to minor.-. Wlicro prohibition is asked for a gjreater dis- 
t:.nco than two miles the question is decided by an election in 
any city, county, town or township not oflcner than once in 
two years. 

NORTH D.\K0TA. 

The constitution prohibits the manufacture and importation of 
intoxicating liquors for sale or gift, and the keeping, selling or 
■ 'tiering for sale. etc. Cit>' councils have power to forbid and pun- 
isr. the selling oi liquor to a minor, servant, insane person, habit- 
ual drunkard or intoxicated person. 
J[ is a. /72i5deineanor to sell liquor within one mile of a religions 
incL'ting, e-vcept in duly licon^d v\aces\ Vo \i\VR% Uo^uor for ule 



LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER. I087 

into a courthouse, jail or prison; to adulterate or dilute liquor 
with fraudulent intent or sell such liquor ; to sell to an Indian ; to 
sell on a steamboat at a wharf on Sunday. 

Fines up to $1,000 are imposed for selling liquor on election 
days; violation of city ordinances concerning the liquor traffic; 
manufacturing, importing, selling or keeping for sale liquor for 
a beverage; selling liquor for medicinal, scientific, or mechanical 
purposes without druggist's license; physicians prescribing liquor 
except in case of actual need; obtaining liquor from druggist on 
affidavit and using or selling it as a beverage; druggist failing to 
observe the regulations imposed by law; keeping a clubhouse 
with liquor for members; druggist selling liquor to a person after 
notice from relatives or guardians not to do so ; carrier knowingly 
delivering liquor to be used unlawfully. 

Druggists must secure a license, the fee for which is $5. They 
can sell only upon physician's prescription or upon affidavit of 
purchaser, and must allow no drinking of liquor on the premises. 
The affidavits are required to be kept in a certain prescribed way 
and deposited in the county court each month. 

Premises may be searched for liquor, and all liquor and vessels 
containing it seized. Places where liquor is sold unlawfully are 
common nuisances and may be closed up and perpetually enjoined 
from operation, and the liquor found in them seized and de- 
stroyed. 

OHIO. 

The Dow law imposes an annual tax of $350 on persons 
who traffic in intoxicating liquors for every place where such 
traffic is carried on, payable in semi-annual instalments. This 
does not apply to the sale at the factory in quantities of not less 
than a gallon. Brewers have been held liable to pay tax on 
every agency. Of the tax $50 goes to the state, the balance to 
the county and certain other funds. Sunday selling is prohibited 
except by druggists on prescription. Municipal corporations may 
regulate, restrain and prohibit the retail trade. Selling to a 
minor except on written order from parent, guardian or phy- 
sician, is prohibited, also to an intoxicated person, or one in 
the habit of getting intoxicated, selling within certain distances 
of school houses, seminaries, colleges, at fairs, on election days 
and festivals, near soldiers' and sailors' homes and t^Vvsgi^Nis* 
gatherings, or between 12 and 6 a. m. 



I088 LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER. 

Public schools are reqaired to teach the nature of alcohoiic 
beverages and narcotics and their effects on the human s y stem , 
teachers being examined as to these subjects. 

Special provisions apply to the big cities of Cincinnati, 
Columbus, etc. A local option provision enables districts to 
prohibit the liquor traffic entirely by election every two years, 
the payment of the tax not being equivalent to a license, as the 
state constitution forbids the passage of any license law. GvU 
h'ability for the injuries caused by intoxication is fixed after 
notice not to ser\'e liquor. A person who takes charge of an 
intoxicated person is entitled to recover his expenses from the 
one who supplied the liquor. The employment on railroads of 
persons addicted to habits of intoxication is prohibited. Minors 
under i8 years of age are prohibited from entering any place 
where liquors are sold except in the discharge of lawful tyusi- 
ness or when accompanied by parent or guardian. 

All domestic spirits are to be inspected under penalty of fine 
of $100 to $500. Each package must be branded with the name 
of the manufacturer and the i^ords **containing no poisonous 
drug or other added poison." Adulteration of liquor is pun- 
ished by fine of $100 to $500. Wine is defined as adulterated if 
it contains any alcohol in addition to that generated by the 
natural fermentation of the grape juice, or any sugar, water or 
other foreign substance. All wines containing less than 75 
per cent of pure, undried grape juice arc marked as "com- 
pounded" wine. Violations of these provisions are punishable 
by fine from $100 to $1,000. 

OKLAHOMA. 

The excise laws of this state do not extend to those tracts 
of land within the state to which the Indian title has not yet 
been extinguished, including allotments, all of which still remain 
-ubject to the United States laws applying to the Indian Terri- 
tory (which see). 

Municipal authorities have power to license, regulate, prohibit 
•■•r suppress the liquor traffic, city, town or village authorities 
li.iving jurisdiction within the corporate limits and two miles 
Ivyond. the county authorities in all other places. License fees 
arc: $200 for retailing all liquors in rural districts; $100 to $500 
in cities, towns and villages ; wholesaling. $100. and for malt 

liquors c.vol II >ivoly. $25, l\\c \\\\o\csa.W \\tv\vt being four and onc- 

' ilf gallons. 



LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER. I089 

Fines run up to $500 for the following offenses: Violat- 
ing municipal ordinances relating to the liquor traffic; selling 
liquor within one mile of any religious gathering except at 
regular licensed places; selling on days of general election; sell- 
ing within a courthouse except at a place designated by the 
county commissioners; adulterating liquors for sale, or selling 
such liquor ; selling to any Indian ; selling on Sunday ; selling 
to minors without written order of parent, guardian or family 
physician, to apprentices or servants under age, to intoxicated 
persons or persons in the habit of getting intoxicated; for sell- 
ing without a license or in violation of the terms of the license; 
keeping open between midnight and 5 a. m. ; selling to any per- 
son after notice from a justice of a peace not to do so; permitting 
gambling; obstructing the view from the street by screens, etc. 

Persons may sell wine in quantities not less than one gallon 
made from grapes grown by them on their land, without a 
license. 

OREGON. 

Licenses with fees of $400 for all liquors and $2000 for malt 
liquors only, are granted in the 'discretion of the county court, 
municipal authorities of incorporated cities and towns being 
authorized to impose special terms, and to license, tax, regulate 
and restrain the liquor traffic. Applicant must give a bond of 
$1,000. He must secure the consent of a majority of the legal 
voters in the precinct and a greater number than is signed to 
any remonstrance against the license. The petition, with the 
names of the signers, is published for four weeks. Wine 
growers may sell their product without a license in quantities 
not less than one quart. 

Fines up to $500 are imposed for the following offenses: 
Violating ordinances regulating the liquor traffic; selling 
adulterated drinks; keeping a disorderly house; permitting un- 
lawful gaming or riotous conduct; keeping open on Sunday; 
selling to minors, habitual drunkards, or intoxicated persons; 
selling without a license; selling within half a mile of the 
grounds of the Oregon State Agricultural Society, or any other 
agricultural society, without the written consent of the officers of 
such society; allowing minors to loiter around place where 
liquor i= sold; selling within four miles of any place where the 
genr-al government is constructing canals, lo<w\&&> ^\k..\ vS^cccw^ 



logo LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER. 

to Indians and half-breeds living with Indians; selling within 
two miles of any religious assembly. 

PENNSYLVANIA. 

Authority to grant licenses is vested in the court of quarter 
sessions. Applications are filed three weeks before the beginning 
of a term and published three times in two newspapers. The 
application must state that the place is necessary for the accom- 
modation of the public, that none of the applicants are pecuniarily 
interested in the sale of liquors at any other place in the county, 
that the applicant is the only person pecuniarily interested in the 
business, and if the applicant held a license during any part of 
the year and if it was revoked. Two reputable freeholders of 
the ward must be sureties for $2,000. The bondsmen must not 
be engaged in the manufacture of liquors and if on more than 
one bond must qualify in $4,000 over all incumbrances and other 
bonds signed. Twelve qualified electors of the ward must certify 
that they know the applicant, believe his statements to be true, 
and ask that the license be issued. The court may hear re- 
monstrances against the appliciuion and must refuse to issue it 
if the place is not deemed necessary for the accommodation of 
the public and entertainment of the traveler or if the applicant 
is unfit. The court may revoke a license for any violation of 
the laws. The applicant must execute a bond for $2,000 with 
confession of judgment attached. 

License fees are : Brewers who produced less than 1,000 bar- 
rels the preceding year. $250; i.ooo to 2,000 barrels, $500; 2,000 to 
3,000 barrels. $400: 3,000 to 5,000 barrels, $500; 5,000 to 10.000. 
$750; 10.000 to 20.000 barrels. $1,000; every 10.000 barrels more. 
$250 additional up to 100.000, which takes a license fee of $3,000; 
100.000 to 150,000 barrels. $4,000; 150,000 to 200,000 barrels. 
$4,500; 200.000 to 300.000 barrels, $5,000; more than 300,000 bar- 
rels, $6,000. 

Distillers' licenses are similarly graduated. New breweries 
and distilleries pay $1,000 for the first year regardless of pro- 
• luction. Brewers paying $1,000 Mccnse may sell to licensed liquor 
dealers malt beverages of their own manufacture in packages of 
not less than twelve pint Ixntles or casks of not less than one- 
eighth barrel, and deliver their product in the county in which 
they arc iicenscd. 
Retail dealers pay the io\\ovi\i\^ \k^i^^^ tecs: In cities of 



LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER. IO9I 

the first and second class, $500 to $1,000; cities of the third 
class, $500; in other cities, $300; in boroughs, $150; in town- 
ships, $75. In cities of the first class, four-fifths go to the city 
and county, one-fifth to the state; in cities of the second and 
third classes, two-fifths to the city, two-fifths to the county, one- 
fifth to the state ; in other cities and boroughs, three-fifths to the 
city or borough, one-fifth to the county, and one-fifth to the 
state; in townships, one-half to the township, one-quarter to 
the county, and one-fourth to the state. In addition, licensed 
dealers pay for the state in cities of the first and second class, 
$100; in other cities and boroughs, $50; in townships, $25. 

Penalties for selling without a license are $500 to $5,000 
and imprisonment for one year ; for violation of the laws gov- 
erning licensed places, $100 to $5,000 and imprisonment for 
3 to 12 months; for keeping a disorderly house, r<evocation of 
license. 

Druggists pay no license fee and may sell spirituous liquors 
only on the written prescription of a regular physician. Al- 
cohol may be sold for scientific, mechanical or medicinal pur- 
poses. 

RHODE ISLAND. 

High license and local option prevails. A local option vote 
is taken upon the petition of 15 per cent of the votes at the 
preceding general election (in cities 10 per cent). If "no 
license" is voted, none can be issued. If licenses are allowed 
they are issued by town councils, and in cities by boards of 
commissioners appointed for that purpose by the mayor. Ap- 
plications for license are published, and objections heard by the 
licensing authorities. Manufacturing license, which authorizes 
wholesale or retail dealing, fee $500 to $1,000; license to sell in 
quantities less than two gallons in the city of Providence, $400; 
other cities above 15,000 population, $350; towns of 6,000 to 
15,000 inhabitants, $300; elsewhere, $200 to $300. Selling liquor 
on Sunday, to minors or notoriously intemperate persons, to 
women for drinking on the premises, or on a passbook or order 
is prohibited. Penalties for violation arc $20 fine and imprison- 
ment for ten days for the first offense and increasing for subse- 
quent offenses. The license may be forfeited, and in that case 
a new one cannot be obtained for five years. Suit upon the bond 
is authorized. Gambling, keeping diaordctV;! Vavl*^ ^x %xc3 ^^c*.- 






1092 LEGAL RCLATION& OF THE BREWER. 

tion of stale la»s involve forfeiture of license. Houses may 
searched and liquor unlawfully kept, confiscated. No license 
required for the manufacture and sale of cider, or of wine i 
malt liquors for domestic use, alcohol for export, or wine 
quantities of one gallon or more from fruits grown in the sti 
Pharmacisls may sell for medicinal purposes without a licei 
Persons injured by an intoxicated person have a right of act 
against the latter and against anyone who furnished him n 
liquor in violation of law. 

A fine of $100 to $1,000 is provided against any pcri 
keeping a place where liquor is illegally sold, or who lets a bni 
ing for such purpose. 

Intoxicaiing liquor means all liquor "containing more U 
two per cent by weight of alcf^l or containing less than t 
per cent if the same is intoxicating.'' 

Limit of retail dealing is two gallons. 

Fines are : $100 for selling liquor to womtn or a minor, 
be drunk on tlic premises ; $JO for forcibly tjccting an into 
catcd person to whom the dealer has sold liquor: fao for R 
otTensL'. S50 for second, and $100 for each subsei|ucnt offa 
for iiolating any of the license provisions; J50 for selling- 
Sunday or oil election day; $20 for transporting liquor to 
sold imlawfiilly; floo for first and fcoo for subsequent offeni 
for ilk-g.ll manufacturing: $100 to fjioo for celling impure 
ailullcratcd liquors; ?JOO to $500 for selling licitiors adulterat 
with any poisonous or deleterious; ingredients injurious 
bcalib: !joo for adulterating liquors. 



This stale li.is the famous dispensary liiw. which makes I 
liquor traffic a state monopoly. The following description of I 
hitt i^ taken from the annual report of Excise Commissior 
Lyman of the Mate of New York. Janu,ir>'. 180S: 

The stale board of control, conMsting of the governor. 1 
ci'mplmlliT .iiid the attorney -general, appoint in each coiir 
a U^ard of three persons not "'adciiclnl tn the use of infoxicali 
liquor.-,'' anJ llice county boards api>oinl "dispensers of liquni 
Ther,- may he one dispenser for each county, ten for the city 
ClL-irli'ion. aini three for the city of Columbia. Others may 
-i/'poinlei! ivli.-rcver the board thinks Ibey are necessary. 
The (/I'spcnscr must present feU application for a "pennil 



LEGAL RELATIOKS OF THE BREWER. IO93 

statii^ his name, place of residence, business, and in what busi- 
ness he has been engaged for the last two years ; ihat he is a 
ciiizen of the United States and of the state of South Carolina; 
that he has never been adjudged guilty of violating the law 
relating to intoxicating hquors, and is not a licensed dru^st, 
a keeper of a hotel, eating house, saloon, restaurant, or place 
of public amusement, and that he is not addicted to the use of in- 
toxicating liquor as a beverage. This petition must be signed 
and sworn to by the applicant, and must also be signed by a 
majority of the freehidd voters of the incorporated town or 
city in which the permit is to be used, each of whom must state 
Ihat, before signing, he has read the petition and understands 
its contents and is well and personally acquainted with the ap- 
plicant. The dispenser must execute a bond in $300, with sure- 
ties, and give an undertaking to comply with all the require- 
ments of the act. 

Before delivering intoxicating liquor to any person, a request 
must be presented to the dispenser, printed or written in ink, cor- 
rectly dated, staling the age and residence of the signer, for 
whose use the liquor is required, the quantity and kind requested 
and his or her true name or residence, and, where numbered, by 
street and number, if in a city; and the request must be signed 
l»y the applicant in his own Irue name and signature, and at- 
tested by the county dispenser or his clerk, who receives and 
files the request in his own true name and signature, and in his 
own handwriting. It must be refused if the dispenser knows that 
the person applying is a minor; that he is intoxicated, or in Ihc 
habit of using liquor to excess; or if the applicant is not so 
known lo the dispenser, he shall require identification and the 
statemeni of a reliable person of good habits who is known to 
the dispenser, that the applicant is not a minor and is not 
in the habit of using intoxicating liquors to excess. 

Blank forms of request for the purchase of liquors are fur- 
nished by the stale board of control, and each dispenser must 
make full returns, monthly, to the county auditor, with his sworn 
stalemeni that he has made full disclosure of all business done 
by him. 

A state commissioner, who is an abstainer, is appointed by the 
governor, whose business it is lo purchase pure liquor CeLiitwL 
the preference lo manufacturers and b(e*eT^ &om% \»iww«i ^^ 




I094 LEGAL RELATIOKS OP THE BREWIUI. 



the slate), and selt it to the county dispensers at ft price not i 
cceding 50 per L-cnt above the net cost. This provision does 1 
apply to beer shipped in bottles, cases or barrels. 

No liquor, except beer, is to be brought into the state, 
transported within tt, otherwise than in a package bearii^ 
certificate with the signature and seal of the slate comission 
under a penalty of $500. 

Manufacturers doing business in the state are allowed to < 
to no one in the state except the commissioner, and he is 
sell only to county dispensers, in packages of not less than 
half pint, nor more than five gallons. The county dispensers 1 
not permitted to break the packages, nor to purchase of aayo 
but the state commissioner. Purchasers must not <^ta 1 
package on the premises. 

The dispenser must not charge more than 50 per cent abt 
cost, and in sales to druggists for compounding prescriptions 1 
more than 10 per cent. 

The proceeds of sales by the state commissioner go to 1 
state; those of sales by the dispensers, after payment of 1 
penses, are divided equally between the county and the municip 

i'y- 

Anyone concerned in keeping a club room or other place whi 
intoxicating liquors are received or kept for barter or s: 
division or distribution antong the members, is punishable bj 
fine of $iix) to 5500, and imprisonment three to twelve mom 
A place where liquor is illctjally sold may Iw declared a nuisai 
and by judicial proceedings abated, closed and perpetually 1 
joined. Heavy penalties are provided against al! who violate 
disobey the law. 

SOUTH DAKOTA. 

A general license law. coupled with local option, prevails, 
the annual municipal election in lownships, towns and cities u|' 
petition signed by twenty-five legal voit-r*. thirty days hefi 
election, llie qnestion: "Shall inlp?(icaling liquors be sold at 
tail ?" is submitted to the voters. Only if the election is in favor 
such traffic can licenses be issued. 

Licenses are issued by the county treasurer upon payment 
$400 for selling intoxicating liquors at retail ; $600 for selling n\ 
liquors at ivliolesalc; $1,000 for selling spirituous liquors 
wholesale ; $400 for nianutacVui'ws «^a\^ \\«\\««*-, ^i.ooo for m; 



LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER. 1095 

ufacluring spirituous liquors. Each place of sale must be licensed. 
The wholesale limit is five gallons. No license is imposed on 
the sale of wine or cider from fruits grown in the state, unless 
sold by the drink. The license is required to be posted in a 
conspicuous place. No license can be granted to any person who 
has ever served a term in any penitentiary or shall be convicted 
of keeping a disorderly house. In addition, cities and towns 
may impose licenses from $200 to $6oa 

Penalties are fines of $50 to $500, or imprisonment for not 
more than 30 days, or both, for doing business without a license; 
selling to a minor or intoxicated person, a person in the liabil 
of getting intoxicated, or to any other person where forbidden in 
writing by husband, wife, parent, child, guardian or employer, 
supervisor of the township, or president or a trustee of the town, 
mayor of a city, or board of county commissioners; obstructing 
doors or windows ; allowing games to be played ; allow ing 
minors to enter; keeping open on Sunday or election day, or 
between II p. m. and 5 a, m. ; adulterating liquors with any 
deleterious substance. Violation of any of the provisions of the 
liquor law also works a forfeiture of the license. 

A bond of $2,000 is given to obey tEie law' and pay all damages 
that may be adjudged against the dealer. The bondsman must 
not be engaged in the liquor business and must be a freeholder 
and resident of the county, township or city. 

The municipal authorities may refuse a license if the applicant 
is of immoral character or is deemed unfit for the business. The 
application is accompanied by a petition signed by twenty volcrs 
and published for two weeks. No place for the sale of liquor can 
be located in the same block with, or adjacent block to. any school 
or within 200 feet of any church. Druggists may sell without 
licence for medicinal, scientific, mechanical or sacramental pur- 
poses. 

TENKESSF.E. 

The right to sell liquor is declared by the code a taxable privi- 
lege and cannot be granted to persons who are incompetent to 
be witnesses in the courts of justice, or to any person who has 
been convicted of violating a former license by keeping a dis- 
orderly house or permitting gambling, or who has been twice con- 
victed of an unlawful sale to minors. The applicant gives to tt« 
county clerk a sworn statement of the va\ue cA \\vt \-«vati^ \ve- 'v»- 



1096 LEGAt RELATIONS OP TBB BREWER. 

tends to offer for sale, and a bond of $500 to Veep an ordn 
hoiue and comply with the law, and takes an oath not to pem 
gambling or any violation of law in the place licensed, nor 
mix or adalterate liquors. 

The rates of taxation are as follows: Brctvers $200. inchfdii 
agents of foreign breweries; bottlers, except bottlers of minei 
waters and brewers who botlle their own beer, (75 ; distilleries 
whisky and brandy of the capacity of twenty barrels and over 
day, $350; 10 to 30 barrels, $150; 5 to 10 barrels. $70; and 
5 barrels, $5; wholesale liquor dealers. $300: retail liquor dealet 
in places of 5,000 inhabitants or over, $200; in smaller plact 
$150. Retailers are persons selling in quantities of one gallon 
less. These taxes apply to druggisrs. except for the sale 
wine for sacramental purposes and alcohol for domestic purpoH 
Persons or corporalions selling on boat;, rail mad rars, etc.. $31 

Fines arc tip to i;oo. and in some aits inip[i<^onment. for frau 
ulcntly 3dulleraling liquors for sale; selling without license; se 
ing any liqunr in any factory, mine, quarry, clc OMned by a fc 
eign corporalion; selling n'ribiii one mile of any place of puW 
worship; selling in places of anmsemcrt or wiihin half a mile oi 
fair : keeping open on Sunday or election d:iy5 : celling to studer 
of any educational institution: selling to minors without consent 
parent or gunrdinn: selling 10 an habitual drunkard after wrili< 
notice from the wife not to do so: selling wiihin four miles 
any incorporated institution of Warning, or school-house, exec 
in cities or ai wholesale b>' regular licensee!^. 

TEVAS. 

. License and local option is the law of the ?talc. The connn' 

.=ioners' court for each county may. and upon petition of 2 

I voters must, orijer an election on the question whether liqu 

I shall be sold or not. Such elections cannot he held oflcner lli, 

' every two years. If prohibition fails 10 c.nrry in 3 county il 

does not prevent n vote being taken in a precinct or dislr 
witlitn the couiuy. hut if prohibition is ndi^pted for the eoimtv 
canni'l l)e nullilied hy vnte in a district or precinct within t 

Where liquor scllinR is allowed the stale collects a license t 

of $1,100 for reiailinR in quantities less than one quart. $3cn 

flUaiiridVs of 1 to p gallotii. Sjoo in quantities of c, gall"ns a' 

ward. $50 for mall 1wi«pt otAj. "Vo-Kn* ^lA Vv\V*»es may ie 



LEGAL KELAtlONS OF TSE BREWER. I097 

tin additional tax of one-half (he state (ax. City councils h.ive 
full power to license, (ax, and regulate the traffic, inckiding 
breweries and distilleries. The licensee must give a bond of 
$5,000 and pay a penalty of $500 for any violation of a condition 
of the bond. 

Fines are provided up to $500 for violating any city ordinance 
relating to the liquor traffic ; selling liquor without a license, keep- 
ing a disorderly house; selling to minors without written con- 
sent of parent or guardian, to students, habitual drunkard;, or 
any other person after written notice from proper parties not to 
sell to him'; allowing games prohibited by state law to be played 
on the premises ; failing to keep license posted in a 
conspicuous place ; keeping open within three miles of an 
election precinct on an election day ; selling to an Indian of the 
wild and unfriendly tribes, or of the Choctaw or Chickasaw ter- 
ritory; selling liquor in prohibition districts; running a "blind 
tiger;" adulterating liquor with any substance injurious to herilth, 
or selling liquor so adulterated. 



A license law prevails in this state. The licensing authorities 
are (he city councils in cities, and county boards outside of the 
cities, Ci(y councils have e.tclusivc power to license, tax. regulate 
and prohibit ihc liquor traffic, the state law being operative in 
that respect only outside of the cities. License fees in counties 
must be $600 to $1,200, The granting of licenses is discretionary 
with the authorities. Licensees give bond to obey the law and 
pay damages. Vine growers may make wine from their own 
fruits and sell in quantilies not le«R than five gallons withoui a 
license. Municipal authorities may, by proclamation, forbid the 
sale of liquor on a legal holiday. 

Fines up to $1,000 and in cer(ain cases imprisonment up to 
six months are provided tor the following offenses; Selling 
liquor to an Indian or half-breed, or any person living with an 
Indian woman; selling without a license; adulterating or diluting 
liquors with fraudulent intent; selling liquors to minors under 
16 years of age; having females playing ins(riimen(s. dancing, etc.. 
in .saloons; selling liquor within one mile of any religions meet- 
ing, except regular dealers ; selling liquor in theaters, museums, 
circuses, etc.; keeping open on Sunday or on election daYS■,»«'•^- 
ing liquors not inspected by atat.« \i\s5e<A'it%', wJJw^^ 



1098 LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER. 

to an insane person or to a minor without written c 
parent or guardian, or to allow such persons to remain about the 
premises ; setting to habitual drunkards ; permitting gambling w 
disorderly cmiduct. 



Prohibition prevails. A commissioner is elected in each count; 
every two years and appoints an agent in each town to sell liquors 
for medicinal, mectianicat and chemical purposes. The liquor is 
bought by llie municipal council (selectmen) and tlie proceeds 
paid into the tonn treasury. Heavy lines are provided if the 
selectmen make a contract with llie agent that tends to increase 
his sales or if he is paid any otlKr compensation ttian a fixed sum 
of money. The manufacture of spirituous or fermented liquors is 
prohibited, except wine for the Lord's Supper, cider and wine 
from grapes or fruits grown in the slate without any admixture 
of alcohol, and fermented liquors for one's own use. The sale 
of liquor is prohibited except for the purposes slnled. Fines for 
the unlawful sale of liquor are $5 lo $[oo. and possibly imprii'on- 
mcnt up lo 30 days, for the first offense, and for the second and 
each subsequent otTense, lines from $10 lo $200 and compulsory 
imprisonment from one month to one year. Prosecuting ofikers 
are subject to fines of $jqo 10 $500 for failure to enforce ihe 
law. The transportation of liquors intended 10 be sold unlaw- 
fully is forbidden. A common seller of liquors, not t>eing a law- 
ful agent, is fined $100 for the first offense, and $200 for sut>- 
sequcnt offenses, and on the third or subsequent conviction shall 
be imprisoned four to twelve months. Informers get half the 
fine collected. Liquors intended for unlawful use may he eon- 
fiscalcil. Soliciting orders for liquor is prohibited. Imported 
liquor must t>e marked with the name of the consignee. Parlies 
who furnished liquor contributing to the intoxication of a person 
are liable in damages if Ihc intoxicated person injures any one, 
and if the intoxicated person is imprisoned, nnist pay $2 a day to 
Ihe wife or children under age. Owners of buildings having 
reason lo know that liquor is sold there are liable for injuries 
caused by such intoxication. Places where liquor is unlawfully 
sold or kept are public nuisances. 

Adulteration of liquor or sale of adulterated liquors is subject 
lo fine of $300. 



LEGAL RELATIOKS OF THE BREWER. 



The system is license with local oplton, administered by a 
state board of commissioners of excise ivho appoint three com- 
missioners for each city. This board examines for itself the 
necessity, convenience and fitness of any proposed licensed place 
and the character of the applicant. Remonstrances against appli- 
cations may be heard. If tlie application is granted the licensee 
must file a bond of $250 to $500. An appeal lies to the circuit court 
from the decision of the board. License fees are as follows : 
Wholesale, (general), $350; wholesale (malt liquor only), $150; 
retail in town& of not more than 1.000 population. $75: retail 
for malt liquor only, $30: retail elsewhere, $125: bar-rooms in 
towns of less than i.aoo. $75, and 15 per cent of the rental value 
of the room; bar-rooms elsewhere, $izs. and the same 15 per cent; . 
matt liquor saloons in towns under 1,000, $40; same elsewhere, 
J60; license for "ordinary" in towns under 2.000, $75; same else- 
■ where, $125, and 8 per cent of the rental value of the house and 
furniture up to $1,000; 5 per cent up to $2,ooo, and 3 per cent 
upward of $2,000; "sample liquor merchants" pay a license ta^ of 
$350. License for "ordinary" includes sale for consumption on 
the premise.<i, not ofl. Separate licenses are required for wholc- 
sala and retail, or retail and bar-room business by the same per- 

Sale on election day is prohibited under penalty of $1,000 fine 
and hnprisonment up to 12 months. 

Elections as to license or no license are held in counties on the 
petition of one-quarter of the voters. If no license is voted it 
includes the prohibition of wine or malt liquors by distillers and 
manufacturers. 

cts prohibit the sale of liquor in different 

WASHINGTON. 

A system of license with fees from $300 to $1,000 prevails, the 
governing bodies in incorporated cities, towns and villages having 
the exclusive control within the corporate limits, and the county 
commissioners outside. AH liquors are required to be inspected 
hy local liquor inspectors who receive a fee of so cents a barrel 
and 12V1 cents per do?en bottles. If found adulterated, the 
liquor is analysed, and if found impure, is destroyed. \_.\cB^\-wt, 
authorities may regulate and prohibiX xW UaSK- "^"^i* \\t«™.<« 



tloo Legal relatiohs op the urkwbs. 

gives a bond of $i.ooo and is civilly liable for selling to'habtU 
drunkards. The owner of premises in fthich liquor is sold 
also liable for injury resulting from consequent intoxication, b 
has a right of exoneration against the vendor. A minor und 
21, and over 18 years of age. who represents himself to be 
age in order to get liquor, may be fined $25 to $100. or imprison 
up to three months. Druggists may sell liquor without 3 Itccn 
upon the written prescription of a reputable physician, also alculi 
for mechanical and scienliRc purposes upon written certificati 
and wine for sacramenlal purposes to a church officer upon ver\ 
ten certificate. Keeping a place for the sale of liquor Contrary 
law or allowing it to be kept on one's premises is a public nt 
sance and subject to line of $1,000. 

Penalties are up 10 $i.ot» for the following offenses : .\llowii 
children under 18 years to cnlcr a place where liijunr is soli 
employing females in saloons, etc.; scllmp lintinr on elee-tii 
day or Sunday: selling without a license: selling 10 a minor wit 
out the written permission of parent or giiardi.in; celling to I 
dians : violating municipal ordinances regulating the liquor traff 
WIST nRCisi.'v. 

Licensing is Irft to the towns and other municipalities, und 
which arratigemeni the liquor Iraflic may be entirely prnhibite 
Slate licenses are issued when authorised by the cnunly coui 
but in an incorporated cily. village or town, by the mnnicip 
council, no licensed place lieing permitted within two miles of ai 
cily. (own "r village in which there i< no lieen'se. without t] 
con.iom of ibc rouncil. If a bolel or lavcrn lii'cnsed to sell liqui 
=hall fail to pr-Mide travelers or iheir tervanls with lodging 51 
diet, the licence may be rovuked. and if ibc place is used simp 
for the purp.-nc of selling liquor it shall be revoked. 

Lii-rn-e fee on hoiuls or taverns. ,1 per cent per annum of il 
yearly value of ihc premises; retail licence (up to five gallons 
S.1.=W): wholesale license, S.iso. in adilition in all olhcr taxc 
License 10 furnish drinks at theater. S150; to sell at retail app 
and pc.ich brandy distilled in the stale from fruit grown in tl 
■■tate. noi In be drunk or the prcmi-cs. Sioo: retail license fi 
domciiii- wine. ale. beer and simitar drinks. Stoo. 

I'riilfr the ciinstiiuiion forfeitures -iml lines go to the suppo 
of frcf ^i-hnnh. 
■iitf f.,T fat'Iiiig to close places w\\ei'; V«\>w>\^ aw sAA cm ck 

*i''y. ?jo 10 Siuo. 



tfeUAt HEIATIONS OF THE BREWER. IIOI 

Brcwet/ Licenses: 25.ix)0 barrels a year or more. $550; i5.<»o 
to 25,000 barrels, $350; 5000 to 15,000 barrels, $200; i.ooo to 
5.000 barrels, $125; 1,000 barrels or less, $50. 

Temporary places for sale of liquor are prohibited within 
tuo miles of a camp meeting, or half a mile of any other place 
for religious worship, property of offenders to be seized and the 
liquor destroyed. 

A fine of $500 is imposed for adulterating any article of drink. 
Druggists are fined $25 to $100 for selling without license, except 
for medicinal, mechanical or scientific purposes and upon the 
written prescription of a practicing physician in good standing 
and of temperate habits. 

Fines for violating license pcovisions, $10 to $ioo; for selling 
to minors, insane persons, drunken persons or drunkards, allow- 
ing people to drink to intoxication on the premises, or on Sunday. 
Places where liquor is unlawfully sold to be considered public 
nuisances. 

WISCONSIN. 

License and local option prevail. A vote is taken on the ques- 
tion of license or no license in any city, town or village on the 
application of 10 per cent of the voters at the last election for 
governor. If prohibition is the result, the sale of liquor Is 
punishable by fine or imprisonment, or both. If the vote is for 
licenses, they arc issued by the board of supervisors in a town, 
trustees in a village and the mayor in a city. Special elections 
may be held in towns, villages and cities not oftener than once in 
three years to determine the amounts that shall be paid for li- 
censes. The license is for the sale of intoxicating liquors to be 
drunk on the premises. The fees are in towns having in their 
boundaries no city or village with a population of 500 or more, 
not less than $100; elsewhere, not less than $200. These fees may 
be raised by vote to $250 or $400 in the first case and $350 or 
$500 in the second case. Pharmacists for a fee of $10 may sell 
for medicinal, mechanical and scientific purposes. If a permit is 
refused to a pharmacist he may sell only on prescription. Li- 
censees must give lx>nd in $500. City councils have power to li- 
cense and regulate breweries, distilleries, etc. 

Fines range up to $200 for the violation of ordinances or of 
the conditions of the license; for selling to minors, except upon 
the written order of parents or guardian ; for keeping a disord^^ 
house or permitting gambling; for sellxtv^ Xo "^ ^^\^oxi\»xcx>v^^iN-^^ 



tt02 LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER. 

or borderii^ upon intoxication." or lo an habitual drunkard ; t 
selling without license; for pharmacist not keeping a record 
sales of liquor or otherwise violating the conditions of his licens 
for selling to any person given to the excessive drinking 
liquors after having received notice from the wife or prop 
county, city, village or town authorities not to sell liquor 
him; for selling within one mile of insane asylums; for sellii 
on Sunday, day of the annual town meeting or the annual fi 
elections: for selling to an Indian, except "civilized persons i 
Indian descent not members of any tribe" ; for selling within tv 
miles of any religious meeting, except at regularly estaMishi 
places. 

Fraudulently adulterating liquors with any substance poisonou 
deleterious or injurious to health, and knowingly manufacturii 
or selling such liquor is punishable by fine up to $100. 

A county license is imposed on the liiguor trnDic. Retail dca 
ers are those selling in quantities less than live gallons, at 
tlit^ir license fee is ?500 a year if they nre pi.Tmitted to s( 
nilhiii live miles of any railroad or town, city or village, locan 
on any railroad: in olhiT cases the (to i» Jioo. Persons scllir 
liquor by the liarri,'!. case or original package arc wholesale dca 
ers, and pay a county license of $175. To deal lioth ci wholes 
and retail, both licenses must be obtained. In addition, cities ar 
iiicorjio rated town? have the fight to license liquor dealers and 1 
regulate, resir;iin or prohibit tippling houses, etc. 

Fines up to Si.ooo are imposed for the following olTenses : Vii 
laii«n of ordinances L'onccrning the liquor trathc: selling ar 
pcrniiriiiiis or nlullcrated drink: adulterating liquors with fraudi 
lent iniciit : -I'llmR liquor within one ""ili' of any place 1 
rtJigiriu.i ttot^Uip, e.\cepl regular lii-insed dealers: sealing bctwet 
1I1C hlU1^^ iif 10 a. m. and .; p. 111. on Sunday, excepting hotels ar 
ri-siaur.iiits. and nn election day: selling without a license: sel 
tug to Indi.iiis: selling to minora or allowing them around ll 
place fif business; selling to habitual drunkards; selling to ai 
I'tTiOi) HDdtr 16 years of age. 



BEER IN DIETETICS AND ECONOMICS 



PURITY OF AMERICAN BEER. 



The purity of American beer has been of late much under dis- 
cussion, and charges of adulteration have been bandied about 
with great freedom. 

Adulteration is dehticd in the Century Dictionary as "tht act of 
adulterating, or corrupting by the admixture of foreign and baser 
elements, especially for fraudulent purposes; debasement." To 
adulterate, according to Ihc same authority, is "to make impure 
by the admixture of other or baser ingredients; corrupt; render 
counterfeit." 

With regard to an article of food or drink, adulteration con- 
sists in either or both of two things. One is to manufacture and 
sell an article that is not what it purports to be. but may still be 
harmless. The other is to sell an article, so misrepresented, that 
is injurious to ibe public health. From these two points of view 
adukcration is treated by the legislative authorities. 

Applying these points of view to beer, one is met at the 
threshold of the inquiry by the difficulty, that there exists no 
Standard definition of beer. From ancient times down to the 
present the popular beverage that passed by the name of "beer" 
has been undergoing so many changes that it is impossible to fix 
any determinate meaning for that term, from usage alone, with 
sufficient accuracy to draw the line between genuine l>ccr and an 
adulterated article. In olden times it seems the beer of the 
Teutonic tribes was a sweet fermented beverage in which honey 
was a prominent constituent, while the Slavs seem lo have em- 
ployed hops from the earliest lime, for the purpose of impart- 
ing a bitter aromatic taste and. as they imagined, giving the 
stimulating effect. During the latter part of the middle ages, hops 
began to be used in Germany. Later they found their way into 
England, hut as late as the time of Henry VIII their ii^ft ^t» 
forbidden. 



1 104 BEER IN DIETETICS. 

As to the cereal base of the beverage, barley and wheat seen 
lo have been the earliest grains used. Barley having bc«ii ibi 
grain almost universally used by Europeans in antiquity as thi 
staple article af food, was alsg lai^ely used in producing beci 
When the art of baking bread began to become popular, to whici 
barley does not lend itself readily, (hat cereal was crowded ou 
by wheat and rye as a food, but continued lo be largely employee 
in brewing beer, for which purpose, however, wheat and prob- 
ably other starchy cereals were also employed. In modem time: 
tile variel}- of cereals used in the preparation of beer has beer 
much increased, and in the United Stales Indian cum and ric< 
have been quite generally inlroduced. As the true function ol 
starch in bcer-niaking came to be better understood, the procesi 
of conversion into ^ugar was anticipated and performed befurt 
till.' malcrial ri-achi.'il the mash tub. 

The ilka that the only pure beer is an all -malt beer is thu! 
ii^ai lo be false, both actually and historically. 

Bi\-r is a I'Ci't-ragc proJuctd by aUoholic fi-ntti-HlalitiH from 
a hi'ppcJ iHfiiswii, <:ithi-r of malit-d cereali. /•^I'fcrMy tiMllCti 
barU'v. t-si-liisn\'ly. or ut//i on addiliun ii( aninalti-d or prefani 
.-^rcali. ■ . A 



The actual prt'pcrtici and mode of preparation of .\mericai 
hi'cr were made the subjei^ of an inquir}' by a coniniilice ap 
I'niiiled by the Unili.'d Slates Senate. iSgij-igoo, called the Com 
millcc on Manufactures, The report made by this coniniiltee. o' 
»liicli Seiiaiiir Mason of Illinois was chairman, summed up it: 
i''>ni.')iisii:>ns a.s lo American beer, as follows: 

"One Ol the most imponam subjects under consideration ha: 
iivcn that "f ihc great American Brewing Industry, The com 
iiiillie has, ihmugh iU agents, visited ninuly-two breweries ii 
iiiiii'ti'i'n cities and purchased nearly 400 samples of iheir product: 
ill open markei, aivil. under tlic evidence of the government an 
.ilwie:,! cheiiii^i- .* -.■■■'■ -'. .-^li.l samples, we find but Hv( 
-iiMii'U's I'f Am. 1 iiorier conlaining preservaiiveP 

"While ill.' I . . - ' , [1,11 rank as high a.s Ameritar 

/vcr.*, a iiiucii brger pet cent of the imported beer saniplet 
aimlyzvd ivcre (outid to conlavn ^ttwiN^vscs. 



BEER IN DIETETICS. tI05 

"Two very important questions preseni iheiiiselves to the com- 
mittee in consideration of beers. 

"First, as to whether there be a national standard fixed for 
beers, fixing the minimum amount of malt extract to be contained 
in the beer product. 

"Second, whether we should adopt in this country the law 
which prevails in some parts of the German Empire, which pro- 
vides that beer should be made of barley, malt and hops exclu- 
sively, or whether the American brewer should be permitted to 
use in conjunction with malt and hops other cereals, such as corn 

"The present methods pursued by the American brewer are the 
same as contained in the English law governing their brewing 
industries. As a rule, the American brewers make many different 
kinds of beer in the same brewery. The American laste for beer 
varies from that of other countries and the tastes in localities also 
vary. Some require a light beer, as more pleasant to the eye as 
well as taste, while others desire a much darker grade of beer. 

"When the American brewer uses other cereals besides barley, 
it is used in an unmalted state— that is, corn or rice— which gives 
a lighter color to the beer. It has been charged in a general, un- 
substantiated way. by either a witness or through a communica- 
tion, that these cereals did not produce as healthy a beer as an all- 
malt beer. But the overwhelming and almost uncontradicted evi- 
dence is that the use of corn or rice, for the purposes as stated, is 
not in the least deleterious to public health, and while the prac- 
tical brewers, maltsters, chemists and analytical experts, as well 
as medical experts, approve the use of the unmalted cereals for 
the purposes as staled, whenever interrogated on that point, no 
witness has stated before this committee why the use of corn or 
rice unmalted, or other unmalted cereals, ought not to be used as. 
it is all over the world. 

"Mr. Gladstone, speaking in the English Parliament upon this 
question, said: 

" 'The brswcr will brew from what he pleases, and will have a 
perfect choice of his material and of his methods. I am of the 
opinion that it is of enormous advantage to the community to 
liberate an industry so large as this with regard to the choice of 
those materials.' 

"The British parliamentary commUstQn \TiNes\.\^\*4 *vv% viSt^ 



iio6 



BEER IN DIETETICS. 



jcct for four years, and the following is taken from their repi 
sustnining the bill which was passed upon the motion of ' 
Gladstone years before, which gave the free- ma king privilr 
to brewers : 

" 'It cannot be adinilled that the liquor made fron) malt, he 
yeast and water, only, has an exclusive right to the name of bt 
«r that the purchaser who demands beer demands an all-ii 
liguur. Sugar was intern) it lent ly permitted to be used in b 
;i cetitury ago : for over fifty years its use has been cominuou 
permitted by. acts of Parliament, and eighteen years ago compi 
frvedoiii in ilie use of all wholesome materials was deliberat 
grained to brewers by Parliament.' 

"Wc also call attention to the following, taktn from the Engl 



•■Tbi. . 



• the 



relaliv 



-f difl 



1 brev 



villi the d.ila at prt's 

I lIiL li.il:iiR-i; I't experience and anlbiirity inclines 

II hIuIc nil all-mail brewing fri>m a blenU of i> 
Ihe U-^! Knglipli ami funis" Parley is Mill the 1 
^criplifii. oi beer (pale bilttr ale. icr example!. ; 
-i-ripiiiiiis. wbich ci^nstitute by far the larger prtip 

lu'er cnMinit'd. tbe medium ur lower qualities 
y-ii'all (am! iHir barKv-ma!l is ni't any belter, i 
gi' b;irley-in::!tl. are impn'vid as brewing m.iteri 
n .■{ a :ii.i.leraie prop-Tii.-n •>! k-hhI brewing sn^ 
i.-[i.e:a:ly tbe ca?e when ibe barley from which 
; li,-i- been impi'rtecily riiieiucl or barvcsicd under i 



-Tli.. .-.■■-;; !::i.i'. xI-.k 


. i- ni Ihe i-'iiiiiii'ii ihril ibe present sy.-;' 


ji .Snurii,, :■: i^.irvst an 


1 iii.-re iie.lrlv in-l ;o The manufacturer 3 


.■ .|iju:::,r !■■ i..rv;ii '.b 


brewer to U- liic Millie himself of wl 


«lv-k-:o'i;e aii^i lidltl; 


■ priHlitcts he desires to Iw put into 


bur; and ibt bill, whi 


U we will finally presiiit to Congress. * 


ITivtn: ihe Ujt .if ir.y 


unwli'ilesome preservaiivcs or delcterii 


iLib>ia[-.ci's. 
■■.\lt:cli i-v;!.:ic conce 


n has been excited liec.iuse it has b< 


.■huTiti-.I tl:.'.: :l-.v Amm 


can brewer uses a large amount of salicj 


IT ■^t'.IiT .ic:'i> ;■> prose 


ve the IW..TS. 


■T.'..j,'.vj>tri ev:.lir« 


beiore ihii commillcc is clear that a sni 


nwuiii OS preti.T\ativ 


is twl d»t\£CTO\).&, ■«>x\\e v'w t?4\<isw:e a 




BEER IN DIETETICS. 1 107 

analysis of samples show that a very small amount of preserva- 
tives is used, and that by very tew of the brewers, who use it in 
minutely small quantities to preserve bottled beer for export only. 
And the evidence is overwhelming that nearly every brewer and 
every bottler of beer in this country submits his bottled beer to 
, the pasteurizing processes, which is simply submitting it to such 
an extreme heat in the bottle as to destroy germ life and prevent 
fernientatioti. 

"The revenues derived from tlie great beer industry alone are 
$7i,cxx>,ooo, a double war tax. The value of money invested is 
$650/100,000, and the industry gives employment to goo,ooo men. 
"In the language of Mr. Gladstone, this committee feel that we 
should 'Jiberate as to choice of material and as to process of manu- 
facturing an industry of SO vast a scope as is this particular in- 

"As lo the other question, of fixing a standard of beer, ale 
and porter — that is, by fixing the minimum amount of alcohol. 
malt extract, etc. — every witness before this committee testified 
in favor of fixing said standard. 

"Mr. Callus Thomann, secretary of the United Stales Brewers' 
Association, favors such a law, as did every brewer and maltster 
who testified before this committee. And the committee is of 
the opinion that this may be done under the authority of the 
bureau that may be established in the Agricultural Department by 
Senate bill 34^. 

"Whatever legislation may be passed should be national in its 
character. The brewing industry of this country has grown so 
extensively that the American brewers are selling their products 
not only in every state of the Union, but all over the world, and 
uniformity of standard, which is most desirable, can only be 
obtained by national legislation." 

Analyses have also been made by state officials, all of winch 
go to corroborate the conclusions of Senator Mason's committee, 
that American beer leaves nothing to be desired in point of purity, 
and will compare favorably with that produced in any other coun- 
try. 

A bill has been introduced in the United States Senate to cre- 
ate a chemical bureau in connection with the Department of 
Agriculture, which shall establish standards for anicl«A d WA 
and drink. 



IN DIETETICS. 



The most exhaustive inquiry into brewing materials was w 
by a British parliamentary committee, known as the Beer 1 
lerials Committee, which submitted its report in March, t 
As this contains much that also applies to conditions in 
United States, some of the important passages arc here insert 

In the introductory part this passage occurs : 

"Broadly speaking, the main object of the transformati 
which the barley-grain — and the extract derived therefrom— 
dcrgo in the malt-house, the mash-tun. and the fermenting re 
is first to convert the starch of the grain into fermentable suj 
and next to convert the sugar in pan into alcohol. At the s: 
time certain by-products of the barley-grain, which do not 
dcrgo the ?ame transformations, are carried along into the b 
Apart from such by-products the character of (lie finished an 
is not altered by the use of some other starchy grain alongsidi 
malted barley, or by the addition to the wort of sugar more or 
similar to the saccharine matter yielded by malt.'' 

Tilt malt adjunct:; in use in breweries arc classified as folio 

"Details as to the various ingredient:^ at prt'sent used in 
manufacture of beer will be found in the appendices. Those wl 
are used as substitutes for, or adjuncts to, barley-malt maj 
roughly classified us ' 

"1. Corn and kindred materials, e. g.. unmalted barley, rice 
maiie rolled, cooked, or olbemise adapitd for brewing by 
rioui mechanical and cbemical proocsses. 

"2. Sugar and kindred materials." 

"Of these the most important are : 

"(a) Invert sugar, i. c. cape sugar treated by a process wl 
renders it more easily fermentable. 

"(b) Glucose, i, e.. sugar prepared from starch by boiling i 
acid. Thi' slarclies cliieiiy used for this purpose are those deri 
from sago and maire," 

The general conclusions of the committee are laid dowt 
these words : 

"Passing from these preliminary observations to the quest 

expressly pi't before us. we have to report that, so far as 

have been able lo ascertain, no materials used in the mauufac 

ol brer arc ddeleiious. at a\V evenW ra the quantities in w 

theynr^- .utiially employed. \\t\iA\«t\'h».\ v'^e ^-^^-tfCv^v^^ii 




BEER IN DIETETICS. 1 109 

rule, if any, are so infrequent and 1111 import ant that legislation \s 
not required 10 deal with them. We refer, of course, lo ma- 
terials of normal quality — any materials (not least barlcy-maJl) 
may be unwholesome if they are bad in qualify." 

The objections that have been urged against malt adjunct; arc 
slated in this form : 

"I. That these adjuncts, or some of them, are, or may be, posi- 
tively injurious to health. 

"2. That, even if they are not positively injurious, the beer made 
with any proportion of them is less nutritions and wholesome 
than all malt beer. 

"3. That, apart from the question of wholesomeness, the con- 
sumer is entitled to know what he is getting 1 thai the product of 
malt and substitutes is not the same in ''nature, substance and 
quality" as the product of malt only; that beer means or ought 
to mean a liquor prepared from malt and hops only; and that, 
therefore, on the principles laid down by the Sale of Food and 
Drugs Act, the consumer is prejudiced if an adjunct beer is 
sold lo him as beer without a declaration of the use of the 
adjuncts." 

On the firs! point the committee begins by saying: 

"In respect of injury to health no serious charge has been made 
again.st raw grain, or prepared grains other than barley, or brew- 
ing sugar made from cane sugar. As to glucose, however, there 
has been some conflict of evidence. The question is not, how- 
ever, of great practical importance with regard lo beer, for it ap- 
pears that potato glucose is not now used in brewing in this 
country; and we are informed that, while il is more expensive 
than maize glucose, it has disadvantages (other than its .-illeged 
unwholesomcness) from a brewer's point of view. 

"With regard lo glucose made from sago, maize, etc., it is gen- 
erally admitted that there has been great improvement in the 
proces?! of matiuf.iclure in recent years; and we belike that all 
impurities tb.it might be considered injurious to health are 
eliminated." 

The dietetic value of malt and its adjuncts is discussed in this 

"It is generally admitted that, in the present position of scienliOjC 
knowledge, chemical analysis, by itself, is an \v(\v«^^He\ \cW. oS 
the food value of any article of diet. Wc arc v\ws \Vi'>'«^^ ^<*»*^^ 



mo BEER IN DIETETICS. 

on the aid of experience and comnton sense, but they do not yield 
uy result possessing certainty and accuracy. But we inay 

"(a) The amount of 'extract' (consisting of aitrogenous and 
non-Dilrogenous organic substance, and ash) found by analysis in 
beer, and generally assumed to represent approximately I he 
'nutritive matter,' depeads as much on the methods of maltii^. 
mashing, and fermenting as on the materials used, within ttie 
limits practically prevalent with regard to the proportions of the 
different materials. 

''(b) The amount of organic extract in beer is, as a rule, small, 
and it is doubtful whether the dtetelic value of beer (any more 
than the commercial value) varies at all directly with the amount 
of such extract which it contains. It is quite possible that a 
beer with a Iqw proportion of organic extract may be more 
valuable as an article of diet, as well as more acceptable as a 
beverage, than a lieer containing more extract, but inferior in 
flavor, brightness, soundness and digestive properties. 

(c) Here follows the paragraph quoted on page 1106. begin* 
ning 'The question as to the relative merits. . . .' " 

As to adul titrations the committee says: 

"The analogy which it as been attempted to draw between the 
case of beer and that of articles which arc more nearly naiural 
products, such as butter and coffee, is not, in our opinion, valid. 
Beer is in any case the result of a chemical process, whereas, 
when other fat is added to butter, or chicory to coffee, these in- 
gredients remain as such in the mixture. 

"Further, one malt wort is not necessarily identical with another 
malt wort, and the question as to the nature, substance, and 
quality of an article is ob\iously in part a question of degree. 
We are, however, satisfied that, so far as our present knowledge 
goes, a beer brewed with the usual moderate proportion of sugar 
does not, as a general rule, differ from an all-malt beer more 
widely tli.in one all-malt beer differs from another." 

The definition of beer which excludes mall adjuncts Is laid 
aside by the committee once and for all in the following; 

"It cannot be admitted that the liquor made from malt. hops. 

yeast and water only has an exclusive right to the name 'beer;' 

or fhat a purchaser who demands beer demands an all-malt 

liquor. Sugar was interm\Ucntt'j v"™^'>*-^^ ^'i ^ "*«<' '" beer 

a century ago; for over fitly yciTS Vte »•« V^s Vmv cw*:\TOw™e(i 




BEER m DIETETICS. ITII 

pemiiited by Act of Parliament; and eighteen years ago completi^ 
freedom in the use of all wholesome materials was dclibcraitly 
granted to brewers by Parliament. Under these circumstances 
it must be presumed to be public knowledge that beer is not al- 
ways made from malt and hops exclusively; and Consequently 
we arc of opinion that a person who demands beer and is sup- 
plied with a beer brewed with a proportion of malt substitutes 
is not thereby prejudiced. 

"The question whether the law should be changed is, of course, 
a different one. If the liquor produced from malt only were 
clearly distinguishable from, and definitely superior to, the liquor 
brewed with a moderate proportion of malt adjuncts, it would 
be within (he competence of Parliament, and might be in the 
public interest, to assign separate distinctive names to these 
liquors. But in our opinion this is not at present the case." 

With regard to fanatical proposals for legislation, there occurs 
a passage which ought to be borne in mind by American legisla- 

"We are satisfied that in the present state of scientific knowl- 
edge it is not possible to determine by chemical analysis with 
sufficient certainty to obtain a conviction whether malt adjuncts 
have or have not been used, except perhaps in cases where ex- 
cessive proportions of such adjuncts have been employed. 

"Consequently, a law making declaration of materials compul- 
sory could not be enforced if we were to rely upon analysis for 
detection of violation of it; and we think that to create an of- 
fence, of which proof could not be established, would be uide- 

INTEMPERANCE AS AFFECTED BY GENERAL NAT- 
URAL LAWS. 

This subject is treated interestingly in the third annual report 
of the Slate Board of Health of Massachusetts by Dr. Henry L 
Bowdilch, and his letter was republished by ihe United States 
Brewers' Association under the title "Intemperance in the Light 
of Cosmic Laws." The board collected facts and opinions from 
a large number of correspondents and discussed the information 
thus brought together, summarizing the conclusions as follows: 

First — Stimulants are used everywhere and, at times, abused by 
savage and by civilized man. Consc(iuet\tl^ , mMi^\t«C\axv qkr».x* 
all over the g}obe. 



1112 



BEER IN DIETETICS. 



Second — This love of stimulants is one of ihe strongest of I 
man inslinds. It cannot be annihilated, but maj be regulal 
by reason, by conscience, by education or by law when it i 
crouches on the rights of others. 

Third — CJmatic law governs it, the tendency to indnlgc 
intoxication being not only greater as we go from the heat of i 
equator toward the north, tmt the character of that intoxic.ili 
brcomes more violent. 

Fourth — Owing to this cosmic law. intemperance is very r: 
near the equator. It is there a social crime and 3 disgrace of I 
deepest dye. Liccniiousncss and gambling are small offences co 
pared with it. To call a man a drunkard is the highest of i 
suits. On the contrary-, at the north of 50° it is very frequent, 
less of a disgrace, is by no means a sivial crime. 

Fifth — Intemperance causes little or no crime toward t 
equator, It is the almost constant cause of crime either dircc 
or indirectly at the north above 50°. 

Sixth— Iniemperaiice is modified by race, as shown in ihe d 
fiTcni tendencies 10 intoxication of different people*. 

Scrcnih — H.ices arc modified physically and morally by the ki 
of liquor iliey use. as proved by examination of the ri-iums fr> 
-Viiplria and SwiiMrland. 

Fighih^Bcer. native light grape wines and ardent spirits shr.u 
not be classed together, tor Ihcy product vi-ry diffiTent effei 
upon the individual and upi-in the race. 

Ninth — Light German beer and nic can lie u-cd even frc< 
without any very apparent injur}- 10 the individual, or wtlbi' 
caiisinR im-'Nicalion. They cimlaiii very small percentages 
alcohi'l (4 or 4.; 10 6.5 per centV Light grape wines, unfr 
litied hy an extra amnimt of alcohoL c.in be dnink less free' 
hut wiMioui apparent injury 10 the race, ami wiih exhilaraiii 
ralher ihnn drunkenncs.s. Some writers think they do no ban 
Ijiii a real good, if used moderately. They never produce l' 
violem. crar.y drunkenness so noliccnblc fn'm ihf ardent spin 
nf Ihe north. 

Ariieni spirits, on the contrary, unless used very moderaiil 
anil with great temperance, and with the determination to on 
iheiii a' soiin as the occasion has passed tor their use. are atmc 
always iniurions, if continued even moderately for any leng 
i/ time, for ihcy gradually encroach on the vital powers. 




BEER IM DIETETICS. III3 

MMd immoderately, Ihey cause a beastly nareolism which makes 
the victim regardless of all the amenities and even the decencies 
of life, or perliaps they render him titriousiy cTsr.y, so thai he 
may murder his best friend. While those who live in the irojiics 
merely sip slowly ardcnl spirits from the tiniest of glasse'i. with 
the slightest appreciable effect, the denizen of the frozen north 
swallows half tumblerfuls of the same to the speedy produc- 

Tenth— Races may be educated lo evil by bad laws, or by ilic 
introduction of bad habits. England's (aslc for strong drinks has 
been fostered by legislation and by wars of nearly two centuries 
since. France and parts of Switzerland are beginning (o suffer 
from ihe introduction of absinthe and of schnapps. Especially 
is this noticeable since the late Franco- Prussian war. By classi- 
fying all liquors as equally injurious, and by endeavoring to further 
(hat idea in Ihe community, are we not doing a real injury to 
the country by preventing a freer use of a mild lager beer or of 
native grape wine instead of the ardent spirits to which our peo- 
ple are now so addicted? 

Eleventh— A race, when it emigrates, carries its habits with it. 
and for a time, at least, those habits may override all climatic 
law. 

Twelfth — England has thus overshadowed our whole country 
wiih its love of strong drinks and with its habits of intoxication, 
as it has more recently covered Ceylon, parts of the East and 
Australia. 

Thirteenth — This influence on our own country is greater now 
than it would have been if our forefathers, ihc early settlers, had 
cultivated the vine, which would have been practicable, as .-icen 
by the recent examples of Ohio and California, and from the 
fact that the whole of the United States lies in the region of the 
earth's surface suited to the grape culture. 

Fourteenth — If these early settlers had done this, our nation 
would probably have been more temperate, and a vast industry 
like (hat of France, of Spain and of Italy and Germany, in light 
native wines, would long ago have sprung up. 

Fifteenth — The example set by California and Ohio should he 
followed by the whole country where the vine can be grown. 
As a temperance measure it behooves every good citizen to pro- 
mole that most desirable object. We should also allow the light. 



1 1 14 BEER IN DIETETICS. 

unfortified wines of Europe lo be introduced tree of duty insti 
of the large one now imposed. Instead of refusing the Gem 
lager beer, we should seek (o have it introduced into the prtrs 
"grogshops." 3nd thus substitute a comparatively innoxious ,i 
cle for those potent liquors which now bring disaster and de 
into so many families. 

Si.'steenth — "Holly Tree" branches for the sale of good fo 
lea and coffee, cheaply to the people, should by the bcnevol 
co-operation of the conmiunity be made lo take the places of 
numerous grogshops now open for the sale of ardent spirits. 

Sevcnlccnth^The moral sense of the conmiunity should be 
aroused lo the enormity of the evils (lowing from keeping an o| 
bar for the sale of ardent sprits, while those for the sale of li| 
wines and of lager beer should not he oppi'sed. except for i 
'all- In habiiual driuikards after due notice from friends. Sell 
viol.-iiinR such law might be compelled for a time to support i 
fainiU' 1)1 Iheir victim. 

riBhtOi-nih-Thc horrid nature of drunkenness should be i 
prt.isi'd by every means in our power upon the moral scnsi- 
the pi'i>ple. The hahitual drunkard should lie punished, or if 
be a (]ip.'om.^niac. he should \tc pl.iced in an incbrialc a^yhira I 
nu'diial and moral treatment until he ha* gained sufficient se 
r.-|ieci in enable him lo overcome his We of drink. T!i. 
n>v?miis fhi'iiKl in: established by ihe state, 

i-:ffhcts of beer o.v those who drixk it. 

-A greal deal has been, and conlinues to be. ,inid by lo 
abstinence aeuators coneeniing the elTect of beer on those w 
ilrink if. and a-^ a rule their claims that sueh effect is injurinus ; 
ba^ed on nothing btit arbitrary assumptions and basel< 



in L>riler to meet these mi ."representations Ihe United Sla' 

Rrewer...' .\siociaiiim siinic time ago undertook extensive c 
riiniriiuioiAs nm^niK per<.'iis piven lo ihe n-e of l>i'er. Ihe results 
rtliich were lahulatcd and analyzed try secretary Thoinann, a 
jUllilished in pamphlet form. The dala below are taken from ll 
,l:imii|ilct. 

In a ccnain diMrici nf Xciv York and Brooklyn. Dr. Gui 
Kat;'.nniay,-r. Dr. H. F. Kiidlich and Dr. Hugo Koeihe c 
iiiiiifj and practically had a monopoly of practice among ; 




BEER IN DIETETICS. III5 

brewery workmen. During five years thirty-six deaths occmrcd 
aniong these men from the following caus!:s : 

E)caths caused by accidents 5 

Deaths caused by apoplexy and cerebral congestion 6 

Deaths caused by tuberculosis of lungs 5 

Deaths caused by typhoid fever 4 

Deaths caused by pneumonia ; 4 

Deaths caused by diseases of the heart 4 

Deaths caused by diseases of the liver 4 

Deaths caused by diseases of the kidneys I 

Deaths caused by insolation i 

Deaths caused by alcoholism i 

Deaths caused by chronic enteritis I 

Total 36 

The only case of alcoholism on record invited a special in- 
quiry into the drinking habits of the person in question, a-id it 
was found that in the last three or four years of his life the de- 
ceased had been addicted to the excessive use of ardent spirits. 
This case of alcoholism — a rare one among brewery workmen 
of any country — stood isolated not only on the list of deaths, but 
also on the sick lists from the districts investigated. 

Of diseases of the heart, liver and kidneys, the recapitula- 
tion shows nine in all ; that is to say, nine deaths oc- 
curred from diseases of that el^ss, within five years, in a body of 
nine hundred and sixty brewery workmen. From disease of the 
kidneys but one man died within five years. If, in conjunction 
with this showing, it is stated that the average daily consumption 
of malt liquors by brewery workmen is twenty-five common 
glasses, or about ten pints, per capita, no more need be said, 
it is hoped, to disprove the assertion that the constant use of 
beer disorders, with fatal effect, the functions of the heart, kid- 
neys and liver. 

DEATH RATE AMONG OTHER CLASSES. 

Before comparing the death rate among brewery workmen 
with the pertinent mortuary statistics contained in the United 
States census for 1880, it is necessary to state that such a com- 
parison must inevitably be very favorable to anyone who intends 
to assail this position, because the benefit of doubt and of the 
inevitable inaccuracies of so gigantic a work as the census will 
be on his side. To begin with, he will have an advantage in Hx*i. 



BEEtt m DIETETICS. 

the mortality report of the census does not. according to the a<! 
mission of its compiler, include ail the deaths that occurred withi 
the year covered by it, while the mortuary report submitte 
here, by a physician of the Benevolent Bureau, is absolutely ai 
curate. Here, then, the rate of death is given correctly, while i 
the census it is reported as being lower than it actually was. I 
addition lo this, the fact should be considered that the statistic 
information given in the census report on mortality relates to tti 
entire populalion, including the rich, the wealthy, and the wel 
tt>-do, to whom, so far as the death rale is concertted. the sm.i 
pauper element of our country forms no offset ; while the statii 
tical shon-ing herein contained relates to one single specified cla; 
of cmflsmen. This is a difference which, the impartial critic mu: 
admit, is not in favor of the proposition sought to be proved i 
the case of the proposed comparison. Xow let us compare ligur<; 
The number of deaths in our body of 960 brewery workmt 
was 36, within five years: hvncL> ilie average number of dcail 
within one yi-nr was ;'J. This places the rale of de.ith p( 
ihouSiiiid .It 7,5, The ages of these brewery workmen range, i 
varying proportions, from ig lo 59 years. The only rates c 
death, contained in Vol. XI of the census, that can fairly I 
brought iuTo 3 comparison with the foregoing showing, will ^ 
found in Table 6. page 25. which shows for the I'nitcd Stat* 
and for thirty-one registration cities "the proportion of dtatlis. i 
the different gruups of ages, per t.ooo living," Of this tab! 
only that ptirtiitn can properly be reproduced here for coiiipar 
son, which covers the "groups of ages" represented in our show 
ing. and. of course, only the tigurcs relating in the urban popui: 
lion will answer the present purpose. They are given as fiiilow; 
Proportion of Proportion of 

.\ges. deaths to i,oc» living. 



Ages, deaths I 

35-40 

45-.W 



17.6 
19.2 



[t might be said (hat these figures, so far as ages arc cot 
I'cmed. do not correspond exactly with the figures of the Brc^^ 
er't Bi-ncvoii'Ul Btirenn. because they begin at M instead of n 
and on.i at ^S instead of 59. The disparity, which is imavoUlnM 
on aci'oimt of ibc iiioile of grouping ages adopted by the eensii 

'hh nprralcs against iW objects of this argument; seein 




BEER IN DIETETICS. III7 

that the rate of death per 1,000 between 15 and so is only 5.5; 
while between 55 and 60 it is 28.3. The aggregate of living pop- 
ulation in the above six groups of ages was 3-333.898; tiie total 
number of deaths 41^1 ; hence the rate of death per 1,000, witiiin 
the slated age limits, was 12.5- 

UEAIB HATE IN THE ITKITEt) STATES ARUV. 

The death rate in the regular army of the United States dur- 
ing the fiscal year 18S5 — a year of peace, in which, as the Sur- 
geon General's report states, no casualties from actual warfare 
were returned — was 10.9 per 1,000 of mean strength. Medical 
examinations at recruiting stations for the regular military serv- 
ice are conducted with a special view to securing men of good 
physique, of great strength and perfect health. Besides, as eotu- 
pared with the life a brewery workman, with its hard and steady 
work and manifold cares, the soldier's life in peace is an easy 
one. Excepting sucb accidents as arc inseparable from llie con- 
stant handling of fire-arms, the soldier, in times of peace, is ex- 
posed to fewer chances of disease and death than the average 
workman. Well-fed. comfortably quartered and clothed, he lives 
without cares or troubles, in a constant routine of healthful ex- 
ercise. Yet. even as compared with tlie soldier in peace-time, we 
find that the brewery workmen have a great advantage in point 
of low rate of mortality. It is true, the deaths from accidents 
were uncommonly numerous in the army, their proportion to the 
deaths froui all other causes being given at 31 per cent; thai is 
more than again as large as the ratio of deaths from accidents 
among brewery workmen. But even so. the difference in favor 
of the latter is remarkable. The number of deaths in the army 
was 261 from all causes; the number of deaths from accidentf was 
S.l. in a body of soldiers of an average strength of 24.035. De- 
ducting that number of deaths from accidents, which is in excess 
of the proportion returned for brewery workmen, we stil! have 46 
more dealhs. in a total of 263, than would have occurred at the 
rate of death among brewery workmen. 

Compiling the monthly reports and sick lists rendered by Dr. 
Kalzenmayer during live years, and classifying the causes of 
sickness in the usual general way, the relative proportion of the 
various diseases treated by said physician, during the period cov- 
ered by his reports, is found to be as follows: 



BEER IN DIETETICS. 

42.g per ccnl of surgical cases caused by accidents of all ktnr 

fractures, dislocalions. contusions, wounds, etc. 
^7.5 per cent of disturbances of the alimenWiy citiat, aju 
catarrh of the stomach, intestinal catarrh, diarrbcea, dyse 
tery, etc 
12.5 per cent of rheumatic diseases. 
9.4 per cent of diseases of the air passages ; tonsililis, dip 

theria, bronchitis, pneumonia^ pleurisy, etc. 
3.6 per cent of fevers; typhoid, intermittent, etc. 
2.1 per cent of acute conge.stions of liver and kidneys, 
i.o per cent of diseases of the skin. 
0.6 per cent of cerebral and spinal diseases. 
0.4 per cent of diseases of the heart. 
It will readily be admitted by evcrj'body llial among the enli 
population of the United States not another Ixidy of men 1 
equal number could be found, who. from their mode of life ii 
drinking habit?, would be better suited for such a purpose Ih; 
brewery workmen. For, as a class, they drink beer and ale tno 
cDMslanlly and mure copiously than the average becr-drinke 
For the information of those who arc not acquainted with t> 
usages prevailing in breweries, it must be staled that brewei 
workmen have at all times access to what in the jargon of it 
trade is styled the "■Sternewirth," i. e., a room, set apart wilhi 
cviry brcH -house, where beer is conslanily "on tap," lo be u^cd I 
cM'ry one at pleasure and without en.'l. Every one drinks ; 
much beer as he thirsts for. without asking or being asked ar 
questions as to his right to do so. 

CENEIt,\L HEALTH OF BBEWERV WORKMEN. 

One lliou.'and men were examined as to their general slate ( 
hi.ilih. condition of liver, kidneys and heart. The men wei 
Hcipiicd. llieir strength tested, ami the length of lime employ* 
in brvweries and average daily quantity of beer consumed a: 

Tliesc csamitiaiioin showed, that there arc. in all, twenty-fiv 
mtn our of one llioti?and. whose general stale of health, or coi 
diiiiin !•! liicr. or condition of heart, or condition of kidneys, 
not ptriCL-l; and thai the remaining nine hundred and sevent; 
five Mien enjoy esceplionally good lieahh. and are of ^plendi 
physiqin; The average daily con sum pi ion of mall liquors 

'5"J g'asses, about 10 pints, pet ta^i^a. 




BEER IN DIETETICS. III9 

Of the twenty-five men recorded as unsound, a very large |)ro- 
portion would not have been so classified if tlie exam t nations 
had been confined to the condition of Ihc heart, the liver and the 
kidneys. But it was thought necessary to point out all tiiose 
whose health was impaired from any cause whatever ; no matter, 
whether the latter can be traced to the use of beer or not. 
Hence, when the "general stale of health" was found, in any 
case, lo be precarious, the physician had to make a corresponding 
entry in his list and explain the same under the head of special 
remarks by stating the cause or nature of the infirmity. This 
accounts for the fact that such diseases as icterus, bronchitis, 
rheumatism, tuberculosis of lungs, etc., are specified as causes 
impairing the "general slate of health." Dividing the twenty- 
five unsonnd men according to the nature of diseases which im- 
paired their health, we obtain the following : 

Diseases of the liver 7 

Diseases of the heart i 

Diseases of the kidneys S 

Emphysema I 

Rheumatism 6 

Icterus 2 

Bronchitis 2 

Tuberculosis of lungs I 

The causes of the three first-named diseases are known to be 
so manifold, that it would be more than venturesome to assume, 
in the off-hand way of our opponents, that beer is at the bottom 
of them all. Yet no attempt will l>c made to weaken the show- 
ing as it stands, save in ihc case of Ch. W. (2J0), whose ailment, 
abscfss of liver, was produced, to ihc positive knowledge of the 
physicians who performed an operation on the patient, by external 

Khcumatism and diseases of the air passages arc generally re- 
garded by brewers as their trade diseases, produced cither by 
constant exposure to the inclemency of the weather, as in Ihc 
ease of drivers; or by exposure to the sudden and extreme 
changes of temperature incident 10 the work in cellars, ice-houses 
and cooling-rooms; or by exposure to the constant moisture in 
waiih- houses. 



be^S in dietetics. 

strengtU of bhewekv workuen. 
As a nik. Ilie men examined displayed 






.«trcnglli. Tile avi-rage weight liflcd was 480 pounds; the Ioj 
weight itnlicatcil cm ihe dynamonit-ter. used by Dr. Katzenma 
being 390 pinnids. Gruuping the men according to the lenpl 
llin? ihey are employed in brewerios. we find the largest ni 
bcr ill the group from five to ten years, there being about .tM 
it. From ten 10 tificcn years the niiniber is 187, and from tiff 
to iwetity IJ2, Those who are engaged in brewing from 
iiiontii to two years are a little more numerous than those t 
were ihns engaged for over twenty, and less than iwrmy- 
years. The number of men at work over twcnty-tivc years i^ 
[ii the first and last groups no unsound tnen were found; in 
other groups the iiumWrs are as follows; 

Number Average dailv nuaniit' 
otn>cn. U-er consumed per car 

5 yc;T* -! j.t.w ela^se.. 



Fr..i 



.•4.f.. 



> gla^st* 



: will be foiuul that. 



.'•K- 



i;:* fur 



this 



Mb!,- 



wing. 



nd I 



ti t' b.-. 

hut r.-: .A. 



if o.nsui!i.'.l by men of sedeii 
!• r iNanipIe— woiiM produce different 
k bv iicarlv all «-riivr=: ...n this subleei ari 
n as ti. the dlrTerence U-twcen a const 
.if :;ia!T liipi.Ts. Tbi n.iiure of the work 
lid nr.J ihi- general manner of living dei 
of :n:.!( \--\ucTf. iiu-ii can c-onsnme with, 
.-. 1: i; a f.ici well known to every one i\ 
i:i«r i:. l!ii^ niaiter. ihM ihc dailv consun 
ivr-:;an-.. the maiori:y of whom are habilt 
■-ilriitkir-, varies iri'in live 10 twenty glasn 
tire oi \\\t tic^wijiiuow of the drinker. 



' BEER IN ECONOMICS. II21 

CONCLUSIONS. 

The conclusions to t>e drawo from the investigations arc : 

I. Brewers drink more beer, and drink it more constantly, than 
any other class of people. 

II. The rate of death among brewers is lower, by 40 per cent, 
than the average death rate among the urban population of the 
groups of ages corresponding with those to which brewery work- 

III. The health of hrewers is unusually good; diseases of the 
kidneys and liver occur rarely among them. 

The conclusion to be drawn from II and III is: 

IV. That on an average brewers live longer and preserve iheir 
physical energies better than the average workman of the United 
States. 

THE TEMPERANCE PROBLEM. 

Alcoholism is a disease almost wholly peculiar to modern limes. 
White it is true that processes of distilling spirits, more or less 
crude, were known 10 many different nations and tribes in all 
stages of savagery, barbarism or civilization, the use of distilled 
liquors was introduced into Europe among those nations with 
which we arc cociccrncd because we are descended from them, 
somewhere in the fourteenth century. It seems to have come 
from Spain where the Arabs had ruled for so many centuries, 
and the word "Alcohol" still shows its Arabian origin plainly. 
France seems to have been the first country to make distilled 
liquors for drinking. But il was the northern tribes that took to 
disiilU'd liquors most kindly. They never made much headway 
in Ihc southern countries against the wines which were indige- 
nous. Fermented beverages, on the other hand, have always been 
known and used extensively. It would be difficult to find a tribe 
or nation that did not have its fermented drink. But until dis- 
tilled liquors were introduced, alcoholism as a disease, sometimes 
fatal, was unknown. But the problem of alcoholism and of the 
drunkard is only a minor offshoot of the temperance question. 
There is only one drunkard in every 10,000 of population. The 
greater question is the prevention of the excessive use of alco- 
holic stimulants, which may occur and does occur without lead- 
ing to drunkenness, and yet does much barm. 




BEER IN ECONOMICS. 1123 

by a systematic diminution and the ultimale abolition of taxes 
upon whoieBomc beverages." 

The commissioners sum up their observations in the assertion 
that Ilie only practicable method of diminishing; the evils of in- 
ebriety by govemnienlal measures should aim at : 

1. The suppression of technically imperfect distillation; 

2. A system of taxation and administration by which the manu- 
facture of, and traffic in, distilled spirits can be controlled and, 
if need be, restricted, and by which the collection of high duties 
on spirits is rendered feasible; 

3. The reduction or abolition of taxes on wholesome beverages. 

SIMILAR RESULTS IN THE UNITED STATES. 

Observations in Ihe United States fully bear out the conclusions 
so lucidly staled by the Swiss commission. Notwithstanding alt 
attempts to break up the habits of excessive drinking prevailing 
in this country under the free whisky regime prior to the war 
of the rebellion, it was only when at the breaking out of the war 
of the rebellion the federal government viaa once tnore compelled 
to resort to the highest practicable tax upon whisky — Ihe excise 
on beer and wine being comparatively low, thereby reviving the 
principles of TIaniilton. Jefferson, Madison, Dr. Rush. Tench 
Coxe and other leatlers in politics or temperance — that there was 
inaugurated lliat radical change in drinking habits to which Ihe 
American pciiple of lo-day owe their position in the front rank 
of sober nations. Within this short space of time, viz., since 
July I, 1862, the consumption of whisky, through Ihe operation 
of the internal revenue tax law, has fallen from eleven to some- 
what less than four quarts per capita, while in the same period 
the production of beer has risen from less than a million to more 
than thirty millions of barrels, and large quanlilles of domestic 
wines arc consumed besides. 

The statesmanship of the founders of the American republic 
appears in a new light when we remember the statement of 
Thomas Jcflfcrson that "wine is the only antidote for whisky," or 
the conscious purpose of Hamilton lo foslcr the brewing industry 
and reduce the production of spirits, to which end the first Con- 
gress and almost every session of the earlier Congresses was 
practically a unit as far as the moral ends to be achieved thereby 



BEER IN ECONOMICS. 1 125 

a. That under the operation of high license laws, the consump- 
tion of ardent spirits increases. 

3. That the highest degree of drunkenness is found where 
ardent spirits are used most generally, while comparative sobriety 
prevails where fermented liquors are the common drink. 

The conclusions for the United States must coincide with those 
for Switzerland, viz., that the restrictive effect of the laws should 
be conRned to ardent spirits so as to impart to the trafSc in fer- 
mented beverages greater power of expansion, and to enable 
the people to gratify a craving for stimulants, ineradicable in its 
present state of culture, by using the mild and wholesome bever- 
ages which are so rarely productive of inebriety in its pernicious 
and dangerous forms. 

The system of indiscriminate high license produces results 
diametrically opposed to those which are desired. 

REVENUE DERIVED FROM THE LIQUOR TRAFFIC. 

The twelfth annual report of the United States Commissioner 
of Labor contained a statistical investigation of the liquor traffic 
from which some of the most interesting data are here repro- 

The investigation covered the year 1896. It may be added thai 
although the amounts found to be paid by the liquor traffic lo Ihe 
various governments in the country are almost incredibly hrge 
for that year, they have been enormously increased since lliat 
time. When it is considered that the internal revenue tax on 
beer was doubled for three years and is now (beginning July i, 
1901) about two-thirds higher than in 1896, that special taxes are 
levied on tonics, that beer is being taxed in some states and license 
fees are everywhere rising, while brewers and liquor dealers share 
in the various stamp taxes generally imposed on business transac- 
tions since the Spanish war, it is safe to say that an addition 
of 25 per cent to ihe rate of contributions from the liquor traffic 
lo the national, state and municipal governments on the basis 
of the figures given by the Commissioner of Labor would nol 
he excessive. To this should be added the increase coming from . 
the natural growth of Ihe liquor business. It is likely that for 
the year 1900 the total would nol be far from $240,000,000. (See 
tables on pages 1126, 1127. 1128.} 



it 



S 3 && 

e s '^l 

I I 

" - " ": S 



a S 3 g 



E « 



BE£S IN 

p. 

JiP 


ECOHOUICS. 


1 


1 sis=JSS-|S"Ȥ 


1 


1 iPlsSfsSSIl 


1 


jf 


1 li«Pg'!!ll« 


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s 


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ll 


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lltiissSSeSi;!!lii 



-2 III 






|tlB8i!!sii?iSi6I|8 

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I7 I =="5^"§l'i^*'2==' 



sjs- ■5=fS :-l5s - 



BEER IN ECONOUICS. 







» 


sIS" 


amiu^u 


f 




5 


sjsjsisisa'sis 


5 




a 




















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1 128 



BEBtt IN ECONOUICS. 



/ 



TOTAL ANNDAI. lETENUE DOUTED FROM LIQUOR UANTTFACnntI A 

TVAFFIC (rat THB YKAR KNDINC JUNB JO. 1896). 
Tai on ml knd nenonil nroperty employed In Itriuor m>Dii- 

iBclure {(Htlnuled) t I.SBM 

Tax on n«l and jMnonal proper!; employed In ll<4Uor iratnc 

InlimAtcd) iO.on.ia 
nioran tax In Xenlockj-AOd HiiMinrl I'^li: 

CnllcdSulMiDleniil reTinui tax IH.WXM 

LiraoK feen omperlal laiM. tiatei ia.M.Dii 

Llcenia Ia»or«peclal laxa, oaanllen. K.Oll.*± 

LleenH fee* orxpeelal laiea. Bunleli«llll» tt.\lt.» 

rinea. itatoi tljs 

Fines. ronallM 3nt,.W 

Pliiea. Ddnlelialllles. UUli 

Flnea. nalee of ronlluated Itqnon, elc. United Slalea leatl- 

matcd) ISM* 

Cuitomidullee on Imported llquon ■.TM.OI 

Toul fite.2ti.is 

FINANCIAL lUPOSTANCE OF UQUOB TCAFFIC. 

With respect to Ihe table giving a sunitnary of rapital tnvr»t 
taxes and rent paid and persons engaged in the liquor traffic. 
Males (sec pages 1126 and 11:^7). the Commissi>*ner of Labor sa; 

II is impracticable to give eslimales of the captlal. eniplo)' 
He.,, representing the liquor traffic in each slate and terrilo 
Such estimates would have lo be based on average conditions I 
all the states canvassed and would not correclly represent the 
dividual flaie:^ and icrrilories where widely varying condilif 
are known to exist. This may be seen by an examination of 1 
table. But the facls given in this table, covering as they dc 
canvass of parts of 14 slaie.'i and including nearly onc-fitlli 
the enlire number of cstablis^hmenls in the country, are belie\ 
In be fairly ri-prescnlalivc of the wliule cuiiniry. And it is 1 
lleved lh.it an estimate for the 161.48.1 esiahlishmenli; in I 
whole country, if lia.wd on an avcr.ige of the lads iihown in t! 
table, will In- ?ulislnnlinllv acciirale. EMiinntes have thus he 
made. 

I'.ir ihe year ending June .w. 1806. the capital invested ( 
clii^ivrly in ihc Hi|uor traffic hy the 16148.1 establishments 
i:-lininiipl by ihc niclliod jii*l descrilx'il was $957. 162.907. 
ilii' ain.iunt S4iJ.1SS.rJQ, or 4.1.06 iht emi, represented the val 
111" land and huililiiiRs, fixtures anil other properties nwntd 
ihe persons or firms carrying nn the liquor traffic, and $544.07 
I'S, or .76,04 I"''' "■'!', 'he value nf the pmperly renleil by the 
Thv cilini.lled aiin\\;\\ taxes pa\4 ow the (ir.vpi.rly was $10,075.1 
tad the rettt paid .m Uie teM»A VT..vtT\'! ^vv,i''^-*V For ( 



BEER IN ECONOMICS. 



1129 



reason heretofore given the estimated amount of taxes should not 
be used as a basis to estimate the rale of taxation, or the esti- 
mated rent as the basis to ascertain the per cent of retnrn on 
rented property used in the liquor traffic. All of these values per- 
tain exclusively to the liquor traffic and not to any other business 
that may be conducted by the different establishments. The esti- 
mated number of proprietors or firm members engaged in the 
liquor traffic was 191,519 and the employes 241,755. If 'he em- 
ployes had devoted their entire time to the liquor traffic, it is esti- 
mated that it would have required 172,931 to carry on the busi- 
ness of the 161,483 estate ishments. 





Hecelptg during Hsca] 
yfiracndcdJiinero- 








TB89. 


1900. 




Ale. beer, l««er beer, porter, and 
other slinlUr (ennented 
liquors 


a«,aeB59 
3)B.im.iM 


iei,3a§.'!>! 

ZM.S8H.BI 
SJB.TSCI..W 

14.TAI.0I 


!i,«8.™B.» 




Retail dealon In mali jioiiorn 


T.<34.» 




Wholewle aetifTs in mnii 


Urtag-N 


Ad^llonsl wSloctlfins on fer- 
inenled ll.|uor. stored In svare- 


Iffi.USHS 


Tolnl 


».8M.S«>.4ft 


73.BM,IM4n 


4.<KK.IIM0I 





PKOnilcTIOK OF FERMENTED LIQUORS IN 1 

TERRITORIES OF THE UNITED STATES FOR THE 
II EMBED JUKE 30. 19 00. 



BlBles inil TprrltorlcB. 


imrwl-. 


Su.,o,.ndTerrl,orl.. 


IWrrels. 




en.H9 

II3,WV 

SJBO'Tio 

7oe.tw 

&46I.8IE 


















^o||'™da 


KewM"i?o:-::':::;:::.;;: 


2,lfil).lW 








Ohio !!'".'.;!'.',!!!! 














taTh(»'"i" 












Texat. 
















ToMx\ 








"/''™T,^.'."-.v;;;;;.-;.-::::.v;: 





/ 



1130 BEER IN ECONOMICS. 

STATCHENT OP FERURNTCD LIguOKS REMOVIO) natt BK£«'EUKS 
BONII, FSEE OF TAX, FROM JULY I. iSqQ, TO JUNE 30, 
igOO, ITKDEk ACT OF JUNK 18, tSOO. 

Ga»a 
Removed for export and unaccounted for June 30, iSgQ. 460; 

Removed for direct exportation 735.; 

Removed in 0rigin.1l patrkagcs. to be bottled for eicport. 2J3i; 

Removed by pipe lin*, to be bottled for export l.JOOti 

Excess reported by bottlers lot: 

Total 4JS31J 

Exported in original packages, proofs received 780. 

Exported in bottles, proofs received 3.469J 

Removed for export, unaccounted for, tax paid 8,. 

Excess reported by bottlers 60,1 

Removed for export, unaccounted for, June 30. igoo 512.; 

Total 4.831.1 



INTERNA). RC\-EM-F. HECPIPTS FROM FEKMEKTEil I.IQUORS, AI«D QVf 

TiTiES PRnri-i.-Eti, i8fc TO njoo. 
The table on the next page shows ihc iniernal revenue recei 
from fermented liquors at one dollar and two dollars per bai 
and at sisiy ci^ms prr barrel, together with the quantities of 
fame on which tax wa!: paid during each tiscal year, from Septe 
ber I. iSfij. to Jtine .10, igoo. 
J'riut to SopiembcT 1, 1866, l>w Va^i wi Ve^meW** lL<iuors v 



BEER IN ECONOMICS. 



II3I 



paid in currency, and the full amount of tax was returned liy col- 
lectors. From and after that date the tax was paid by stamps, on 
which a deduction of 7V2 per cent was allowed to brewer? using 
tliem. The Act of July 24, 1897. repealed the 7V2 per cent dis- 
count. The Act of June 13, 1898, increased the lax to $2 per 
barrel, and restored the 7K per cent discount. 



FllK«l 

is 


5 

i 


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■Sr 


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;-*i.sM.n«m 


3.<itti,u£n 


iB.ais,.W, 


,».,.) 




1,878,401.19 




J a.BS.rio.ja 


3,UI,3RI' 


l>7.9ffi.|t1l 
















































































































































































































































































































































































































































































ISW ., j 




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2.WW.HHU 




.'t;,4(B.siD' 


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iwB....; 


sou 


B7.(l7l.ai.HI 




; 87.1173.31)1.31 


a),wi.iri 


.ini.mt.KSi 






















7-.tT70,WI.5? 


.TB.iai.ntnl 














(iJ-tVilul 








■i\6,W!JSM.ff 


V'SA.wa:.'*. 





/ 



113^ BEER IK ECOKOUICS. 

TALUS OP BAtLKV IN THE DNITEll STATES FOt ACBK, |8eK> TQ tSSSL- 

FVOH VKAR-BOOK OP THE UMTKD STATES DKPAST- 

UENT OF AiailCULTUSE. 



»i,». 



.| m.ai' iieffi,ii.t.iB;tiT.ie*i;.3j'tie.mti3.is*i 



R. IMX. j II 



I' ifi.n II H tssa a.Ki iia: is. 



!i W SI an 17 n: 



iT.W' i&.ij< iT.on a 
B.oii lo.a^ la.tft n 
t.m- a. Ml a.M ii 
a.oD K.-a/ ic.off II 
a.ai la.e. ki-ok i 



, ID I!, la.ae i 
li.Ki u'm 



ti.vl It.ttT 9.l» ^ 



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ii:s 


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tIm g^M t'-U 


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1 .'1 l.» 7.M 4.1 


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B.ni s.w a.Ti' 7.1 


South liBkxia. 




11. » m ia 




1>.4S 4.4(> 621 a.l 






11 »i t> It: 


l!7l 7S4 fl.l*> 


a.st 8..1T rat 71 


HoniBna 


IT.W 


1B.V1 Sl.Vi 


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in.*; 




t.u. w.iH in.n. 


na> 11 » 11 <a ». 




12 w 




j M iK.Mi itt m 


3.3» 17 W IN .-» I»l 


i'lah 






UW \f. W ll.Tll 


» la.m 17. aa 17. 


ld«tio 


li n 


WT^ PSH 


A Ml 1K.K to. 31 




W»-hinKliin.. 






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I'.ill [UK I7J11 IS.. 


i.'»n(Ornla.;!ll 






11.41 li.74 H.M 


D.X1 II.M II. % Ml 


lllH 


II le II » 




is: IS4J «« 13 1 


lirn'l aT..™!!^ 


lTTi 


"iji"s« "iTIh " 


S *! !>H.i (■.»' 




.MmRTATlON 


OF TO 


REIC.V BAKLE\- FOR THE LAS 


10 FISCAL VEA»! 










Ad valorem rat 






BusMs. 


Valuc- 


Duty. of dtitt 


iSqo 




1-,1.W.545 


$5.Gig.Rig S 


1.1.13.355 ».ll 


iSgi 




5.or8.r.i.i 


a.«^-593 


1.500.640 45,16 


'89-! 




.1.146..VS 


r.5*i.040 


94.1,898 59.38 


isgj 




i.oro,i29 


i«i.6o5 


591.039 64.13 


I«94 




rgi.o6i 


35S.744 


237.318 66.15 


'f<a5 




;. 116.816 


867.745 Cannnt be determined 


i8ot> 




i.2;r.rKr 




05.163 3000 
118.425 30.00 


i«^ 




,V»4.74't 


/^ 




ij^.to^ 


4.l.Wi.1 


37-441 85-35 


'** 




110.473 


^-i-***^ 


.13.143 61*2; 



BEER IN ECONOMICS. 



Stales and Terrllor- 


I89U. 


mi. 


ym. 


SKI. 


BW t»i«i imil»iir7 'ISUK 


ma. 


sJilHamptiiVre'-'''.! 


WO 
£2.0 

l»-7 

\»t 

IB-ft 

ai,7 
Si'e 

SI 

as!* 

i:i 


3t 

« 
a 

IS 

a 

a 

!S 

1! 

W 

u 

9 

at 

S! 
B 




1" 

a. 


». 
». 

7. 

1 

1 
1 


Uu 

li 

It 

M.7 

!u! 
20. 

a. 

1: 

et'. 

SI. 


H.l! 

li 
11 

ii.i 

S:! 

1:1 


33.0 

IU.4 

it: 

s- 

1 

i 
i! 


M.6 

1 

"si 

ss.u 

Is 


r,:8 

li 

|:5 

i:! 
Si 

li 

W.It 

S:! 


s.o 


BhodelaUnd. .'.'.'!!'.! 


w.o 


Pcnnsjlranla 


aiu 


















as:.,. 


w.u 


a"~"!;:::::;;:: : 


J6(. 




r li 






HortiiLukot.:'..::.:: 


a. II 
a.o 


IdBbo 

WanhtDKioii 


».o 






aeDenlaviiniiEi!.. 


21.00 


K.80 


SS.TO 


ai-70 


10 r 


ifi.SD 


84 Sl 


■il «l 


»B» 



EXFOKTATION li 



DOMESTIC BAKLEV FOR T 



Bushels. 

■ ■■ i,4o8,3n 

973,062 

2,800,07s 

• ■••■ , 3.035.267 

1894 5.219.405 

1,563,754 

7.680,331 

20,030,301 

11,237.077 

2,267,403 



Value. 

$754,605 
669,203 
1-751,445 
1,468,843 
2,379,714 
767,228 
3.100,311 
7.646,384 
5.542MO 



"34 



BEER IN ECONOMICS. 



I 



Of the domestic barley exported in 1899. 961.894 bashels. 
the vahie of $594,589, >iverc shipped from San Francisco, Ca 
980.474 bushels, of the value of $596,650, from New York. N. \ 
and the balance. 325.035 bushels, of ihc value of $184,035, frc 
all other ports. 

The United Kingdom (Great Britain and Ireland) receiv 
i,220.5()0 bushels, of the value of $752,590; Germany. 152,8 
bushels, of the value of $69,509; Belgium. 152.459 bushels, 
the value of $105,770; the Hawaiian .Islands. 511.842 bushels, 
the value, of $300.843 ; and all other countries. 229.681 bushels, 
the value of $146,562. 

PRICES OF BARLEY PER Bl'SHEL ON THE FARM DECEMBER I. 189O 
1899. — FRUM YEAR-IKX)K OF THE CNITED STATES 
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICCI-TrRE. 



State* aii»l Torritor- 




















_ irx _ 


IK1|» 


I*<!M l»>-* 


»•*« \>m 


iwir> 


IsW 


iw: 


IMni. II 




fix. 


CI 


•«. * 


t>. 


Ct«* (is 


Cl<i 


CI". 


;'is 


ri< i 


Muiiu* 


Tti 




T-: 


6'* 


«T rirt 


h-: 


4:t 


.v> 


h^ 


Now Hami'««lnro 


SI 




74 


74 


7U f\\ 


M\ 


5:t 


fV» 


.w 


Vornioin 


To 




7-2 


lit; 


I^O (i) 


47 


41 


46 


47 


MassaohiiNfUx 


i i 




ft 


7.T 


rti rt.1 


r« 


5>i 


rtH 


«K 


Khinle Islami 


T»i 




7s 


SV! 


h- r: 


75 


A> 


M 


HI 


N«'w York . . 


> 




tr> 


7."» 


«!i» :i»> 


M 


:<i» 


4» 


4>i 


rnin-x ]v;in»a . 


;n 




t'>i 


:^: 


.M) lb 


41 


M* 


;io 


44 


■|'i'\U«." . . 






7> 


lis 


l^» .v> 


54 


.Til 


4:4 


50 


T iriios^i*'! ... 






, 


tW 


.\S .%li 


5<» 


45 


ft,i 


,5« 


Ki-ntui'.kv 






. 


;«•» 


.M 17 


:n 


to 


4(1 


4«i 


t)riio 


?«> 




I'KI 


h7 


17 4s 


41 


> 


41 


44 


Mirhit;aii 


M 




t^t 


iVt 


»'.» .=H» 


i;{ 


42 


4H 


41 


Iniliaiia 


ri:> 




.V.I 


.VJ 


45 45 


ii> 


Xi 


44 


44 


Illinois 


!«• 




.Vi 


4\i 


4'.' 4s 


45 


M 


;is 


:i» 


W i»i'on-'ii 






.Vi 
4:< 




l.t 15 

:v. 41 


:t4 


■-•7 


2A 


4a) 


Miniii^nia 


.1:4 


[own 


:VJ 




v: 


40 


:w 4-: 


•::< 


'11 


21 


:i4 


Mi>M">ur; ... 


:>: 




57 


I'i 


4o 51 


4S 


'^ 


40 


;k 


Kan -us 


r»7 




40 


:<?. 


47 I'.i 


■.::t 


.».> 


'J5 


27 


Ni'bniNka . . . 


.T|" 




;t7 


:w 


31 43 


•J 4 


IV 


24 


•«> 


South Pakiv.i .... 


v» 


^ 


41 


:vi 


;«= :r, 


u* 


19 


.Nl 




North li;i:-.o;a . . .. 


1 


.■ 


4J 


:w 


:ji r,ii 


•Jo 


•-M 


27 


2» 


Moil '.ana 


li 




*^C^ 


tw; 


.=i<' 40 


5«.> 


55 


5'^ 


.i7 


r-Worailo 


7ii 




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»v< 


^rt 


51 


4i*» 


Now Mt v!io 


• • • t 




7o 


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5s 7"' 


r-»> 


rt5 


.55 


.5ft 


Viuh 


*.'» 




I'm 


.VJ 


15 4«5 


:Ri 


42 


45 


47 


Iiiah»» 


7.'^ 




IW 


;u 


5;i 17 


4J 


•*>» 


42 


»S 


\Vash:iiL'!o:i 


i> 




rm 


i:i 


:w :r: 


3S 


4U 


t:{ 


4.5 


l>ri-L'OFJ 


70 




i>* 


irt 


4c ;:< 


4i' 


45 


45 


40 


«'a;l:.>rn a 


7;^ 




rtl 


47 


4C 15 


40 


4^' 


54 


SS 


Li '.'lie: Hi Awrn^K'. . . 


01 N! 


:.4 


(l(» 1: 


■ -.I' 


11 IC44 IV 


:w ivi 


:« r 


r: 70 41 :^o 



BEER IN ECONOMICS. 



Mtnltolia 

Heat orCBnada 
Total LB HI da 
Tolal "(Wlh \B 



Urcat Brllaln 

Tolal LDlled King 

Denniark 

HBlbarlandB. 

UelKluiD 



zzz 


7s«».oa 
mm 


-7 303 00(1 

iisitxmo 

Bl-WWlO 


14 an) 000 

S1;M9.U0I 



Hungary ^ 

ToUl Aualrlu Itn 

gary 
Roumaii ■ 
BulKBrla 

Ruiwla proper 
Kortb LaueuuB 
Toul Butala 



IfllK>p« 

Total Furope 


nr u -n 


IDBT M 


tBIfri M 


~V«L K' 


oui 


Siberia 


4K«(nc 


Boot COD 

a 14a on 


*,<»l<Wt 


snaoDu 


^ 














Japan 


aiwax 


tgiKXM 


(IVHOIK 


44«Ge,<iix 


« 


Toial iais 


W(B3.M1I 


rtSMOOO 


tiU»uaO 


ai Mil 000 


B. 


Alien a 
Cape col on J 


8M.O00 

iTxaoon 


•iSR 

wworo 


owinun 
THOin 


noooooi 

(mow 


:» 










WeitADHlnilta 

liaw Soulh Wales 

-niilnanJa 
Mew Zealand 


IBOOI 

awoun 

1032,000 


IS, 

TKoeo 
mm 

lomow 


841000 


MOOU 


' 


Toul AiullUaalB 


tUSMHatW 


K6 4BIM 


us:'. 


cri «»•!»' 


^» 



1136 BEER IN ECONOMICS. 

utnms OF BABiiiy halt nxi thb last to nscu. yeams 

Bushels. Value. rate of d 

JS90 217486 |i6i,666 a6 

lagi ia%o83 78433 21 

189a 5,165 6^148 37. 

J893 3.559 M" Jfi- 

i8m 5.070 5J576 » 

189s ".069 7,495 £SS! 

1896 S.579 4J74 40. 

1897 iijAt 9.384 *>■ 

1898 4.769 4-liz 45 

1899 4.984 4-447 45- 

Tbe iinporlalion. owing to ihe high duly, has decreased si 
1891 (o such an irxtcnt that it has almost disappeared as a fat 
in the brewing interest. 

tUKUTS or CRAHtlLATEn hICF, IIEAI. AND RICE FLOUI, FtK THE L 
10 FISCAL VCAKS. 

Pounds. Value. D 

i8go 55-667,174 $927,067 $185 

1*^1 8i.-'S9.SiP 1.389.408 

189-' fc.991.524 1.097.436 157. 

1893 66.451.884 i.tgi-S-* 166, 

1894 55.351.2S1 833.843 138, 

1S95 7S.j6j,9og 1,091,538 195 

l8yO 68.534.273 911.Q05 171. 

If97 63,876.204 961.300 150, 

1898 60.474,685 953.7-'-s 151. 

i*J9 50.340.267 777.378 125. 

IMniRTS OF FUKEIGN HOPS FOR TllE LJ^iyT 10 FISCAL YEAKS. 

.■\d valorem i 

Poviiids. Value. Dutv. of d\ 

iSijo 6,;,w;i6 Si.053.616 55J3-16' 49 

i»)i 4.019.603 1.797.406 588,196 32 

1892 a,;o6.224 883.701 375.934 +i 

iSq.i 2.691.244 1.0S5.407 403.687 J9. 

1894 828,022 484-415 "^■»'3 35. 

i8q5 3.133.664 599.744 Cannot be determi 

1896 2,rrj.045 600,419 221.764 36 

i8g? 3.01-.821 629.987 241.425 ifi- 

iSgS 2.375.923 fe*,\^^ ^^ut 43 

iSffg IJ19.3V9 »i-.l^ ^*A* •* 



BEER IN ECONOMICS. 



II37 



EXPORTS OF DOMESTIC HOPS FOR TUE LAST 10 FISCAL YEARS. 

Pounds. Value. 

1890 7.540,854 $1,110,571 

1891 8,736,080 2,327,474 

1892 12,604,686 2,420,502 

1893 11,367,030 2,695,867 

1894 17,472,975 3,844,232 

1895 17,523,388 1 ,872,597 

1896 16,765,254 1,478,919 

1897 11,426,241 1,304,183 

1898 17,161,669 2,642,779 

1899 21,145,512 3,626,144 

Of the domestic hops exported in 1899, 18,964.836 pounds, of 
the value of $3,291,347, were shipped to the United Kingdom; 
464,013 pounds, of the value of $61,389, to the Dominion of 
Canada, Newfoundland and Labrador; 838,069 pounds, of the 
value of $124,673, to British Australasia and the British East 
Indies; and 17,951 pounds, of the value of $2,362 to Mexico; and 
705,171 pounds, of the value of $124,136 to Belgium. All other 
countries received only 155,472 pounds, of the value of $22,237. 

HOP CROPS OF DIFFERENT COUNTRIES^ 189S TO 1899, IN BALES OF 180 

POUNDS. — FROM YEAR-BOOK OF THE UNITED STATES 

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

[In hales of 180 pouDds.] 



Countries. 



Galtfornla... 

Oregon 

WasDington 
New York... 



Total United States. 



Australia 

Austria- Hungary 

Belgium 

England 

France 

Germany 

Russia 



Total 1,138.300 



1895. 



S2,000 

09,600 

28.800 

110.000 



29Q,300 



96,000 



343,000 
42.000 

868,000 



1896. 



96.000 
56.000 
12.000 
75,000 



178.000 



136.000 

281.000 

43.000 

353.000 



1897. 



45,000 
Th.OOO 
32.000 
75,000 



227.000 

18,383 

100.000 

85.734 

255.7»« 

88,181 

584,498 

64,000 



1898. 



41,500 
71.260 

36.200 
65 0(K) 



216.960 

18.383 
96,000 
30.630 

218.000 
42,867 

440,920 
61,240 



991.000 1,423,583 1.123.900 1,398.517 



1899. 



64.000 
85.000 
33.000 
58.000 



240.000 

07.218 
190,633 
W0.311 
411.554 

25.545 
407.199 

41.057 



a New Zealand only. b Belgium and the Netberlands. 



n 



1138 BEER IN ECONOMICS. 

NUMBER AND VALUE OF STAMPS FOR FERMEN 
NUMBER OF BREWERS' PERMITS ISSl 



■ umber l»ii«<l In 





.11.1). A„B. 


S..1.1. ttct. 


Xo.. 


r 


MoG'twail 

I-ftTl 

One-hall laml.. 

Oiie-qtiirH'i Inml 
Dne-i^jLihlam-l ,. 
I^e-rluhih hniTi'l. 


... «>tui<i fsiixw 
... a,s«.uti s.Mui(> 

HMO 

.... i.i»A.nv a.uiau 
.... w.itt> a.uw 

... I1W.M TKMV 


wmi mow 
.iK.sn> tn.w 

i.tK.iw 'ion.im 
11T.1M1 «.ooor 
7WI.1W »o.S(«> 


w.iai 


I.O 




g,i3i.aio i).ii)7.iiiw fcrnao 
i£.ii«i sxaoaj i^«n 




Klilioruilon 




^ 



NUMBER OF BREWERS AND DEALERS IN 
LIQUORS. BV ST.\TES. FOR THE YEAR 
KXDED lUNE 30. 1900. 



r.ANEOUS INFORMATION. II39 

UQUORS (TAX PAID AND EXPORTATION) AND THE 
DURING THE YEAR ENDED JUNE 30, 1900. 



May. 



4eT!30o| m.hoo 

a.S3(l.M0 S.1Mnm 

'i.sasiooo i.ti 

m.too\ f. .. 



.217.60) 



M.oool iflo.sool 

auftn, BBtiWO AMKO, «(7,i 

S,»8.0a>| 1.911. OIOl S.m.MO I>.8M,. 

M.ooo' ao.an' S4.ooa 3.< 

8U.U0O[3.:£W.eml l.WS.WUi 3,340,1 

w.floo m.aoul iift-NO'l ir: 

zx.i<oa\ ■m.xai swmo i.dh.: 



CMS, mi' 4S,I«I,MKI.U0 



e,»«,Mo i,N«.tas.O(i 



MOl.Mn' 6.SlT.aiO S,K6.eDI>| 9.910,1 
I 0.400, 8.000 46.000 



i.aat.aoo' 1l,s3^eao| sb,»4,t«i.«7b,tti.m.34 

T.ecol B.ttoo 1*0,000 

ao.im i,HOi s».MO, ....„.^ . , 



BEER PRODUCTION OF THE WORLD ("GAMBRINUS"). 




MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION. 



In this chapter has been assembled a variety of inforttatioR 
general character, and such as did not naturally fall under 
of the other chapter heads of the book. 

It is believed that the tables of standard dimensions of brei 
vessels will prove peculiarly valuable to brewers for quick n 
encc. They were compiled from the Brewery Architects' 
Engineers' Hand-Book. by E. Schmidt. 

The informaiiun relating to building matenals. etc., was lar 
taken from Kidder's Architects' and Builders' Pocket-Book 

STANDARD DIMENSIONS OF BREWERY VESSEL 



n. I 



~~■^- 


■ — 




5*: 


Q l|m 








i 


a^ 


a- 














16 


^ 


Si; 


J" 




;s 


























i. 


^ 


P ' 








'A 


\| 


\\ 



Va.'. ' 



MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION. 



STANDARD DIMENSIONS OF BREWERY VESSELS. 


KRTTLK. 


1 




_— 1 


Slcam. 


V-lv». 












3 














3 




1 


2 

1 


5 a 

IS 

if 


11 . 


II 


• 

li 

11 


g 

* 

£ 


li 


■3 


S 
% 


1 


i 


£ 


3 

• * 




s 






n 


a = 










ItT 


111, 


a 


















liT 




» 


»l 


fl.B* 


B.O' 








< 


1S4 


IM 


iM 






» 


88 


!■! 


«.o 


11 


'o ^ 

* 


1 


i 


1M 


r 


m 




1 


IW 






fie 










m 


!K 


^ 


H 


m 


IK 






B.ll 


fl.e 


- ■ 




M 


IK 


SW 


H 


H 














. ■ 


4 


M 


tit 


SH 


M 


H 






eio 














K 


*« <M 






no 


WI 


18, B 


10. 1 








( 


K 


«*' |M 


M 


■ M 


ao 


aw 


Il.fl 


lO.B 


s.s 






W 








B 


KO 


sao 








-TA • 




t i 




3 S 






» 


410 






«:» 






M 










wo 






18,0 


10 a 






i 








I 


4M 














l« 




?!s n 


K 


SH 


HO 










t'.a 




JX 


Ju 


SH 


SW 


s 


RICK TUB. 


BAUUELOT COOLER. 


1 








Susm 


E 


i 


<S 




^ 


s 




i 


i 






mioi.. 


£ 


a 






^1 
















1 


^ 


31-= 


^ = ' 


^ 




5 












II 




1 


i 


1 


i 


jl 




i 


p 


k 


1 


1 






=1 


E 




l_ 


K 






= 1 


|E 


£ 


3 


S 






nTT 










(Tu 






n.in. 


n. In. 




» 










'SI 




KK 


M 






lA 








% 


83 




S-0 








8 


a) 
















10 


:o 


A.O 






a 


i 


a 


all 




10 








w 


JO 










lA 


iM 


■0 






« 








lua 


w 


'.0 


























la 


ae 












«t< 


«« 


n!( 




M 








IBO 






7.0 






i-t 




m 


iE.I 


d 


» 




IS. CI 








!fl 


TO 














« 


as 








mi 


30 












4 






ifl 










IN) 




1 !o 


8.U 


1 


■M 


u 


10 


KO 




a 


«o 


»;o 




i.3 


joo 








« 


m 


ii 








id 


^0 


1.0 


£30 






















T*p 


o* 








.vu 


!1B 


ISO 




1 


IM 




UK 


i« 


Bi V- \ w\ T .(.V'as.w* 














le 




ia( \ift.o\\6\a\ ^.*\^?'«\\ 


M ^In.o 


0.0 / i? 


J 


10 


i;V,a\K\:^^l\jS^ 


»V\ 



1142 MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION. 

STANDARD DIMENSIONS OF BREWERY VESSELS. 









HOP-JACK. 






BEER TANK. 


c 

m 

I 






HouihI. 


1 

S4IU 


are. 






1 
t 

[ 

• 

1 


1 


Ik 






Over 


< 
i ' 1 


j 

■ 










Sprinkler. 


s 








c 






1 


c 




Number o 


2 

c 

3" 


1 


« 


2? 1 SX 

®— ■ ©IT 

E« Eft* 


• 

U 


• 

x: 

C i 
& ! 

• 


• 

2 1 

St i 


9 
X 


i 5 

c 

- « 

c 

■ 5 

1 t 


9 

8 

m 

5 
rt. In. 


i 
■ 5 

9 

■ 




ruin. 


ft. Id. 


ft. In.. In. 




ft tn. 


ruin. 


ft. In. 


ft. in. 


25 3S 


6.0 


5.0 1 


3.0 1 ts 


40 ' 7.0 . 


ft.O : 


5.0 . 


21 


6.0 


4.0 


36 45 


7.0 , 


5.0 


3 6 2H 


48 , 70 


60 . 


5 . 


: m ! 


7.0 


4.0 


50 65 


8.6 


5.0 


4.0 24 


« 8.0 


7.0 


5.0 


56 ! 


8.0 


4.6 


75 ' 82 


9.0 


5.6 


4.6 ; 2% 


8S 8.0 


SO . 


5.6 


8S 1 


0.0 


< 5.6 


100 110 


10.0 


6.0 


5.0 - 2^ .110 . 10.0 


8.0 


5.6 . 


112 1 


10.0 


6.0 


1?5 \Wb 


11 j 


6.0 ■ 


5.6 . SH 140 12.0 


8.0 


6 


13S 1 


no 


6.0 


ISO i70 


12 6: 


6.0 


6 2S 165 12.0 


10. 


6.0 


161 


120 


60 


175 IH8 


1» 


n 


6.H 2S IS>5 14.0 . 


10 


t) i» 


ho 


13 


60 


300 iA) 


14 


6.0 


7.0 2S •^-'0 11.0 


11.0 


6 


22«» 


14.0 


60 


; 250 ?73 


15 


6.t> 


7.6 2S 27.S 16.0 


11.0 


7.0 


273 


15 


66 


[ doo 3ao 


16.0 


7.0 


8 S 315 16 


12 


7 


3-V 


16 


69 


XiO JR7 


17.0 


7 


8.0 3 mo 18.0 


12 


7.0 


»4) 


17.0 


7 


; 400 423 


18.0 


7.0 


K 3 425 30 


12.0 


7.6 


423 


18.0 


70 


! 4nci 445» 


18.6 


7.0 


8.0 3 4»10 20.0 


13 


7.6 


471 


19 


7 


M> »oU» 


19.6 


7.0 


8.0 3 52U 20.0 


14.0 


7.6 


.=V23 


20 


7.0 




- — — 


R 

1 


WATKK-TANK 


S. 










• 




oiind. 




Square 






%. 

5 


_ 




JJ 






I'opi^r 


■ • 


[ 






^■Z. Coll. ^ r " 


a 




i'oll. . 


= ^ 






- 


!_, — 1 




■jr. 




* 




X c* 


?-i ^ . -^ 


= 1 = 




*- 
^ 


35 


— - C a ? - C 


m • 


^ 


^ 


B 


i*s 


y.— 


^ 


= 


-■J Z— ; 


n." 


± 


"^ 


ft. In 


ft. In. 




^ 


~ 'JO 


ft. in. 


ri.in. 


In. ft. in. i 


1 




ft. In. 


in. 




25 .T*) 


: »^ 


.T 


2 :*• '2^t 25 85" .V> 


7 


5 


39 


2S 


25 25 


35 TO 


S 


rt 


2 .t5 1) 2'. :t> 75; 72 


7 6 


5 6 


5«» 


2S 


36 4 


50 VV> 


s.o 


»» 


2 . -VS.O -'■* 35.:.=S. W 


8 


«.C 


70.0 


2S 


48 4 


75 VA' 


i».0 


5* 


2' J hn* 2», 65. 12«» 


^ 


8.0 


1(6.0 


2S 


tV. 


ILH* HWi 


10. u 


'.» 


2'* 125 2s 81 25:lrtl 


9 (» 


s 


i:« 


2S 


JW. 


l.S> -M' 


11.(1 





2', 125.0 2'. 81.2511911 


9 


9 


144.0 


2», 


93 5 


l.V) 24<» 


10 


i» -> 


3 125 2-, 8I.-.2S2IO 


10.6 


«.o 


100 


2S 


104. 


175 iJ^i 


13.0 


ft.O 


3 14(1 2- 91 >5rt9 


11 


9 


US* 


2S 


too. 


2n' :n5 


la.o 


10. 


3 142 !• H 118.« 310 


11 


10 


IW.O 


3 


1408 


'.SO aK» 


14 u 


10 ti 


3 142 o 3 113 rt 3?« 


12 (» 


MO 


l.M 


3 


147 


3lO 100 


l.T.U 


no 


3 llh 3 140. \^ 


13. o 


II. 


3no.o 


3 


160. 


;i.V) 53U . 


i.->.e. 


12.0 


3 210.0 3 10^. :.Vi(» 


14 <i 


12 


210. n 


3 


IT2.8 


^Ki f<-V 


16 " 


i:i.o 


4 210 3 I8K. rt25 


14 (t 


13 r> 


24^10 


3 


2M 4 


^A) t^O 


/d 


i:t 


4 2I>^.0 'A 2K». ,670 


U 


13 (t 


2>*» 


3 


224. 


Mv tkki 


rt> 


14.0 


4 -JHS ^ i*.^ v^Jft 


\\.^ 


W VN 


VV^O 


3 


246.4 



MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION. II43 

STANDARD DIMENSIONS OF BREWERY VESSELS. 

GBAIHS-TAnK. 

















s 




Round. 






Sna««. 




























8. 


























= B 


II 


s 














II 


m 




a 


S 


i 


s52 




































r. 


it 




J 


m 


bS 




JS 


2B 






























































































































































































7W 






!o3 


BS 


MO 




S.« 


hV 


m 






11,0 





To^(f /cr Single Leather, Four-ply Rubber and Four-ply Cotton 
BeltittZ, Bells not Overloaded. 



t-'r 










^idiB 


or Re 


Llll 


nchcc 










^' 


Z 1 3 j 4 


i 


a 


e 


W 


1! 


>4 


10 




a> 








111- 












































































































































































^ 


























































































































7S 


























































































;iv'i 




irJS 




H.-W 









MIPCEI.LANEOl'S ISFOBMATIOX. 






=3£S?S;:8S»SaR«j: 



^SSSSSgCS;i!5»aSK!*S3iS!;sSJSSS«SJ5 



i-j Haii!iiiiii!i|i5ii|ii|ii|i|i 



: 1 *SESS55Eg|g=E||H?gSUi;??i|gi 






MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION. II45 

MEMORANDA FOR BUILDERS. 
Safe IVork'ing Loads for Masoury. 



I WALLS OR PIERS. 

Tons Per Square Foot. 
Eastern. Wistprn. 

Red brick in lime mortar 7 5 

Red brick in hydraulic- lime moMar 6 

Red brick in natural cement mortar, I to 3. . 10 8 

Arch or pressed brick in lime mortar 8 6 

Arch or pressed brick in natural cement 12 9 

Arch or pressed brick in Portland cement 15 12M1 

Piers exceeding in height six times their least dimensicms 
should be increased 4 inches in size for each additional 6 feet. 

STONEWORK. 

(Tons per square foot.) 

Rubble walls, irregular stones 3 

Rubble walls, coursed, soft stone 2% 

Rubble walls, coursed, hard stone 5 to 16 

Dimension stone, squared in cement : 

Sandstone and limestone 10 to 20 

Drefiscd stoni', wiih %-inch dressed joints in cement : 

Granite 60 

M.irhle or limestone, best 40 

Sandstone 30 

}Ieight of columns not to exceed eight limes least diameter. 
CONCRETE. 

Portland cement, i to 8 8 to 15 

Roscndale eemcni. I to 6 5 to lo^ 

Hydraulic lime, best, I to 6 S 

HOLLOW raE. 
(Safe loads per square inch of effective bearing parts.) 

Hard fireclay tiles 80 lbs. 

Hard ordinary clay tiles fiolbs. 

Porous terra-colla tiles 40 lbs. 

MOSTARS. 

(In ^-inch joints, 3 months old, tons per square tool,> 

Porlbnd cement, i to 4 "^ 

Roscndale cement. I to 3 




MlSCELLANEOi'S INFOKUATION. 

Lime niorlar. best 8to 

Best Portland cement, i lo 2, in U-inch joints for bed- 
ding iron plates ; 

Brickwork is generally measured by the one thousand bri 
I.-iid in the wall, and sometimes by the cubic foot. In cstimai 
by the one thousand, the contractor figures on what the br 
will eo«t di'liwred nt the site of the building, and adds to 
the cost of l.-iyint; in the wsll, including the cost of the mor 

The general custom in measuring the exterior brick walls 
huihlings i<^ to compute the total number of briek in the wall, i 
then the number of face or outside hrick thai will be reqtir! 
The difference will be the number of common brick. The outs 
brick geiierallv cost more than tliose used for the interior, h 
to)>e 

In I 



ulled. and ihe labor 


n hying costs more. 


injuring brickwork. 


t is eiislomary to deduct all open! 


■r^. windows, nn-hwa 


vs. ere: Imi not for small flues, e 


i. 1>.>\.-. "f witi.l.iiv t 


ram.-., sills, or lint.-ls. cic-. on aco. 


«;i-l;is;e of iiianri.il 


in dipping around or filling in s' 


f ;lu wnrk. aiidlhv i 


icr.-.-i-cil am, Hint of lime required. 


,■ ,iro ,lMT,r>nl iiH^lli. 


nh .if conu'ulinK ihc numlier of hi 


Rivtn <in;mliiy ..f « 


•rk. Some con tract. .rf will comp 


i! nm..b>T .,1 cubu- l 


e( of brickwork in ihc building, i 


V hv (he nimiKT ot 


rii-k onisined in a cnbic foot. all< 


«-:,<i.iK.-. etc. Thi* 


i; pri'IiriMy as accurate a method 


f ■■..».■.]. Tin- l;iri; 


r iiur.ib.T .if mason*, however, .-c 


I -■,::■, v'.-i;i! :iria .A 


le wall=. ;iii.l muliiplv by the num 


k ill !V. w-.iW \.' .iiie > 


jiian- iv.'t .11 surface; the numlH-r. 


.IiI'ini'i;:B tipp.n tlK 


thickness ..f llie wall. 


I i;--.'.i-ri -t:i'i-'. :he 


■■ll..winB -calc will be a fair .iverai 


vM.f^T 'j-Vi.-k... 


r'^ bricks per superficial tV 


Villi, i-.r 1 -^'i.-k,... 


1 .: bricks per superficial fc 


v;ill, ..- T'::-t.rl,-k-.... 


^^'-^ hiicks per superficial f(i 


m:;, .r.. Vkk.... 


,io l.ricks per superficial fr 


V.!;. ■.'T .•'■■iTick.... 


.C'j bricks per superficial fe 


rt,i!i. ■< ,1 -liri.-k 


4.= brlcki per superficial fr 


,■ tr-.M, ar,.l w,>-(>rr 


'inte.-, Ilie bricks are larger. ,ind i 


■i: ^.-nl,- vvil! lu' ,v 


■re c.irrect fur that section of i 


«■.;!:. or ^■l-lini-\;. 


- WVt. v^^ superficial fo 


ie:.;i. ,,r 1 -Wkk. 


\ 1 WvcVi v«\ sa v^vA Vi 



MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION, 1 147 

13 'in. wall, or iH-brick 2t bricks per superficial fool. 

iR -in. wall, or 2 -brick 28 bricks per superficial foot. 

22 -in. wall, or aVi-brick 35 bricks per superficial foot. 

And seven bricks additional for each half-brick added to thickness. 

SHINGLES. 

The average width of a shingle is four inches : hence, when 

shingles are laid four inches to the weather, each shingle averages 

.sixteen square inches, and 900 are required for a square of roofing. 

If 4^ inches lo the weather, Soo will cover a square. 

5 inches to the weather, 720 will cover a square. 
5^ inches to the weather, 655 will cover a square. 

6 inches to the weather, 600 will cover a square. 
This is for common gable-roofs. In hip-roofs, where the 

shingles arc cut more or less to fit the roof, add 5 per cent (o 
above figures. 

A carpenter will carry up and lay on the roof from fifteen 
hundred to two thouund shingles per day, or two squares to two 
squares and a half of plain gable-roofing. 

One thousand shingles laid four inches to the weather will re- 
quire live pounds of shingle nails to fasten them on. Six pounds 
of fourpenny nails will lay one thousand split pine shingles. 

PAINTING. 

Painters' work is generally estimated, by the yard, and the cost 
depends upon the number of coats applied, besides the quality of 
ihe work, and the material (o be painted. 

One coal, or priming, will take, for 100 yards of painting, 20 
pounds of lead and 4 gallons of oil. Two-coat work, 40 pounds of 
lead and 4 gallons of oil. Three-coat, the same quantity as two 



coats; so 


that a fair estim.^le for 1 


» yards of Ihree-coat work 


would be 


100 pounds of lead and 16 gallons of oil. 


1 gailo 


priming color will 


cover SO superficial yards. 


1 Balk, 


white 7.inc will 


cover so superficial yards. 


I gallo 


white paint will 


cover 44 superficial yards. 


I gallo 


lead color will 


cover so superficial yards. 


I gallo 


black paint will 


cover 50 superficial yards. 


I gallo 


stone color will 


cover 44 superficial yards. 


1 gallo 


yellow paint will 


cover 44 superficial yards. 


I gallo 


blue color will 


over 4S superficial yards. 


I gnll™ 


green paint will 


cover 4S superficial yanU, 


I gallor 


bright emerald green will 




I gallon bronze green will 


covet 7!, sw9tT^t\iL\ -s-i.-^*^ 



1148 



MISCELLANEOl'S INFORMATION. 



One pound of paint will covrr nbout 4 supodicial yards the 
coat, and nhout 6 each additional coat. One pound of putty. 
sinppinK. overy 30 yards. One gallon of tar and i pound of p 
will cover IJ ynrd^ superficial the first coat, and 17 yards < 
nildittonal coat. 

A square yard of new brick wall requires, for the first coa 
paint in oil. % of a pound ; and for the second, 3 pounds ; 
for the third, 4 pounds. 

.■\ day's work on the outside of a building is too yards of I 
coat, and So yards of either second or third coat. An ordir 
il.-or. including casings, will, on both sides, make 8 to 10 ys 
of pointing, or about 5 yards to a door without the casings, 
ordinary window makes about x\-> or 3 yards. 

Fifty yards of common {(raining is a d,iy's work for a grai 
and one lu.-in t« ruh in. In painting blinds of ordinary size, t 
a fair day's work for one coat, and O pounds of lead and i g.i' 
of oil will paint ihenv — (See also "Tre.ilment of Surfaces.") 

SIKESCrH .^NP WEIf:ilT OP MAXILA RllPE. 



Mia" 



llUoivn & fiiu^rct or A^iicri.-an C.iuge.) 

;■"■ UVi'jh: .>f I'a:^- I!;,:..- '''■■:';■:"■ W*lBh;ori" 



: ■^ .■>. IM 





MISCEL 

s s r » 5 


LANEOU 


INFORM 


^TION. 




g i i i i i i i 3 f 






i i i i i i i i 


5 ? 




's 


an i 


S i 1 S r 


5 


i i i i i 


1 S 1 1 ? 


5 


i 

i 


iiijs 


f S $ 1 i 






i i i i i 1 s B ; r 


¥ 

s S; 

^i 


1 

1 

8 
1 


i j i i 8 1 s ; 1 f 


Ji i i 1 § ; M f 


5 
S 


i i s i i M M ? 


ill s M ; M ? 


S 




i i i M M M f 


H 




iili : M M ^ 


4 i 


/ 


#f l; i 




\n 


A 



if! 
I 5 



I 



!! 

I 



MISCELl-AXEllLJi IXFORMATION, 
GUT or LVMliKi: reK THOfSAKD (M) FEET. 



I'uun(l> i.'arNin 



nirUtrilouoak .. 



Tiikirir >ln.li-!>;irk lik'kor 
trvi'f. ar;J i-allutg tii..'. luc 
!l.l7d.:.^.-;.. f"l!..Hs: 


■■ 90 

■ - rj 


;iB highost standard of our ft.rei: 
r trees will compare with it icr 


Pignut hk-k-.-ry 


It.ird niap'.e jt. 


\\]y.w :i^!i 

D.'CH • 


Red cedar '=5 

\\k\ eherrv "« 










iiS^t;?;".::::;::::;::;: 


Vu:;..«- iL-pbr ii 


\Vhi!v 'o.-h 


\Vli;!c bircli 43 



3933 



Sills F-ii=»i 



iiiiililiiiPissti 



s'iH 



m 
m 






um 



iii'i 



n 



iiilililliiiiiiiiliiliiiliii 



nil 



an 






iiiii iiiii 



SgSS 



Pilsiiili 



i^iii mu 



SJS8 



iiHi 



m 



pill iiiii iiiii iijii 



lL 
H 



Ssssf 



iiiii iiiii ||i|| 



iSiS 



I89SS issis uiii ii^ii 



SSS3' 



rass jiiiss mi^ mimRJi 



Ml 

? iili? ; 



8ISS gfsSi 



-lip 



!|||!»JlP 






Piii iiiii isr 



f|5 



iiiii iiiii iilll 



iiiii 



iiillla-i»Vfe%^^ 



/ISsS= 



,2 MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION. 

I'll ]i ^-'Sssn I: saslsasxn' U«S.I.BSI s«^: 

il'llliiHs!! !'Hl'!!J' SlSl'!:;?!!!'' 

If lj|i.Ss5SB'sssi«^!SH2 iBIslsHs siSi 



I 'I iiss; liiirgsSiis se^j 



] i IISSs'cjSIS IMH J SScJ 



H|2l|!3i 



i 5M3f islsl HSS-" I 5115 •;;|i|ii! 



5 ' -i 1 i sSSJS iljJS ?SI5| I Sjlj. IIIISHj 

; 1 ] i <:!!•! !;;;i H!P i ?l;Si!!!! !!!■ 

5 ~ jj . JsiSli SHsj iSsSs ,«iH!i«SSJH 

= ■ i^l tfiSS ;B11S SSHc ;pll.I5Si;5Sii 



-J 



^^^^\ 



■-'f-'-l'" 



MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION. II5 

SEAMLESS DRAWN BRASS AND COPPER TUBES. 

(Pounds per Lineal Foot.) 
The upper Sgures denote copper, the tower brasi, tubes. 



rhleknew. 


:S 


O.r,go 


Ouwlde Dlamelers lu Inchei. Bro«D * Sbiirpe 
or AmBtlMnOuge. 




(C)Dse- 
ly). 


ber. 


« 


X 


> IM 


.»u 


s« 


3 


-1 


5 




a-M 

3-fll 


IS 


o.as 
o-ai 

0,18 


0.«6 
II 13 

(i!u 
o.er 

O.M 




!.a7 

I.BO 
l.» 








(SI 
04S 


o.se 
o.flO 

ss 

o!t6 


O.TS 
O.M 

on 

O.BE 

o.w 

o.« 
u.u 

0.12 


i.»e 
1,0. 

UN 

OS* 
ii\ 
).«, 

J.S! 


1 TH 
1 *! 

I -a 


t.K 
I.BS 

i.ra 

1 28 
l.a 

l^li 

!:!? 

O.ftI 
0.87 


1.3C 
1 2 


3.83 




0,H 

or 

U.N 


1>,BI 


t K 

1.83 


. 




.„ 




.' i>.s 


"ii. 







HORSEPOWER OF BOILERS. 

Thirty pounds of water evaporated at 70 pounds steam pressure 
per hour from feed water at 100° = i horsepower. In calculat- 
ing horsepower of steam boilers, consider for : 

Tubular boilers 15 square feet of heating surface equivalent to 
one horsepower. 

Flue boilers 12 square feet of heating surface ^=- 1 horsepower. 

Cylinder boilers 10 square feet of heating surface ^ I horse- 

^^"' HORSEPOWER OF BELTING. 

A simple rule of ascertaining transmitting power of belting, 
without Rrst computing speed per minute that it travels, is as 
follows ; Multiply diameter of pulley in inches by its number of 
revolutions per minute, and this product bv viiAvVi lA ■CatXiA'L^'^ 
inches; divide tfiis product by 3,300 lor awi^Xt ^sOiSvot, a* "^, 
i,ioo for double beJting, and the qttoticnt ViW X^t ^V« *!«««=*■ ^ 
onfpower that can be safe^ tranamittftA. - " 



1 154 MISCELLANEOUS tNFORUATtON. 

TEMPERATURE OF FIRE. 
By reference to the table of fuels (p. 777). it will be seen t 
the temperature of the fire is nearly the same for all kinds 
combustibles under similar conditions. If the temperature 
known, the conditions of combustion may be inferred. The i 
lowing table, from M. Pouillet, wilt enable the temperature to 
judged by the appearance of the fire: 





^«Tp- 




Tj^i 






unntce.divi 












»S- 






Red. cljjrry. cl.»r 











To d eter mine temp erat ure by fu sion of met als, etc.: 



I'rsn 






__ }'*' - ]^"'-^ ■.'■—■ 1 J*"!. Jj.WmiiBhi-jronV.I IMiv 

IRON PIPE SIZE BRASS TUBES. 
:orri.-s|>oiid with Iron Tubes, and to fit Iron Tul 

ListofSiset.Laigths.^tc^ 

Welitbt Pet Foot. 

iicuT, S*mc as Iron Slic. . 



MISCELLANEOUS INFOBUATIOK. 



SUTKBIM.. 


M..-r« 






«..„„„. 




™rto«,™. 


1 

i.Tfi 

1.3S 

1.75 

i;| 


6.3 

1 
&:» 

<:& 

7'.i- 


100 
i» 

lie 

s 

iffi 
isoo 

IWO 
OD 


square n. 
Its 

TO 

:::: 

i 

N 

1 
l« 

K 
IflD 


..ffi„. 










jutobB^'Tr'"*"'"" 




"IMS. 












WiMmt in bulk. m«ii 


il 






















ExcelBlor. Uvdeiiek eompr'H 


S 










HBrreli-cmeni. American... 


S9 












tfl 


IMrral Kranulaled sDmr 


tt 





































Kert. 


Bqnftre In. 




Squftre la. 




Square In. 








































































































I.BB 


«• 


K.M 







I lb. pressure per square inch ii 



equivalent to a head of water 
or I atmosphere, is eq.uivalent. 



14.7 lbs. pressure per squar-- inch 
:o a head of water of 33.947 feet, 

14.;' ths. pressure per square inch, ot \ aMwi^ijVt^t, \* wc» 
3 a head ot water ol 33.947 I«t, Ot Vt-ViJ tfttW^t^- 




MISCELLANEOUS INPOBKATIOW. 



COMPARATIVE TABLE OF BEAUUE DEGREES AND 

SPECIFIC GRAVITY ACCORDING TO 

BOURGOUGNON. 

FM UQUma HEAVIO THAW WATHL 



Deg.B. 


8p.0r. 


w.. 


JjO^ 


tt*.B. 8p 


i i 

Br. ;D<«. B.| Sp-Or. 





\.two 




i.iue 






■T I 


oer 




l«M 


91 


1.1«B 


IS I 


m 


K 1 


«;ie 








i.im 


¥» 1 






«B1> 


I 


iiona 


« 




41 1 




OD 1 


-lU 




I.OM 


9 


l!lM 


e 1 


ttM 1 


«■ I 


na 






U 


I.ISM 


4S 1 


a*t j 


« 1 


TW 


« 


liotn 


s 










TT« 


1 


LOW 


3S 


rsivr 






M 1 


Ttm 




I.OBM 


IT 


i.»n 


M ] 


«!» 


» 1 


•m 






» 


I.SWT 








M!T 








i.ai4 


« 1 




n 1 


N» 




litWB 


10 


i.aaw 


« 1 




« 1 


m 




i.vm 


>1 


l.S7» 


BO I 


uoi , 






13 i.nw 


K 




El 1 


MM : 








SS 


i!»e4 


K 1 1 








ih i'nio 


31 


l-SW 


U 1 


SW2 ■ 




gw 




» 


i.sani 


U 1 


»» 






IT l.\Xl> 


an 




» 1 






su 












» i 





FOE LtQUlDS LIGHTER T 

Bf. Gr. Des- B. Sp. Gr. Deg. 




BIBLIOGRAPHY. 



Under this head has been collected the titles of the original 
contributions to the science and practice of brewing, published 
in the United States, with the names of the publications in which 
they appeared. In so far as this list may be incomplete, the re- 
spective files were not accessible. The writers on topics concern- 
ing brewing, and the publishers of the periodicals devoted to the 
brewing trade were invited to favor the editors with lists of 
articles written or published by them, and in most cases the re- 
quest was fulfilled with the greatest kindness, for which the edi- 
tors take this opportunity of thanking their correspondents. An 
effort has been made to give a complete list regardless of pre- 
vailing divergences of opinion as to the correctness of various 
theories or the expediency of practical suggestions advanced \ / 
the different writers. 



AbbreviMions : 



A. B. R., American Brewers' Review 

Am. Br., American Brewer. 

Am. Ch. R. .American Chemical Review 

Br. J., Brewers' Journal. 

Br. & M., Brewer and Maltster. 



Bnn., Der Braumeister. 

Ice & R., Ice and RefriKeration. 

Pr. Bb., Der praktische Bierbrauoi 

W. Br., Western Brewer. 



Roman numerals indicate volume. 
Arabic Mmmerals indicate Page. 

HISTORICAL AND MISCELLANEOUS. 

Progress in brewing. — A. H. Bauer, Am. Br., 1882, xv, 6, 36^ 
54. 272. 
The beer of the period. — ^J. E. Siebel, Am. Ch. R., 1883, iii, 213. 
Beer an antidote for cholera. — ^J. E. Siebel, Am. Ch. R., 1884, 

iv, 197. 

The adulteration of beer. — Brm., 1887, i, 257. 

Origin of the art of brewing. — ^John P. Arnold, Brm., 1888, 
i, 332. 

Secret nostrums. — Brm, 1888, i, 365. 

1157 



II58 BIBLIOCRAPHY. 

Beer in Ihe nineteenth century. — John P. Arnold, Brm.. 
ii. 206. 
Brewer)" apprentices 3pa years ago.— John P. Arnold. 1 

1889. ii. 243. 

Glass or mug?— J. E. Siebel. W. Br.. l8go. xii-. 1522. 
Beer in ihc glass, and glass in beer. — Joa. Krieger. Am. 

1890. xxiii, 14S. 

The hi^lori- of brening.— John P. Arnold. Brm.. i8qi. iv, 
246. 274. 361. 

Secret noslnims. — .\. Weingaerlner. Brm.. 1891. i*-. 211. 

The brewmaster calendar for 1892. — Jos. Krieger, Am. 
iSgi, xxiv. 417- 

Emil Christian Hansen.— R. Wahl, A. B. R.. 1891. vi. 71. 8; 

Hislorj- of beer.— Louis Pio. A. B. R.. 1892, vi. js. 52. 103. 
'39. "55. '7'. 187, 203. 219. 23s, 251. 267. 300. 3:5, 331. 347 
379- Jii- 

Beer and il5 place in diclelics.— J. E. Sicbtl, A. B. R.. i}lg 
819. 835. 

FiTiiicniniion chonii<^tr.v 100 ytars .igo. — Jos. Krieger. Am 
iRo.i, xsvi. 313. 

Official finding of ihc beer jurj.— .\. B. R.. 1803. vii, 329. 

Census of ihc brewing and m.illing industries.— C. W. W 
A. B. R-. 1S94. vii, 59Q. 

Skciflie* from ihe far Xorlhwcst. — P. M.ix Kuehnrich. . 
R., tSos. viti. 325. 344. 365, 374. 384. 4D.e. 415, 425, 

The relative parls of ihe brewer and Ihc scientific jiatii 
controlling brewing operations. — L. Henius. .-\. B. R., 1S96. x 
242. 

Beer as ,in alimcnl.— H. Lemke, .-\m. Br., iSofi. xxi^c. ij( 

ilodern brewing ecciroray.— F. Wyatt. Br. J.. 1897. 

Petition of the brewmaster in the I'nileil States.— Wi 
Stib. A. B. R.. iSg7. x. 106. 

Pure l-cer que'li''n and .\mcrican l'eer>,^M, Schwari. .\. 1 
189,-. ^i- "31- 

Brief history of hop culture in the L'niied Stales.— W. .\. 
rence. A. B. R.. 1897. xi- '- 

Prejudices of brewers.— Jof. Krieger. Am. Br.. 1899. 3 
IS4. ■ 



The imprcvvemcnt' in the hrewin 
ear?.- L. Michel. A. B, R.. i?<fi. 1 



indusi 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. II59 

Hop culture in California.— Daniel Flint, A. B. R., 1900. xtv, 
45, 132. 169. 206- 

Influence of science in modern beer brewing. — F. Wyatt. Br. J., 
1900, xxiv. 95, 143, 193, 243, 293. 343, 394. 

POWER, REFRIGERATING AND COOLING. 

Ice storage or lager cellars? — A. Schwarz, Am. Br., 1869. ii, 
169. 

Ice machines. — A, Schwarz, Am. Br., 1873. vi, 14. 

Ice storage or lager cellars? — A. Schwarz, Am. Br., 1876. \x, 
151- 

Pietet's ice machine.— A, Schwarz, Am. Br.. 1878, xi, 8. 

Vacuum ice machines.^A. Kreusler, Am. Br.. i88a, xv, 132. 

Water for cooling purposes. — F. Gaugengigl, Am. Br., 1882, 
XV, 283. 

Brine for ice machines.— J. E. Siebel, Am, Ch. R., 1883. iii, 
193- 

Prevenlion of boiler explosions, — J. E. Siebel, Am. Ch. R„ 
1887, vi, 67. 

Manila rope transmission. — H. A. Stoltenberg. Brm., 1888. 
ii, 5. 

Baudelol cooler with direct ammonia cooling. — A. Ruemmeli, 
Brm., 1889, ii. 322. 

Feed-water healers.- Brm., 1889, iii, 35, 

Galvanic action in breweries,- Wm. C F. Boycr, Am. Br,. ifio3. 
xxvi, 174. 

The use of live steam for brewery.— C. Rach, Am. Br., 1893, 
xxvi, S69. 

The eompres.wr (ammonia).— J. E. Siebel. Ice & R.. 1894. 
vii. 30Z, 375. 

Heat developed by ammonia absorption.— J. E. Siebel, Ice & R., 
1894, vii, 383. 

Refrigerating machines.— E. Friedmann. A, B. B., 1894, viii. 
349. .159. .171. 379. 389- 

Fuel and steam. — R. Birkholi. Am. Br,. 1895. xxviii, 209. 2(15. 

The critical point (ammonia),— J, E, Siebel, Ice & R.. 1S95, 
viii. 32, 92. 

Brewery re frige rat ion.— J, E. Siebel, Ice & R.. 1895, viii. z6[. 

The absorption system. — J. E. Siebel, Ice St R., 189s. viii, 337. 

Economy in brewery plants.— O. Luhr, A. B. R.. iSqn , «.\, \'j,'b. 



ii6o 



BIBUOGRAPHY. 



Accidents in handling ammonis. — Ice ft R-, i8g7. xiii, 109. 

Coal dust for fuel.— G. Thcvenot, A. B. R., ift^. x, 327. 

Economy and efficiency in wort and water cooling. — A. Si 
A. B, R., 1898. xii, 45. 

Brine.— Phil. Drcesbach, A. B. R., iSgS. xii, 387. 

Ice and ice-making. — Americus, Ice ft R., 189S, xiv, 
A. B. R., 1898, xi, 327, 

Conipend of mechanical refrigeration.— ^J. E. Siebel, 1899, 

The carbonic acid machine. — J. E. Siebel, Ice ft R., 



Liquid air i 
1899, xxxii, 61 

Kiii, 127. 174- 



I brewing operation. — M. Wallerslein, Am. 

I brewing operations. — O. Luhr, A. B. R., 
brewing operations.— M. Wallerstein, A. B 
nhvdride refrigerating machine.*. — J. Goosn 



* 

The carbonic a 
A. B. R.. iSijg. .-(ii 
The carbonic acid ri-fri go rating machine, — .V. Sicbcrt. .A. I 

1899. xiii. 313, 257. 

Uses of modem refrigerating machines. ^O. Luhr. .\. B 

1900. xiii, 407, 470. 

OlJ-tiinc cooling and inoik'rn rcfrigeration.^O. Kulc 
A. B. R.. iSgij. xii, 288, 

Refrigerarion of beer anil wort. — J. E. Sii'lx-l. Ice & R., 
xvi. 447. 

L'scs of modern refrigcr.iiing machines. — O. Luhr. A. B 
igoo, xiv, 1. 4;;. 



Rcpon ot lliK First Scientific Stntinn for Brewing in the ' 
New Vork.— 1881. xiv, 67. ipfi. Jfii. 506. 

Ptitari nation of light, polatiialion ,',.-icch arc meters. — F. Ga» 
gigl and A. H. Bauer. Am. Br.. 1881. \lv. 151. 217. 

Esaininatiim ni malt.— A. H. Bauer. .Vm. Br.. 1882. xv. jg 

Analysis ot barley.— M. Sihwari. .\m. Br.. iSSj, xvi. 6< 



AUml tho solubilii 
Br., 1883, xvi, 330. 



r of diastase in cilier. — M. Schwari, 



BIBUOGRAPHY. II61 

Kjeldahl's metfaod of nitrogen deterniination in inorganic 
bodies.— M. Schwarx, Am. Br., 1884, xvii. 18. 
■ Detenninatkm of sUrch in barley, according to the method of 
Dr. Bungener and L. Fries. — M. Schwarz, Am. Br., iS&t, xvii. 
"33. 

Nitrogen determination. — M. Schwarz, Am. Br., 1884. xvii, 375. 

About the quantity of phosphor contained in the barley and a 
few deductions suggested by it. — C. Robitschek, Am. Br., 1886, 
xix. 312. 

Determining the color of wort and beer. — M. Schwari. Pr. Bb., 
1886, 710. 

Analysis of hops. — C. Robitschek, Am. Br., 1887, xx, 33. 

Analysis of malt.— J, T. C. Jungk. Brm.. 1888, i, 340. 

Report of the scientific station for brewing of Chicago. — R. 
Wahl and M. Henius, Brm., 1888, i. 427. 

Gravimetric chart for beer analysis.— J. E. Siebel, W. Br.. 1R88, 
xiii. 188S, 

Report of the scientific station for brewing of Chicago. — R. 
Wahl and M. Henius. Brm,, t88c», ii, 388. 

Analysis and composition of glucoses, — Jos. Krieger, Am., Br., 
1890, xxiii, 117. 

'Gravimetric chart for beer -analysis. — J. E. Siebel, W. Br., 1891. 
xvi, 1121, 1617. 

Report of the laboratory and scientific station for brewing of 
Chicago— R. Wahl and M. Henius. Brm.. 1890, iv, 11. 

Fourth annual report of the scientific station for brewing of 
Chicago.— R. Wahl and M. Henius, Brm., 1891, v, 15. 

Estimating alcohol in beer. — Jos. Krieger, Am. Br,, 1891, xxiv, 
117. 

Fifth annual report of the scientific station for brewing of 
Chicago.— R. Wahl and M. Henius, A. B. R., 1892, vi, lag. 141. 
137. 173. 205. 

The polarimeter in technical investigation in the brewery. — 
Jos. Krieger. Am. Br., 1892, xxv, 338. 

Sixth annual report of the scientific station for brewing of 
Chicago.— R. Wahl and M. Henius, A. B. R., 1893, vii. 65, 81. 

Seventh annual report of the scientific station for brewing of 
Chicago.— R. Wahl and M. Henius, A. B. R., 1894. viii, 72, 87, 
91, loi. 



Il62 



BtBUOGRAPHV. 



EslimatinK carbonic acid in beer by means of barrta tnt 
Jos. Krieger. Am. Br.. 1894. xxvii, 519. 

Quantitative determination of starch. — Jos. Kri^cr, Am. 
i8m. xxvii. 580. 

Determination of the coloring properties of color-malt, st 
coloring, etc.. and the quantities lo be used in order to obii 
beer of desired shade. — £. Hantke, Am. Br.. i8g6. xxix, 123 

Eighth annual report of the scientific station for brewin 
Chicago.— R. Wahl and M. Henius, A. B. R., 1895, ix. 246. 
333. 358. 3W- 

Existence of isonialtose and value of the physiological me 
for the examination of beer wort. — Jos. Krieger, Am. Br., 
Txviii, SO!). 

Ninth annual report of the scientific stalion for brewini 
Chicago.— R. Wahl and M. Henius. A. B. R.. 18^ x. 133. 16, 

Examination of carbonic acid and air of the brewery.- 
Krieger. Am. Br.. 1896, xxix. 2i6 

CheniiirnI investigations of hops.— E. Hantke. .\m. Br., 
xxsi. 582. 

Preparing and packing samples for examination. — G. Thev 



A. B. R-. ifW, , 



Deter 






n of glut 



Chemieal investigation of hops ! 
Br. & M.. i8q9. xviii. g?- 

Elemenlary notes on chemistry 
2S.1. .105. 35.=;. 424- 



beer.-r-Jos. Krieger. .\m. Br.. 
I extract of hops — E. Ha 
F. Wyatt, Br. J.. iSgq, - 



Tht- «,icc barometer and its applies 
11^-.— A. Schwari:. Am. Br., i860, ii. ; 
.\ tiCH- saceharonieter. — M. Sehwan 
Faulty saccliaromctcrs.— R. Wahl. ] 
The qjlt'slion of a standard sacch: 
Urm,. it^w. iii. 250. ' 



. 83. 1 



in the brewing i 
I. Br.. 1884. xvii. : 



. .Am. Br.. 1890. xxiii 
r. — Jos. Krieger. Am, 



Conversion tahlos of Balling into the new saccharometer, 
lire versa.— Jof. Krieger. .Xni. Br., iftji. xxiv. 167. 

Construction of the new saccfeiTOTOcVti.- Jos. Krieger, Am. 
'iffi. .\.viv, 211. 



f 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. 1 163 

A new saccharometer scale. — J. E. Siebel, W. Br., 1891, xvi, 625. 

How to determine the real extract of wort. — Jos. Krieger, Am, 
Br., 1892, XXV, 59. 

Balling's extract table not indispensable. — Jos. Krieger, Am. 
Br, 1892, XXV, 381. 

Determination of extract in the last run from the mash tub, — 
Jos, Krieger, Am. Br., 1897, xxx. 220. 

■ The extractometer in place of the saccharometer.— Jos. Kriegcr. 
Atn. Br., 1897, xxx. 689. 

MATERIALS IN THE BREWERY. 

Water containing sulphate of lime for brewing purposes. — A. H. 
Bauer, Am. Br. 1SS2. xv, 11, 34. 

Improving impure waters by aeration, — A. Weirgaertncr, Am. 
Br., 188.';, xviii, 253. 

Drinking and brewing waters in Chicago. — R. Wahl and M. 
Henius, Brm.. 1890. iii. 331. 

Purification of water by sedimentation. — A. Lasche, A. B. R.. 
t893. vi, 679. 

Sterilization of water for brewing purposes. — Jos. Krieger. Am. 
Br., 1894, xxvii, 42. 

Refleclions on the fitness of some waters for brewing pur- 
poses— F. Wyatl, Br. J.. 1898, xxii, 550; 1899. ^xi". 49. W- »49. 
203. 

Judging brewing waters.— C, Bobitschefc, Am, Br.. 1890. xx\i\. 
614. 

Hors. 

Hops.— A. Sehwarz, Am. Br., 1869, ii, 266. 

Use of hops for unusual purposes. — A. Schwar/, Pr. Bb.. 
1882, 505. ■ 

Prices of hops in Europe.- Jos. Knorr, A. B. R., 189s. ix. 207. 

The sulphuring of hops.— Jos, Krieger, Am. Br., 189C. xxix. 606. 

Hop extracts.— F. Wyatt, Br. J„ 1898, xxiii. 2. 

(For Barley Malt, see Malting.) 
Wheat and wheat flour in ihe brewery. — A. Schwari. Am. Br., 

1869, ii, 26. 
Rice as a brewing material.- A. H. Bauer, Am. Br., 1882, 

XV. 91- 
Corn products of the trade.— R. WaW an* 'yi.. ■ftenvM'!.. ■^.i^n... 

'S88. i. 33S. 



1 164 BtBUOGRAPHY. 

Com products oE the tnde. — Jos. Kri^er, Bnn., 1888, i, ) 

Indian com (maize) in the nunnfactnTC of beer. — R. V 
A. B. R., 1893, vii, 233, Z49. 265. aBi. 

Pure corn sUrch for brewing. — H. Henius, A. B. R, 
"i, 403. 

Malt flour instead of malt grist as a mashing matcri 
Jos. Krieger, Am. Br., 1897, xxx, 36. 

Corn for brewing purposes. — Jos. fCrieger, Am. Br., 
xxxi. 6?3. 

Is the use of rice and com in the manufacture of beer in 
able?— C. Rach. Am. Br., igoo, xxxiii, 235. 
sucus. 

Examination of ihe trade glucoses. — A. H. Bauer, Am. 
1882, XV, 464. 517. 

Glucose containing iron. — M. Schwari. .\m. Br.. 18S3. xri. 

Emplo.vment of starch sugar in the brewery and the mo 
starch sugar factories.— M. Schwari. Am. Br.. 1884. xvii. J47. 

Different sugars in Ihc brewery.— C. Haefner. Brm., 18S9. ii: 

Brewers" extract.- A. Weingacrlncr. A, B. R.. 1893, vii. 
XHi. 138, 523- 

Brewers' extract; a new glucosc.^o?. Krieger, Am. Br., 
xxvii. 7. 

Reqnired properties of glucose for brewing.— Jos. Krieger, 
Br., i8.>t. xxvii. 413. 

Use of turbid glucose in the brewery. — Jos. Kri^er. Am. 
iBor>. xxiN, 503. 

FISISO-S AND cnips. 

Animal gelntins, lichen and Irish moss in the brewery. 
Schwarz, Am. Br.. 1869, ii. 125. 

Chips— A. Scliwnrz. Am. Br. 1S79. xii. 339. 

Tlic spiral clarifying chips. — M. Schwa rz. .Am. Br.. 1 
-vvi. 41. 

Wahrs isinghss.- A. Schwarz. Am. Br.. 1884. xvii, 337. 
Isinglass and fining.- M. Schwari. Pr. Bb.. 1886. 737. 
Cornigntcd chips. — R. Wahl and M. Henius, Brm., 18S9, 
60. 160. 

VARNISH, HTtH. ETC. 

Bisulphite of lime.- .A. Schwari. Am. Br.. 1869. ii. 158- 
Bicarbonale of soda.— .\. ScUwan. Am, Br., 1869, ii, 231. 
Boiler coniponnds.— G. TVevcwi. N. ft. ^.. V«%, -ivli, 549, 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. II65 

Brewers' varnishes and their uses.— Wm. Zeiaa, A. B. R., 1898, 
xi,369. 
Boiler compounds.— Ph. Dreesbach. A. B. R., 1898, xii, 3, 43. 
Mystic oil.— E. Hantke, Br. and M., 1898, xvii, 86. 
Pitch,— G. Thevenot, A. B. R., 1899. xii, 326. 
Wood varnishes.— G. Thevenot, A. B. R., iSgg, xii, 245. 
Wood alcohol varnish.- A. B. R., 1900, xiii, 287. 

MICRO-ORGANISMS. 

Mycoderma species. — A. Lasche, Brm., iSgi, iv, aoo. 
. Mycoderma.— A. Lasche, Brm., 1891, iv, 293. 

Saccharon^ces Jorgensenii. — ^A. Lasche, Brm., 1891, v, 242. 

Systematic classification of yeast fungi. — Jos. Krieger, Am. Br., 
1891. xxiv. s. 

Aspergillus OrjMC— (Japanese ferment). — J. E. Siebel, W. Br., 
1891, xvi, 624, 1 128. 

Two red species of mycoderma. — A, Lasche, Brm., 1892, v, 278. 

Ascopore formaiion is not a criterion for characterizing sac< 
charomycetes. — A. Lasche, A. B. R., 1893, vi, 713. 

Contribution toward the systematic classification of fission 
fungi.— Jos. Krieger, Am. Br., 1893, xxvi, 20I. 
YEAST AND FERMENTATION. 

The process of fermcnlalion and the results of recent inves 
tions on yeasts. — A. Schwarz, Am. Br., 1869, ii, 195. 

Substances checking fermentation. — A. H. Bauer, Am. Br., 
XV, S. 

Differences between lop and bottom fermentation and the yeasts 
producing them.— M. Schwarr, Am. Br., 1885, xviii, 217. 

The action of naphtholhydrate on brewery yeast. — M. Schwarz, 
Am. Br., 1886, xix, 5. 

New contributions to the knowledge of yeast. — M. Schwai 
Am. Br., 1886, xix, 187. 

Number of yeast cells in beer. — R. Wahl, Brm., 1889, ii, 307. 

Infection of American beers with wild yeast. — A. Lasche, Brn 
1891, iv, 206. 

Infection of American beers with wild yeast.— Jos, Krieger, Ai 
Br., 1891, xxiv, 3, 39, 299. 

The American brewery yeast. — A. Lasche, Brm., ift)i, v, 180. 

Infection of American beers by wild yeast. — Jos. Kii«^<», Kto.. 
Br., 1892, xxT, 7. 



1 166 BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Influence of certain temperalures upon differeni yeast formi.— 
A. Lasche, A. B- R.. iftu. vi. 23?. 269. 

Is the sugar decomposed daring fermentation inside or outeidc 
of the yeast cell ?— Jos. Krieger, Am. Br., 1892, xxv, 3a& 

Modem methods of fennentation. — F. Wyatt and L. SaarfaadL 
A. B. R., 1893, vi. 818, 8j6: 1894, vii. 5. 

The fermenlation produced by the "Takamine" process. — |o*. 
Krieger, Am. Br, 1894. xxvii, 645. 

Glucose as a normal constituent of brewers' yeast. — Jos, Krieger, 
Am. Br., 1895, xxviii, 87. 

The fermentative action of yeast due to chemical process. — Jo*. 
Kricger, .\ni. Br., 1895. xxviii, 131. 

The final degree of attenuation of Saaz and Frohbetg ycasl<i al 
forced feniiL-nlation. — Jos. Kricger, .\in. Br.. iSgj, xxviii, 304. 

Modern ilieorifs of fermentation, with notes on the morphology 
and ciiliiire of yiast,— F. Wyatl. Br. J.. i8g6. 97. 

Hijiorital sketch of the theory of fermentation. — R. Wahl. 
A. B. K„ iHyti, xti. 351). 

TliL fbriiyi"S action of yeait. — Jos. KrieBi;r, .■\m. Br., J.** 
xxsii. J4<), jHo. 

Contributions to enzynioU^y. — Jos. Kricger. .\m. Br. 1899. 
xNxii. 4,1;. 

Tlif dinrt-e oi attcnnatiun and the i:ause.< inllucncing it. — Joi>. 
KrivKiT. .-\m, Br.. 1900. xxxiii. 474. 

IMu^inlogy of itimentation. — Castnir Kocot, Br. J., igoo. xxiv. 
J48. JyC, ,146. 450. 5t»- 

PURE VEAST. 

Pure culiure of yeast.— R. Wahl. Br. & M., 1885. W. 6ij. 

The imre vtast in .America. — R. Wahl and M. Henius, Brm.. 
1».>0. iv. 14. 

Apiiaratus for pure yeast. — J. E. Sitbcl. W. Br.. 1890, xv, 1043. 

Ptirc yiasi and beer taste— J. E. Siibcl. W. Br. 1890, xv, 1522. 

\'ahic of ihe pure culture of veasi in ilic practice of brewing. — 
R. Wahl, Brm,. 1891. v. 123. 

Pofsililo dangers from the use of pure yeast in the brewery. — 
Jos. Krietd-r. Am. Br.. 1K91. xxiv. 339. 

Behavior of some pure yeast types in hrewing operations.— 
A. LafdK. Brm„ tSg2. v. 383. 308. 

.Actual value oi pure jcm*. m vVi^ tatwcty.- Jos. Krieger, Am. 
Br., iJ<i»4. xxvii, 277, 



BIBLIOGRAPHY. II67 

Pure yeast culture in practical brewing. — W. Kiener, A. B. R., 
i&M, vii, 5S4. 

Natural pure yeast cultures. — Jos. Krieger, Am. Br.. i8g5, 
' xxviii, 182. 

Pure yeast culture in practical use in large breweries. — F. 
Fischer, Am. Br., 1895, xxviii, 451. 

Hansen's pure cultute vs. natural pure culture. — A, J. Metzler, 
A. B. R.. 189s, xi, 197, 33S- 

Popular lectures on pure yeast. — L. Henius, A. B. R., 1895, 
viii, 449, 4S9, 469. 501. 

Pure yeast culture in practice.— E. Hantke, Am. Br.. 1896, 
xxix, 293. 

Hansen's discovery of pure yeast. — Jos. Krieger, Am. Br.. 
1897, XXX. 512. 

Genesis of Delbrueck's pure yeast culture. — Jos. Krieger. Am, 
Br., 1897. xxK, 629. 

Hansen's pure yeast culture. — M. Wailerstein, Am. Br., 1899, 



MICROSCOPICAL L 

Importance of the microscope to the brewer. — A. Schwarz, Am. 
Br., 1869, ii. 

Microscopical investigation of beer. — M. Schwarz, Am. Br., 
1884. xvii. 99- 

Microscopical analysis of brewery yeast. — A. llasche, Brni,. 
1890, iv. 63. 

Shipping yeast for examination. — R. Wahl and M. Henius, 
Brm., 1890, iv, 138. 

Examination of yeast for contamination by wild yeast. — Jos. 
Krieger, Am. Br., 1891, xxiv, 163, 266, 

Muenke's apparatus for lillering fluids containing bacteria. — 
A. Lasche, Brm., 1891, v, 212. 

Coloring methods as an aid to microscopical investigation^.— 
Job. Krieger, Am. Br., 1891, xxiv, 229. 

Bacteriological examination of air (new method). — W, Br, 
i8gi, xvi, 2360, 2617. 

Deierniinaiion of wild yeast in brewers' yeast. — A. Lasche, 
A. B. R., 1893, vi, 74. 

Biological examinations of water.- A. Lasche, Brm., 1892, vi, 
257. 

Determining sugars by fermcntaiJQn. — N. VawNw, N, "^^ "'-■ 



BIBUOGRAPHY.- 



MALTING. 

HALT AMD UUXY. 

lufacture of malt.— A. Schwarz, Pr. 1 



V. 49. 
Joa 



>' mall kilning and geiminating apparatus. 

Br., 1874. vii. 64. 

) buying malt.— A. H, Bauer. Am. Br.. 1882 



Schwarz, Am. 
Some hints i 

Malting in Amcrica.^Brm.. 1887, i. 62. 

Dclerinining quality of barley. — M. Schwarx. Am. Br., 
XX. 249. 

The chemical and physiological processes in the germini 
barley.- C. Racli, Br. & M.. 1889, viii. 1090. 

Tht barky crop of 18*).— Brni.. 18S9, iii. 49- 

Turning uf malt on the kiln.— John Koch, R. Wahl and 
Hinius. arm.. 1889. iii. 9. 

Formalioii uf cane-sugar in mahing. — J. E. Siebel, \V. 
i*JO, XV, 318, 558, 1523. 

The barley crop of l8gi.— Brni., i8gi. v, 38. 

Weevils in mailing-— W. Kiencr. A. B. R.. 1893. vii. ij& 

Polishing barley.— J. Raasbach. A. B. B.. 1893. vii, ag?. 

Buying mall,— A. J. Mclzlcr. A. B. R.. 1893. vii. 351, 

For better raw material.— J, Raasbacli. A. B. R., 1894. vii. 

Cleaning and zoning Inrlev. — J. Raasbach. A. B. R., 1894. 
187. 

.Malt fruin last season's barley in puini of extract and m 
ure.~R. Wahl and M. Hcniiia. A. B. R.. 1894. viii. 369. 

Amirican trade mall as compared with German brei 
mall. — Jos. Krifgcr, Am. Br., 1895, xsviii, 40. 

Ubser\ aiiLins on malt and malting. — .A. Haeusermann. A. B 
J893. is. 278. 357. 

The important poiitts to consider in buying barley. — G. Tli 
nut. A. B. R.. 1896. X. ao3. 

Uiffercnoes between domestic and European barley in n 
ing.— H. Leserer. A. B. R., 1896. -f. 3O6. 

Should slack mall be redried Ufore mashing?— Jos. Kri( 
Am. Br.. 1896, xxix. 563. 

Some fads about baiWy and vna,\\f-V^. G. Bohmrich, A. B, 
iSa?, xi, 49. 




SIBLIOGBAPHY. 1 169 

American malt and its manufacture. — Jos. KrJeger, Am. Br., 
1898, xxxi, 255. 

Moisture contents of bacley and genninating power. — Jos. 
Krieger, Am. Br., IQOO, xxxiii, 413. 

BREWERY OUTFIT. 

SKEW HOUSE. 

Baudelot's beer cooler. — A. Schwarz, Am. Br., 1869, ii, 73. 

Iran surface coolers with new cooling devices. — Fermenting 

room and cellar ventilation. — A. Schwarz, Am. Br., 1869, ii, 172. 

Ch. Stoll's patented mash-tun.— A. Schwarz, Am, Br., 1873, vi. 

Schilling and Imen's patented mash machine with live steam 
connection.— A. Schwarz, Am. Br., 1875, viii, 9. 

Jean Schafhous' automatic mashing apparatus. — A. Schwarz, 
Am. Br., 1875, viii, 26. 

Simplified brew house outfit.— A. Schwari, Am. Br., 1876, ix, 
159. 

Doing away with surface coolers. — A. Schwarz, Pr. Bb., 1876, 
264. 

High or wide mash-tuns for sparging. — F. Gaugengigl, Am, 
Br., 1880, xiii, 436. 

Self-acting mashing apparatus. — A. H. Bauer, Am. Br.. i88z, 
XV, 178. 

Defects and drawbacks of our brew house outfits.—A. Scliwarz, 
Pr. Bb,, 1SS2. 479. 

Hop tearing machine (ZoHer).— A. Schwarz, Am. Br, 1884, 
xvi, 133. 

Yaryan's system of concentration. — H. Wahl and M. Henius, 
Brm.. 1888, ii, 10. 38. 

Cooling of beer wort — Theurer's system. — Brm., 1888, ii, 177. 

Hop aronia condenser, Seib-Haefner,— C Haefner, Brm., 1889, 
ii, 214. 

Seib and Hacfner's hop aroma condenser. — Henry Auer, Brm., 

Hop aroma and the devices for obtaining it. — R. Wahl, Brm., 
18S9, iii, 20. 

Hanford-Slanford atomizer. — C. Robitschek, Am. Br, 1891, 
xxiv. 36, 8o- 

Han ford- Stanford apparatus for cooling stvA a.«a-'Ovt\% -*«ai\.— 
A. Schwarz, Pr. Bb., 1S91, 865. 




■ 1^ BIBLIOGBAPHV. 

Rach's brew house plant.— C. Racb, Am. Br., 1894. xxvii 

Cooker or lub?— C. Rach. Am. Br., iSw, "xvii, 55a. 

Hop mill fur belter utilising bops. — Jos. KricKcr, Am. Br., 
xxviii, 13a. 

Thcurcr iniproved beer cooler. — G, Thevenot, A. B. R., 
tx, 45a 

Simplifying the equipment of the brew house. — M. H< 
A. B. B., 1896, X, 126; .\m. Br„ 1896. xxix. 581. 

Surface coolers in modem breweries. — F. Bcier, A. E 
1897. xi. 408. 

High pressure cookers in the brewery. — Jo$. Kriegn', Am 
1899. xxxii. los. 

Outfit of a brtwery.— Ph. Drcesbach, A. B. R., 1900. xiv, : 



Iron fernu'niing tnnks. — A. Schwarz. .-^m. Br.. 1869. ii. I 
Swimmers.— .\. Schwan. Pr. Bb., 187S. -i-* 
AiTnline and rousing device for wort. — C. Robilschck. 
Br.. iSi)J. KKV. 88. 

STOKAIIE ASa CIIIP TELL.^R. 

A new barrel bung.— A. Schwarr. Am. Br.. 1874. vii. 6? 

History of a palcnled barrel bung. — .A. Sehwari. Am. Br., 
X. 33. 

Biiiiu-buslics.— A. Schwari. Am. Br.. 1877. x. 34. 

The modtTii bunging apparatus. — A. Schwarr. .^m. Br., 
xii. i'«. 

Thi; mtiJern bunging apparatus.— -X. Schwarr. Am. Br., 
xiii. J97. 

The modern bunging apparatus. — .A. Schwarz. Am. Br.. 

.\ luivel racking device.— J. E. Sicbcl. Am. Qi. R,. 1883. iii 
Improving the clarifying action of chips. — .V Sehwarz. 
Br.. 1883. xvi. 193. 

Iron ball.* instead of chips. — F. C. Wiedering. Am. Br,. 

Filtering ilcviees.— M. Sch»ari. .Am. Br.. 1R87. \x. 339. 
Krauscn mclcr of Zolier and Schiniptr. — R. Wahl am 
Henius. Brm.. iSgo- iv. j8. 

The Ih'it lilier. hs iiii(iorinni.-c and application in tlic brcwi 
0'. A. Bachmann, Brm., 1891, w, 15a, ftv. 




BIBLIOGBAPHY. II7I 

VENTILATION. 

Apparatus for generating a cold current of air (John J. Schil- 
linger),— A. Scbwari, Am. Br., 1869, ii, 125. 

Ventilation of cellars.— Techn. Com. U. S. Brtn. Ass., A. B, R., 
iSoQ, xiii, 91. 

About ventilation. — Jos. Krieger, Am. Br., 1900, xxxiii, 70, 155, 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

Holbeck's pitching machine. — A. Schwarz, Am, Br., i86g, ii, ■ 
268. 

Grains dryers.— R. Birkfaolz, Brm., 1888, ii, 249. 

A new pitching machine in the Pabst brewery. — G. Thevenot, 
A. B, R., i8i)6, ix, 31S. 

The barrel pitching department of the Pabst brewery. — Am. 
Br., 1896. xxix, 194. 

Aluminum in the brewery. — Jos, Krieger, Am. Br., 1896, xxix, 
67.1. 

Device to keep beer from getting flat while being drawn. — A. 
Schwarz, Am, Br„ 187s. viii, 30. 

Water filters for breweries and malt houses. — Ph. Dreesbach, 
A. B. R-, 1898, xii, 172, 211. 

Brewery pumps. — Ph. Dreesbach, A. B. R., i898> xii, 327. 

PRINCIPLES OF BREWING, AND BEER. 

Influence of lactic acid on beer. — A. Schwarz, Am. Br,, 1869, 
ii, 181. 

The chemical composition of the wort determines the character 
of the beer,— A. Schwarz, Am. Br., 1881, xiv, 257. 

Nitrogenous substances and their behavior during mashing and 
sparging, — M, Schwarz and A. Weingaertner, Am. Br., 1882, 
XV, 253, 

Fat or gluten?— M. Schwarz, Am. Br., 1883, xvi, 217, 285. 

The quantities of nitrogenous bodies extracted in mashing and 
sparging, and those lost in boiling worl. — M. Schwarz, Am. Br,, 
1883, xvi, 253. 

Influence of aging on the character of beer. — A. Schwarz, Pr. 
Bb„ 1884, 609. 

Salicylic acid as a check on fermentation. — M. Schwarz, Am, 
Br.. 1R85, xviii, 5. 35. 64- 

Formation or increase of acid during masVim%. — \&,. ^:x^-*t-a.XT^ 
Am, Br,, 1885, xviii, 391. 



1 172 BIBUOGRAPHY. 

Mash temperatures, — Ernst Fecker, Jr., Am. Br.. 1885. xvjii. 
3<W- 

Lactic acid of barley, anil, wort and b«er. — M. Schwarz, Am. 
Br.. 18S6. xix, 41, 74. 

Palatcfulness of beer.— M. Schwarz, Am. Br., 1886, xix. jgg. 

Our knowledge of diastase.— R. Wahl, Brra., 1887, i. 1S8, 

Palatcfulness of beer— M. Schwan, Am. Br., 1887, xx. 103. 

Unpleasant bitter taste of beer. — M. Schwarz, Am. Br_ 1887. 
.XX. 341. 

The foam holding capacity of beer.— R. Allert. Am. Br^ 1889. 
xxii. 5. 

Role of carbonic acid tn beer. — R. Wahl and M. Hcniu. 
Brm.. if<9i, jv. 288. 

.\bout the bouquet of fermented beverages. — Jos. Krieger. Am. 
Br. i8go, xxiii, 403. 

.-Xtiiiospheric conditions and bacteriological infection. — J. E. 
SJL'bel. W. Br., 1891. xvi, 2359. 

Sub-!lancL'S thai g'ivL' palate fulness to beer.— Jos. Krieger. 
\m. Br.. iSyi. xxiv. III. 

CarNihvU rales containeil in the wort and their femMittition 
l.v vca>^t--Jos. Kritgcr. Am. Br., 1891. xxiv. 308. 

Alkaline l>eer.— R. Wahl. Brm,. 1892. v. 348. 

E\tract of mall ■rich in i so maltose."- P. Fischer, A. B. R., 
iSu, vi. 8.11, 

Exiraci of tnalt "rich in isoinaltosc." — P. Fischer, A, B. R., 
i}4).(. vii, 113- 

Prof. Liiitner'* discovery of isomallose. — Ernst Uhlmann. 
A. B. R.. 1893. vii. 166. 

Prof. l.iiHutr's discovcn- of isomaltose. — P. Fischer. A, B. R. 
1893, vii. 187. 

Properties and behavior of cnzynies at higher temperatures 
in sohilii'n and in the dry stale.— Jos. Krieger, Am. Br., 1893. 
xxvi, 140, 205. 

Dangers of September air.Wos. Kriegcr, Am. Br.. 1893, 
xvi. 490. 

The part of albuminoids in the manufacttire of beer, — R. Wahl. 
A, B. R., 1893. vii, 185. 201. 477. 

The jiart of albuminoids in the manufacture of beer.— R 
Wahl and A. NUsoii, A. B. R.. 1893. vii. 579, 641. 721- 

The albuminoids in bcti an4 *ot\,— «.. NSiW and E. Hanike, 
A. B. R.. 1893- \". 491- 




BIBLIOGRAPHY. 11^3 

The part of albuminoids in the manufacture of beer.— R. 
Wahl and A. Nilson, A. B. R., 1894, viii. 36. 

Action of enzymes on carbohydrates and their transforina< 
tion into fermentable sugar. — Jos. Krieger, Am. Br., 1895. 
xxviii. 25. 

Malto-dexlrin versus isomaltose.— R. Wahl, A. B. R., 1895, 
ix, 42. 

The nitrogenous constituents before and after fermentation. — 
£. Hantke, Br. & M., 1895, xiv, 1148. 

Formation and consistency of foam. — G. Thevenot, A. B. R.. 
1897, X, 241. 

WJndisch on the functions of the albuminoids in the prepara- 
tion of beer.— R. Wahl, A. B. R., 1896, x, 281, 329. 

Comparative researches on the albuminoids of two brewings, 
made according to the methods of Wahl and Windisch.— M. 
Henius and G. Thevenot, A. B. R., 1896, x, 409. 

The production of foam and the albuminoids. — R. Wah!, A. 
B. R., 1896, X, 46a. 

Examinations in practice and in the laboratory. — E. Hantke, 
Am. Br., 1896, xxix, iTO- 

What determines the palatefulness of beer.— Jos. Krieger, 
Am. Br, 1896, xxix, 669. 

Albumen and beer.— Jos. Krieger, Am. B., 1897, xxx, 276. 

On the formation and stability of foam of worts prepared by 
dirtcrcnt mashing methods.— R, Wahl and L. Henius. A. B. R., 

1897, xi, 41. 

Foreign odors absorbed by beer. — G. Thevenot, A. B. R., 

1898, xii, 287. 

The carbonic acid bound by beer. — Jos. Krieger. Am. Br., 

1899, xxxii, 49. 

The non-existence of the malt-peptase and malto- dextrin. — 
Jos. Krieger, Am. Br., 1900, xxxiii, 99- 

Peptase and albuminoids.— R. Wahl, A. B. R., 1900, xiv. 121. 

What conditions give a steady head to beer.— E. Hantke. Br. 
& M.. 190a, XIX, 324. 

The nature of carbonic acid gas in beer.— E. Hantke, Br. & M.. 

1900, xix, 338; Am. Br., 1900, xxxiii, S^S- 

Foam-keeping capacity and fullbodiness of beer.^Ioa. ¥U'%t«ri, 
^m. Br., 1900, xxxiii, 3136. 



^4 BI8UOGRAPHV. 

Pcptase and the albumen of unmaltcd cereals. — R. 
A. B. R., 1900, xiv, i6t. 
Diastase and starch.— R. Wahl, A. B. R.. 1900, xir, aot. 

BEU. 

Turbid beer.— A. ^hwari. Am. Br., 1869, ii, 124. 

Keeping qualities of beer during long transportatioi 
Schwarz. .\m. Br.. 1877, x, 29, 173. 

Peroxide of hydrogen as a beer presenaiive.- .\. Wein 
rer. Am, Br., 1883. xvi, 287, 321. 

.■\ final word about gluten turbidity. — M, Schwarz, Am 
18&4, xvii, 39. 

Peroxide of hydrogen as a beer preservative. — A. Weini 
ner. .^m. Br. 1^4, xvii, 267. 

Preservation of beer by freezing. — M. Schwari, Am, Br, 
xviii. 95. 

Keeping qualities of beer.- M. Schwari. Pr. Bb.. iSSs. 6+j 

Yensl ontt-nl of U.>er and iinwholcsomeness of turbid be 
M. Schwarz, Am, Br., it<So. six. 164. 

Keeping qualities of beer,— M. Schwarz, Pr. Bb„ 1886. ; 

Beers of Berlin and Chicago.— R, Wahl and M. Henius, 
1887. i, 66. 

About beer lurbidily.— R. Wahl. Brm„ iftgo, iii, 349. 

Brer lurbiJiiy caupcil by the dcvelopmcnl of yeast in 
ishcd brilliant beer.— Jos. Krieger. Am. Br., 1893. xxvi. ( 

Bu-er liirhiditv caused bv metal?. — J. E. Sicbcl. Am. Br., 
XXX, 54r: A. B. R.. 1897. xi. 13,. 

Tesling beer by the ta-^le.- G. Thevcnnt. A. B. R.. 1898. xi 

Turbidity of beer caused by overheating or by coli 
Hanlke, Br. & M., 1898, xvii, 86. 

BREWING OPERATIONS. 

Vienna and Bohemian beer,— .\. Schwarz, Am.. Br., 1869, 
From my pra^iiic.- A. Schwarz, Pr. Bb.. 187.^. ,1. ^J. 41 
Hints :.. hrewir; and botllerf.— A. Srhw.iri, Pr, Bb.. 18; 
From tny practice— .\. Schwarz, Pr. Bb.. 1873. TOi. 
Frnni my practice,- A. Schwari, Pr, Bb,, 1875, 201, 216. 
From my practice— .\. Sc\>«aTi.. Pr. Bh.. 1877, 317. 



y practK 



-.V Sc'hwatt,'?!.^^^ . \%ri. -i^v. 



Boltio h«rs.-A. ScV^N.MT.■?t.^^.^^v»PV^l^.^^n, 




BIBLIOGRAPHY. IT/S 

e and strange phenomenon.— A. Schwarr, Pr. Bb., 1882, 



Brewing on a large scale. — M. Schwari, Am. Br, 
xvii, 197. 

Brewery managemenl.— J. Jacob Metzler, Brm., 1887, i, 8. 23, 
106. 148. 185. 

About bottle beers.— R. Wahl and M. Henius, Brm.. 1S87 
i. '53- 

The art of brewing a tight beer— M. Schwarz, Pr Bb. 
1887, 769. 

Brewing in South America.— Brm., 1888, i, 221. 

Export beer and local beer — C. Rach and J. Eisenbeiss 
3rm., i8qi, iv, 197, 226. 

Process of making beer.— C. Rach, A. B, R., 1893, vi. 568. 

Lager beer brewing in Mexico, — A. Mantel, A. B. R., 18^ 
viii. 28Q- 

Stcam beer.- A. Mugler. A. B. R.. 1894, viii, 38a. 

The manufacture of weiss beer.— E. Hantke, Br & M.. 1895. 
xiv, 688. 

Requirements for producing pale and mild beers full and 
pure lo the taste.- A. Haeusermann, A, B. R., 1897- xi. 48. 

Influence of air on brewing operations. — Jos. Krieger, Am 
Br, 1897. XXX. 331. 

Control of brewing operations. — E. Hanlke, Am. Br., iSg? 
XXX, 617. 

With the practical brewer.— E. Hanlke, Br. & M., 1898, xvii, 12.^ 
xvii. 123, 

Preparation of California steam beer. — Max Hoefle. A. B. R. 
i8q8, xi. 336- 

Manufacture of Gratzer beer— Theo. Schuster. A. B. R. 
1898, xi, 371. 

City (local) and export beer. — Jos. Krieger, Am. Br., 1900. 
xxxiii, 290. 

Practical notes on the production of beer for bottling. — F. 
Wyntt, Br. J., 1900, xxiv, 495. 

BBEW BOUSE. 

Brewing with raw cereals, especiaV\^ r'\cc. — K. ^^vwtt.tx, Kwv. 
Br., i86g. U. 253. 



1 176 BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Mashing temperatures. — A. Schwarz, Pr. Bb., 1873, ti. 

Raw cereals in brewery.— A. Schiran, Pr. Bb., 1S74, 
139, 145. 178. 

Malt and water and the temperatures in diSerent ma; 
methods.— A. Schwar*. Pr. Bb., 1^4, 161. 

Hopping of beer wort. — A. Schwan, Pr. Bb., 1875, 193, 20 

Sparging.— A. Schwarz, Pr. Bb., 1876, 24i> 

Process of clari^ing wort and beer. — A. Schwarx, Pr. 
1876, 257- 

Procoss of clarifying wort and beer. — A. Schwarx, Pr. 
"877. 273- 

The treatment ol beer won with air. — A. Schwan, Ant. 
1876, ix, 341. 

A new method of mashing.— A. Schwan, Pr. Bb., 1877, 

The mashing in the tun or kettle.- A. Schwan, Pr. 
T878. 325. 

Yield of maltose and the method of mashing. — W. Schi 
Am- Br.. iSSo. xiii. 5. 62. 

DifFerencts in the concentration of beer wort. — F. Gauget 
.\m. Br., 1880, xiii, agg. 

Raw cereal brewing— A, Schwarz. Am. Br.. i8S(. xiv, 65. 

Foroe's patcnltd mashing apparatus and mashing proce 
A. Schwarz, Pr. Bb., 1881. 447. 

Employmtni a raw cereals. — J. E. Sicbel. W, Br., 1881, 
1463- 

Malt adjuncts in the brcwerj-. — A. H, Bauer, .-Vm. Br., ; 
XV. 1J7. igS. 265. 623, 643- 

Quantity of extract yielding material and temperatures 
ployed in different operations of mashing. — A. H. Bauer, 
Br., i88j, XV, 158. 

BoilinR ot beer in vacuo.— .\. Krcu?kr. .-\m. Br., lS8a, xv. 

Filtering iii wori^ and beers. — A. tf. Bauer. Am. Br., ] 
XV. 269. 

Boiling in vacuo.— N. Gerber. Am. Br., iSSj, xv. 278. 

Mashing.- A. H. Bauer, Am. Br.. iSS', xv.. 4^. 507. 

.Ma,<h at rest— A. Schwarz, Pr. Bb-. i&tj. 4S<, 

Hop-saving systems and hop adjunct.^. — A. Schwarz, Pr. 
i88_-. 564. 

Hopping (>t rhe raw cereals wort.— M. Schwan, Am, 
i»J, :*vi, 7. 
Rational use of hops— J. E-. Swbe\, Knv- Cn. ^.. \«iv"'«. 




BIBLIOGRAPHY. 1 177 

The addition of salicylic acid to wort.— M. Schwarz, Pr. Bb., 

1886, 708. 

The most approved method of raw cereal brewing. — A, Wein- 
gaerlner, Am. Br., 1887, xx, 192. 
The besi methods of extracting hops. — W. A. Lawrence, Brm.. 

1887. i, 39- 

Some of the principal properties of starch. — W. Slegrist, 
Brm., 1887, i, 63. 

Advantages and drawbacks of dilTcrent brewing methods. — 
Karl Siegrist, Brm., 18S7, i, 235. 

Cooling wort by filtered air. — M. Schwarz, Am. Br., 1888, 
xxi, 360. 

Extracting the hop aroma. — R. Wahl, Brm., 1889, iii, 20. 

Influence of raw material on attennatiot:. — J. E. Siebel, W. Br., 

1889, xlv. 97. 

A new method of brewing (Frisch).— R. Wahl and M. Henius, 
Brm., 1889, iii, 86, 133. 156. 

Influence of mashing methods on the character of beer. — 
R. Wahl, Brm., 1889. ill, 120. 

Brewing under high pressure. — O. Schrciher, Brm.. 1889, 
Iii, 286. 

Treatment of raw cereals under high pressure, — Jos. Krieger, 
Am. Br., 1889, xxii, 354, 386. 

About sparging.^M. Schwarz, Pr. Bb., 1889, 849. 

Brewing with raw cereals under high pressure. — M. Schwarz, 
Am. Br., 1890, xxiii, 75, 105. 

Requirements and objects o( mashing. — Ph. Hildebrand; Brm., 

1890, iv. 114. 

New brew house outfit and mashing method for beers poor 
in alcohol and rich in extract. — C. Rach, Brm., 1890, iv., 177. 
Disadvantage of the surface cooler. — G. A. Bachmann, Brm., 

1891, iv, 197, 237- 

Maximum finantities of raw cereals to be used in brewing. — 
Jos. Krieger, Am. Br., 1891, xxiv, 262. 
Why do we hop?— A. Weingaertner, Brm., i8gi, iv, 276. 
Belter utilization of hops,— M. Schwarz. Pr. Bb., 1891, 871. 
Influence of aeration on the wort. — C. Robitschek, Am. Br., 

1892, XXV. 89. 

How can a high yield and woct ol AcaiTti i\M5to.'i Ni«- ^*^- 
taintd.— C Rach, Am. Br., 1893, xxvi, 2a^ 



1 1 78 BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Mashing mixIurFs and mashing heats. — F. Wyait, A, ! 
189J. vii, aig. 2.1s. 

Raw cereal brewing. — Jos. Kricger, Am. Br, 1894. xxri 

Mashing to avoid albuminoid turbidity in beer. — R. 
A. B. R.. 1895. viii. 471. 

The wort from the kettle to the settling lank. — Louis £ 
macher. A. B. R., 1895, is, 127. 

Treatment of ihi! wort in the copper. — A. Harasermar 
R. R.. 1896, X, 2og. 

Infusion or decoction ?— Jos. Kriegcr, Am. Br.. iSg6. xxt: 

Straining wart.— A. Haeuscrmann, A. B. R., iSg?. xi. 2 

Decoction, infusion or combination method. — C. Racb. 
Br.. 1897. xtx. 243. 

High or low mashing temperature? — Jos. Krieger, Am 
1897. X.NS, 4S7. 

Rational mashing iiipthods.— C. Rach, Am. Br.. 1897. 



Pure crn siai 
.'.i, 40.1. 

Surface cooler; 
:8q8, .xi. 40S, 

On the pri'iiarulion of 
il*jS. xii. J.'.,. 

Forced malt and iiia^ 



;n brewing.— M. Henius. A, B. R., 
modern brewetics.^F. Beier, A. I 
pale becrs.~M. Henius. A. 
iielhods. — Jos. Krieger, Am 
hing temperatures. — Jos. Kricger, Am. Br., 
won.— Jos. Kricger, .\m. Br. 1898. xxxi. 6, 



A 
\m. 


'Uiiycflinn to 
Br.. 1898, XX.SL 


a be 
8. 


ter u.iliz.-.. 


on ol hops.— 


H. S 


Th 


ilamagc done 


by the 


seed of hop 


1— E. Hantke 


Br. 1 


Sqq. 


-xviii. >fls. 










Sp 


TBinfi .11 hnil 


ng ter 


1 pera lures .— 


Jos. Krieger 


Am. 


ftw. 












On 


Ihc prjicttcal 


v.ilue 


f Hnraalled 


cereals as yeasl fo 



Si: A. B. R.. 

EryllirnJcNtrin and llic temperatures of the sparging wa 
J11S. KricKcr. .\m, ISt.. \im- ^-^-f-u. 67Q. 

In the use oi rice aiiA totn '^visvAiAA':"'.— t. '9aR^, Rto, 
igoQ. xxxiii. 235. 




BIBLIOGRAPHY. 1 179 

The American method of infusion.— C. Rach, Am. Br., 1900, 
\XKiii, 415. 

How to obtain a good yield from brewing material. — C. Rach. 
Am. Br., 1900, xxxiii, 471. 

Practical brewing (faulty mashing).^. Knorr, Am. Br, 1900, 
xxxiii, 530; A. B. R„ 1900, xiv, 86. 

Use of air in brewing.— J. E. Siebel, A. B. R., 1900, xiv. 87. 

Boiling the mash with direct steam.— C. Rach, Br. J.. 1900, 
xxiv, 300. 



Manufacture o[ Vienna yeast. — A. Schwarz, Am Br., 1869, 
ii, t02. 

Directions for proper fermentation. — A. SclrwarE, Pr. Bb., 
1872. as- 
Boiling fermentation. — A. Schwarz, Am. Br., 1876, ix, 93. 

Boiling fermentation, — A. Schwarz, Am. Br., 1877, x. 98. 

The attenuation ol our beers.— A. Schwan, Am. Br., 1878, 
xi, 69. 

The bubble fermentation.— A. Schwarz, Pr. Bb., 1880, 389. 

Bubble fermentation.— Am. Br.^ 1881, xiv, 73. 

The relations between the quantity of wort and quantity of 
yeast used for pitching. — A. Schwan, Pr. Bb., 1882, 491, 

Skimming during the process of fermentation. — A. Schw; 
Pr. Bb.. 1882, 537. 

Malt flour as a yeast strengthencr.— M. Schwarz, Am. Br., 
1883, xvi. 319. 

Malt sprouts for strengthening yeast. — M. Schwarz, Am. Br. 
"883. xvi, 349- 

Fermentation for stable bottle and export beers. — A. Schwarz 
Pr. Bb., 1883. 569. 

Malt sprouts for strengthening yeast — A. Schwan. Am. Br.. 
i8&4, xvii, 200. 

Watering of yeast.- M. Schwari, Am. Br., 1884, xvii. 233. 

Bubble fermentation.- A. Schwarz, Am. Br., 1886, xix, 249. 

In the fermenting cellar.— R. Wahl, Brm., 1888, ii, 173, 217. 

The vacuum process in the brewery. — A. Metzler, Brm., 1888, 

Some points about the vacuum process for t\^«ww»% ■Co*. 
beer.— R. Wahl and M. Henius, Brm., iSBa, "\\, IV 
Abnormal fermentations.— A. ScVwjatr, Km. '^t-. ^'^«- ^"' 




BIBUOGBAFBY. 

Some points about the racnum process for ripening the beer.— 
R. Wahl and M. Heniua, Brm.. iSgo. iii, 224. 

The pitching yeast in the brewery.— C Rach, Br. & H., iSga. 
ix, 8a 

Infection of beer and wort by bacteria. — }. E. Sicbel. W. Br., 
1891, xvi. 3358. 

The vacuum process— A. Hummel, A. B. R., 1893. vi, 563. 

Barley and yeast.— Jos. Knorr, A. B. R., 1695, ix, 8& 

The advantages of higher pitching lemperainres for inciting 
bottom fermentation. — R. Wahl, A. B. R., 1895, ix, 81. 

Higher pitching lemperainres. — A. B. R., 1895, ix, 167, 306, 24Z 

A new method of purifying yeast. — F. C. Wiedring, Am. Br., 
1895. xxviii. 215. 

Cold or warm main ferment ation.->Jos. Krteger, Am. Br., 
1895, xxviii, 237. 

Transportation of ycasl.— John Hotz, A. B. R., 1896, ix. 277. 

ChanKf? <if yi'n?i and how to avoid them. — Jos, Kricger, Am. 
Br.. i&}(i. xxJx, 400. 

Feniicmiin! in Brazil.- John Hou. A. B. R., 1897, x. 288. 

Quantity of pitching yeast. — Jos. Kricger, Am. Br„ 1898, xxxi. 
198. 

Propngation of yeast.— Jos. Kricger, Am. Br., iSgS, xxxi, 
199- 

The brewery yeasl. — Jos. Krieger, Am. Br., i8g8. xxxi. 432. 

Higher icrmenting temperatures tor lager beer. — Jos, Krieger. 
Am. Br.. 1898. xxxi, 492- 

Higher fermenting temperatures for lager beer. — G. Thevenot. 
A. B. R., 1808. xii. IJ5. 

Higher pitching temperatures.— M. Stahl. A. B. R„ 1898, xii. 
Ij6. 

Repumping of beer during fermentation. — Jos. Krieger, Am. 
Br.. I8w. xxxii, 4J6. 

Some pnietical notes on the fermentation o( lager beers. — F. 
Wjatl. Br. J.. ift)9, xxiii, 459. 509: 1900, xxiv. 2. 47. 

What cinses the Sfcondnry fermentation? — Jos. Krieger. Am. 
Br. igon. xxxiii. 189. 

Timely warning against use of an excels of pitching yeast. — 
Jos. Krkffer, .\tr. Br., 190D. xnxm. ^\. 




BIBLIOGRAPHY. 



STOCK AHD CHIP CELLAR. 



Bunging and racking of beer. — A. Schwarz, Pr. Bb,, 1873. 97. 

Rest beer.— A. Schwarz, Am. Br., 1875, viii, 103. 

Is the use of an air pump for racking beer injurious? — A. 
Schwarz, Pr. Bb.. i87S, 32S- 

Bunging with carbonic acid gas. — A. Schwarz, Am. Br., 1878, 
x\, 172. 

Is il possible to make a good beer without artificial clarifiers? 
—A. H. Bauer, Am. Br.. 1882. xv. 29. 59. 

Conlrolhng the secondary fermentation. — A. Schwari. Pr. Bb., 
i88s. 641. 

No more kraeusening. — M. Schwarz, Am. Br., 1886, xix. 73. - 

About kraeusening of t>eer. — M. Schwarz, Pr. Bb., 1886, 741. 

Clarification of beer.— R. Wahl, Bnn.. 1887, i, g, 31. 

Importance of beer filtration. — R. Wahl and M. Henius, Brni., 

Partial replacement of ICraeusen by wort.— ^M. Schwarz, Am. 
Br., 1888. xxi. 103. 

Beer filters and bacteria.— R. Wahl and M. Henius, Brm., 1890. 
iii, 360. 

Quantity of Kraeusen and the time of bunging. — M. Schwarz, 
Pr. Bb.. 1888; 801. 

Kraeusening and bunging. — H. Schwarz, Pr. Bb.. 18SS, 817. 

A method to avoid the detrimental results of kraeusening 
(sugar Kraeusen) .~R. Wahl and M. Henius, Brm., i88g. iii. 17. 

Beer without Kraeusen and shavings.— J. E. Siebel, W. Br.. 
1889, xiv. 1530. 

Carbonic actd versus kraeusening.- R. Wahl, Brm., 1892. v, 229. 

Anhydrous grape sugar for kraeusening bottle beer. — A. 
Schwarz, Pr. Bb., 1891, 866. 

What are Kraeusen. and what causes the formation of 
kraeusen ?— Jos, Krieger, Am. Br., 1892. xxv, 338. 

What is the object of kraeusening?- Jos. Krieger, Am. Br., 
1893, xxvi, 390. 

Carbonization of beer.— Jos. Krieger, Am. Br., 1893. xxvi, 433. 

Changes in the composition of lager beers taking place during 
storage.— Jos. Krieger, Am. Br., 1894, xxvii, 274, 327. 

The absorption of carbonic acid by beet d>Km* ft* ^ti^^*-^'* 
of carbonization, and its loss during iac\dn% »rv4 ^a.'^i^'Mt-— i*« 
Krieger, Am. Br.. 1894, xxvii, 530. 




The rackitiE of l«er.— M. Sulil. A, B. 1 

Alxiul kracd^ening and Ircalment of tiic beer in ihe chip casL 
—A. Haeusermann. A. B. R.. 1895. ix, ^05, 

Pracliiral hinis for the brewer (in chip cdlar). — F. Voiff, 
Am. Br., 1897, xxx. 60*, 

Working of Finings.— Jos. Kriegcr, .Am. Br., 1898. xxxt, 197. 

BOTTLE BEER AND BOTTLING. 
PasIeiiriEalion of beer. — A, Schwarz, Am. Br. 1878, xi, 3. 
R. Poller's beer pasted rizatiofi apparatus. — A. Schwarz, Am, 
Br., i8?8. xt. 138, 

Elimination of carbonic acid during and after the lieating oi 
bottle beiT5.~F Gaum-'ngigl, .\m. Br,. 18S0. xiii. 24a. 
Rntrirv- ,,i„--,-i.,n- - \. Scliivnr?. Pr. Rh . I»t_>. 17J. 
Dei-r pasti'urizaiion and the turbidity produced in pasteuriud 
j- beer.— A. Sth«arz, Am. Br., i88j. xvi. 3. 

I Bottle gla^s and its effect on beer.— J. E. Siebel, Ant. Ch. R.. 

j 1884. iv. 36. 

Preservation of beer.— M, Schwarz and A. Weinsacnner. .Am. 
Br.. 1884. xvii. 4. 3J. 

Neil process of pasteurization of beer. — M. Schwarz, Am, Br.. 
iJ«4. xvii. 200. 
Preservation of beer. — A. Weingaerlner. Am. B., 1884. x>Hi, 

Improvcinent of the keeping qualities of botlle b«er. — M. 
Schwarz. Am. Br. 1886. xix. 311. 

Preservation of beer by pasteurization. — Jos. Krieger. Am. Br.. 

.-Vlxiiit the keeiiing qualities of bottle beer. — M. Schwarz. Am. 
I Br, i8.)i. x.yiv. 3!*r; Brni.. 1891. v. 152. 

The durability of pasteurized bottle beer with and without 
an ai'diiiyii of antiseptics.— L. Hciiius. A. B. R., 1895. viii, 595; 
ix. 5. 

Keeping qualities of beer, espcciallv K>nle beer.— Jos. Kriegcr. 
Am. Br. iSg5. xxviii. 134. 
Pasteurisation of beer.- L. Hmiius. A. B. R.. 1896. x, 366. 
Kiiff' s pn^tai rising apparatus.- L. Henius. A. B. R.. 1897, x, 3A 
Influence of pasleuriiivvg. — ^ . t. SwA«\. .\, B, R., 1898. xii. 130. 
Bottle beer made tur\>i4 Vs v^t'^vj'iwts,— ^- ^*i, ^sd M. 
i/ci>ius. A. B. R., 18^. wi. »w. 




BIBUOGRAPHY. 1 183 

The work in the bottling department.— E. Hantke, Br. & M., 
iSgg. xviii. 382- 

The bottling department of a modem brewery, — Ph. Drees- 
badi. A. B. R,. 1899, xii, 468. 

Tlie bottling department of a modem brewery. — Ph. Drees- 
bach, A. B. R., 1899-1900, xiii, 8, 47, 85, 137, 172, 307, 247, ^8, 
327. 367, 409, 472- 

The boithng department of a modern brewery, — Ph. Drees- 
bach, A. B. R., igoo, xiv, 41. 

Clear glass bottles.— A. B. R., 1900, xiv, 89. 

Sterilization of beer in bulk.— F. Wyatt, Br. J., 1900, xxiv, 
549; A. B. R.. igoo, xiv, 125. 

CLEANSING. VARNISHING, PITCHING. ETC. 

Cleaning trade packages.— A. Schwarz. Pr. Bb., 1883. S&f. 

Varnishing of casks. — Wm. Breuer, Brm.. 1891, iv, 195. 

Pilch and pitching.— J. Zunner, A. B. R.. 1693, vii, 506. 

Cleansing copper beer kettle. — Clias. Buehler, A. B. R.. 1897. 
xii. 331. 

Paraflining and varnishing of fermenting tubs and chip casks. — 
Chas. Buchler, A. B. R.. 1897, x, 387. 

Ocaning chip casks. — A. Haeusermann, A. B. R., 1898, xi. 411. 

Cleaning enameled steel vacuum tanks. — A Haeusermai:n. 
A. B. R.. 1898. xii. 9. 

Higher pitching temperatures.— M. Slahl, A. B. R., i8g8, 
xii. 126. 

Hoisting and moving casks in the cellar— J, Hoti, A. B. R., 

1898. sii. 172. 

Feeding oil while pitching.— Ph. Dreesbach, A. B. R.. 1899, 
xii, 246. 

Varnishing.— C. Haefner, A. B. R.. 1899, xii. 338. 

Accidents in varnishing.— Ph. Dreesbach, A. B. R„ ift>g. 
xii. 364. 

Pitching with modern apparatus.- M. Slahl. A. B. R.. tP99. 
xii. 366. 

Pitcliing with modem appliances— Ph. Dreesbach. A. B. R.. 

1899, xii, 406. 

Varnish turning white.— F. P. Sicbel, W. Bt., Vteft, ti.>:v) , i*. 
Varnishins^ 0/ casks and tanks.— Re^T\ 1<;c\v. Com., K."*"*^ 



1 184 BIBLIOGRAPSY. 

VarnishinK vats and tuta.— Tech. Com., U, S. Brm. Asi„ 
A. B. R.. 1899. xiii, 114. 

Disinfection In breweries. — Joi. Kricser, Am. Br.. 1899. xxxil 

Shellac poisoning caused by the vamiihing of beer vats. — R 
Hantke. Br. & M.. igoo. xix. 39. 

Disinfection in the brewery.— M. Wallertldii, Am. Br., igoa 
xxxiii, 267. 

BY-PRODUCTS AND THEIR UTILIZATION. 

Extract and alcohol, feed value o( waste prodticts of a bnw- 
ery. — A. Schwarz, Atn. Br.. 1876. ix, 15?. 

The presenation of spent grains. — A. Schwarz, Am. Br., 188a. 
xiii, 121. 

The losses during straining of malt and hop wons. — .A. 
^icliwarjf. Pr. Bb.. 1881. jjO- 

Utihzing brewcrv waste products. — A, H. Baoer, Am. Br.. 
ii<8j. XV. 68. 

Preservation of spent grains. — M. Schwarz. Am. Br.. i88j. 
xvi, 32a. 

Brewers" grains-— J. E. Siebel. W. Br.. 1890. xv, 1765. 

Brewers' grains. — J. K. Siebel. W. Br.. 1892, xvii. 336, Zitip. 

Dried brewers' grains as horse feed. — James Nielson, A. B. R.. 
1893. vi. 6ia 

Dried brewers' grains as horse feed. — A. Nilson, A. B. R., 
1892, vi. 653. 

Malt germs and how to utilize them. — J. Raasbach, .A. B. R.. 
1804. viii. 84. 106. 120. 

The drying oi brewers' grains. — G. Theverot. A. B. R.. 1895. 
is. I. 

Brewers' grains.^. E. Siebel, \V. Br.. 1895. xx. 104a IZ|I. 

Colleciinn and uliliz.ition of carbon dioxide in breweries. — 
Tlicurer-Fi^dier, A. B. R.. 1896. ix, 316. 

Expressing spent grains before drying. — Jos. Krieger, Am. Br.. 
It<y7. xx.x. 159. 

Collecting carbonic acid ai the Schocnhofen brewery's pbnt. — 
.\. B. R-. 1896. ix. +48. 

Utilizing waste yeast.— R. Wahl 'and M. Hcnin*. A. B. R., 
1^)7, xi. 319- .U4- 

V'cast versus beei cxttart.— B.. Wahl and M. Hcniiis. A, B, R.. 
'S^. xi. 404. 
Utilizing wa«tc veasl an* VwiaMvtafti Krow» ^UxroM^ 




BIBLIOGRAPHV. II85 

FIGURING IN THE BREWERY. 
Taking temperatures of water and malt in different mashing 

methods.— F. Gaugengigl, Am. Br., 1880, xiii, 615. 

Determining the temperature of the water in mashing. — M, 
Schwarz, Am. Br., i88a, xv, 278. 

Important calculations for brewers. — M. Schwarz, Pr. Bb., 
1884, 622. 

Important calculations for brewers. — M. Schwarz, Pr. Bb., 
1884, 804. 

The U. S, gatlon.— A. Werthmueller, Brm., 1888, li, i6q. 

Calculation of yield.— R. Wahl, Brm., 1890, iii, 315. 

Figuring in the brewery. — A. Weingaerlncr, A. B. R., 1892, 
vi. 2. 21, 37. 54. 73. 105, 160. 

Mechanical yield calculator. — J. E. Siebgl, W. Br., 1890, xv, 
794. 

Calculation of yield. — Jos. Kricger, Am. Br., 1891, xxviii. 233. 

Calculating the yield from wort in the kettle. — R. Wahl, 
A. B. R., 1892, vi, 191. ■ 

Fortiiula for calculating the. raw cereals for a brew. — Jos. 
Krieger, Am. Br., 1898, xxxi, 314. 

LEGAL RELATIONS OF THE BREWER. 

American patent laws. — W. H. Dyrenforth, Btm., 1887, i, 99. 
143- 

Lcgal rights of brewers.— Ch. Bary. Brm., 1888, i, 293- 325- 

Legal rights of brewers.- Ch. Bary. Brm., 1888. ii. s. 

Duties of the brewer.— Ch. Bary, Brm.. 1888, ii, 67. 

A study of American liquor laws. — Chas. W. Eliot, Am. Br., 
1897, XXX, 130, 193. 



DICTIONARY OF TECHNICAL TERflS. 



Cnglish-Gemian. 

In the following pages an attempt has been made to «tllcct the 
technical terms commonly used by biewers and maltsters, to- 
gether with their German equivalents. 

Completeness is not claimed for this little dictionary, bat the 
publishers have endeavored to make it as complete as a first at- 
tempt in this line allowed. 

Abbreviations : 

H,.l . 1S.-.,.1I^, I Lib,, Ijb-ir.Horv. 

Ml,- ,M icr>,ic,.i,y, Top-F,, T.<p,Fein>cnlalitiiL 



flarunii, l Animal ■:li]ri;»at.aiiD4nti>U>. 

vpireJUx.'. Vial 11(1 HI, i A pignut' iiiL«aaatiua, Mt<>»*n Sth- 
islablo. t^dltrifmr — drurre o( ailrnqatim, *«' 

isimeni (mi,;,', Ijinflelluiw. biirtt H«i|iaiiinB«lta*, 

xt. iBtua, — QXtrai-i, tAtinbamVimn. 

r-lrrni<;nlili.in. ^adNaruini- I Arc IJtrbi. So^cnliAt. 

ibeer. Wri>r. , Arch, lAtlfclSi. 

ale (vva-.! .au'iiebdl. i ArrMleJ fiTinenlatioa. Xatlgaiug. 
Iryintf imali;, sdllKll*, Artificial ite, (tunlhii, 

tMniiiijiiim. vultnattrliubuna. I Aseus (bi<i.'. Cad. 

chamtvr. VultticlMllei, .\«li-|iit imech,'. XiAinfllL 

nlillllllls.'i/LUfiWcwV ' ' i A«iria<lal«ri>niiniJinil. ciilMiicibn. 

Kill. K.mTUM^. AirD<»i>bericc<»ler^iicttlHna«taUn 

"■Vm.iU.'rtJrinn.ili, 



lion. Vnaftraag. 
,in.f[ntitl|Hul1rnlt, 
m«nlai>on. bORfl' 



r, ^nraiMii. 



w 



DICTIONARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS. 



1 187 



labbii iiicidl. SalifrBlagtmHlal 

linrnttiu!. 
laclllus. Stulilnifliiii. 
Latk. »uti(. 

lackpTEBBurc, Scgtnbmd. 
:acterla, eorttliini 6MllpiI|t. 
iaiadce, magi. 

— ' and sottet joint [i 

flEltnl. 

— of Bon, ©aiitaiDnittttaiijiiBt tti 

RSttEjt, eiomiiiiBliTii. 
araipoUIfcrmentatioaJ, loVt Vmu 



ech.), (tnadi 



SS; 



^kerii^b!",' StlSti, 
eam. ttafl.t. 

— scale, ^Wwagr. 
earidit (mecli.). S"Pt"ilofl"> 
■etch Itxii), VudK. 

wl Buuar. WiilKii(udtr. 

— conveVut,»uiini(niii«pDtl(ui. 
cnioic acid, iBinjacltatr. 

gvrl whi^l, AntliBt; eiinlclnili. 

ibb, sentlcittaSn. 

icacbuiiale nf HOila, boppill loliliii' 

|aun« ^InlCDii. 
iEnlphlcla ul carlwB, e4iH|tl>>>W"'- 



— d[ puiasli, towtll |itiHnifli>»"tt 

flali. 

— u[ suda. bDpMIt fitmllislaiinS 

itin? WHi (Bleeped barlejl, SifiPioBt. 
lack mall, mfiiali. 

— buers |iop f.), buntti Biin, 

— Diiild (barleyj, |4niai)([ ediin- 
UckediMl lipH (barle)>), Wmaiii 



— pnvKlcr, Qtlortalt. 

lend {beer k|, MrfdincilKni MrRi^di. 

lock anil la<:kle(n1«b.l.9laiAllt(U8. 



BodT (beeri, Sulbaiutkiiilt j 
lloil, 10, lUien. 
Boiler, TompfMfi 



uiKiunu, mill 

- Jle, iltflrtfttia. 
Bulling dawn won), tiatatin. 
Bo ilia IT feraicntatlaa, Ii>4cBbe Saianfl. 

— point, eiibtpunrt. 
Bolt(aiB:h.),eDl.(n. 

— 10, StHltln, ntteiu 
Budc-black, KttiMmiMl. 
Iloradc acid, BilliSutt. 
Buitle beer, giatAtnbln. 

Boltlino- deparlouBt, Qrlul^nbitiab- 

— ninesB (topf.),|(al4(niiit. 
Boltoin Ic I men tat inn, nntiTfldTuna. 
bui malting Ipneiiaialli;), RaRtll- 

laaijtni. 
Bracts (hops). XWiftilltlEi. 
DranchiHR, txcimigtiu 
Brand In IT, bTaiibmilTfin. 

— iioa, annniilni. 
Brass, Wiflinfl. 
Break (won), Qiiiit. 
Brew. e(btitu:&iib. 



BrewE 



jifbii. 



Brilliancy, eiBIIl. 
Brilliani, gWiiifriii. 
Brine, ealiUtuns. 
Britlle. fpitbi. 
Bru«li, same; ^InlK. 



' to, [vunitn; iu|£aflcn. 
' plDK. epnnbiabtin. 



Burr. Aoplinblktat. 
UurtoDlsiniilwaU r),^ihn Pi 

(Oanttn. 
ItuBbinir, epun bring. 
Buljric acid, SutttliauR. 
Dy-prodncla. 3ttttiipttibHll(. 



nulpblie, boppill f4t»11ia- I 



aoear, »i*ijuiJ«. 
ilaiT attraciion, I>aatibtT(i 

itttunntrnitl; anMiLaii.bU.. 
iiB yea6V,W\tW«V"- 




DICTIONARY OF TECHNICAL TERUS. 



- dioxide. RMknllirt. 

Carbonau. tu,fcttiinitiin. 
^ D[xDDuiiia.eti1MenlaI|. 
— — lliH.fDlkalaiiniitalt. 
' 'a, l>HinluR4 Molinu 
uta, JgbmlaaiM Ralu 
:id. JJaWcBUin. 



■rrtiBc cask I lop 
iBt In in. Au^iicn. 



.)«?(■!• 3M 



Cnlar. re 



r niNli-', M(i:f<aia>itl<cr 



mncc iiBMh-l. MrfMidin Sua. 



CtDodiacM. Z !«»»«. 
"-tun. e(t<4lBk. 

b mold, itMbtaWiMBM. 

CoccBB, AucUaflrn. 
Cock. eatn. 

ran'her1i!n«h.)i3'tBTab;A 
Cohdder.Citli. ^^ 
Cold bnak (of won), laliii « 



CBtalTi>>i 

Caich'ba^in. «<mH£un. 
Catkin Itauiw'i Zouc. 
Canlk.tollalnM. 
r^n.tir nouKb.ltllali. 
a. ailiutipn. 

iVf OUBIl Ittli'. 

Cellar ta>u. HilltTlK(4inaEt. 
CrlUrait'-.Atluni. 
Crllnli'H', <|i<lar.u::'d<tr. 

L'eKSUuxl. ClKtltTUl't. 

Cbafl, Ztu-i; «4dltl. cvcl)!. 
Cbaoin >-i>!v]> n Aiir. anHntdxa. 

— >>t>i.'a>i. Ot'ttnO'il. 
Characir r':-iii;-.llinii](;d)>R;WtiIm>iH. 
I'haTti-al. ^.'Itliililc. 
Cb»|[i! ■ 



Culitctlar Tat. TMMl. EanwlbirtliA. 
Color pnUDclDf bacteria, 9 tqacalta^ 

Oimbofii 

.KK.te .irast. IRilAbi'c. 

Cotuguunil niacbinci, Wtbn 

«>-« j: rasl . iR^htlt. 
re niirroT, $ebl<l<it)iiL 



Hs»iou, eip|. 
rnneT. Avnt(n<*lDi. 
itiiiii bwf', ir«b;1Jlartn':H. 
fAaltntiit 



gnlingibolt. 
: , ^tnrKi: 



tricird, EinnlldmBTt. 



mg opcru ..OS. 
h\ daffitl:t^(B. 



i1ni..I<liy];. f i^iinifnaTi:::. 



C»inilw. (iMitu IDni^Unni. 

CiWIK't, ilu'ti. 

LVvivratfc. Rnttnmlnall. Athab(. 

l\>'hlni.'. MttnfiR. 
C.irnwioD. drtliifluaa. 

L'Mtuin lilirr. VantlMltBllIht. 

C»acb. Oau<tn; Xnat. 




btCtlOrlAllY OP TECHNICAL TERMS. 



11^9 



Connter preutire, •cgtn-bniil, ilohinv 
rattiifdKi. 

— (ball (raecb.), OtflntmDt. 
Conplins, itnVMI- 

CoTer (lermeiitlnir bett), Sttb. 

— ir1aBa(mlc),Zi«l||lal. 
Crane, ftcabni £aithatn. 
Craalc (tiiKh.l, ftutbtl. 

~ pin, ftuibtliapt"- 



Crusher, IKalimlblt. 
Jrontalne mail), br(«tn. 
:n1ture mcdlnm, KAtibsMli. 

— ycaal.RiiltBiltlt. 
^nrcd mall, SMnrmali. 



Cnmnl, eiTimt. 

Cut-ofl <mcch.|, nfiUnnfllocab. 

CDtllnE (ol plant). Itltflti. 

— (laJagla*8),aiiTi|M<atii tiiRt^ 



Damper, fllnPlit. 

Dead cenier Imech.), IDbtn Binll. 

— inaal],fiUt4la«ttnlnni<SRd|4t. 
Decociion maab, Siitnail^e. 
Degertnlnati (corn), tnKtlmni. 



Degenerate (yeul), aBlorbn. 
Density of oort, 6tanMDItu. 

- Df beer, (iteinbanT •rtraft. 
Deposit, 91i(bitMlilB; 1Ui|ai; enbtlttdl. 



Deterturate. an IDtTtb DnIitTRL 
Diameter, Xu ' ~ 

tilapbraem (niic.;. «knt 
■■'--' r, Woflolil 



n(ni[c.l,%tait_.. 
pcnrer, blanalilih Aialt. 



Dilutiun metbwl (cnliaresl, StiMnn* 

nUHfllntltDM. 
Dloc. 6Att£. 

ftimhiK etirlltfliiiiialntniitt. 
Dluolve, aulltlm. 
Durmant, unltBlia. 
Donble actinK linecb.), bHnwinirilftBk. 

— niw barIeT,initiMlll«Ctttlr. 
DoubU,iK (ferm,),%iiautian(n. 
Duu^bini; in.finntaitAtB. ilnUigtn. 



Draft, ftillina. 
DrainaRcAanaliTntiDn. 
llrani;1it beer. SlMliniR. 

IJrniving oft [woril, nbOulITII. 

Uresslnj;. ttlninflltctAUuniaiiiia buifl 

Dried rrains, SiortmtnlME. 
Drop bannpr, e&n«ioatr. 
DropleIcnltnre(mlc.).ai6liI(6(ntiiltiii. 
Drum iKerminatlBB), ft(iiii.«m.n(ol^ 
•ItDmitlit. 



~ addition (veaiil. 



Dnrabmiy, OaMbailttl. 
DDralion nf boiKnic, flnfebaud 
Dust collvclar. Slnutfaminirr. 



Ear lirrain), Bdi". 



— BdtKriiKil. 
Elm. UliRi. 
Embryo, itiuitlfnDtr. 



Enamel, ttlalur; fwaiUt. 
— u.-iint. dnaiOttOTlit. 
Endosperm, WlUI«Ditr. 
EnifUe. Sampfnialdliitc. 
EpithellDm, Cbtciout. 
Bpmini Hatin. Vitlnffllj. 



ETaporailon. Sfibamliluiiil- 

E"Ms.'urS'i|3(i?ft. "' 

Eicrelion. SbtonMiunfl. 
Exhaast Rteam. tlbtampf; !Iu«|iun- 
E I pan sin n, Hulbtbtiun^, 



ID 1.1. Vm )■!■ Siiftnlltn. 






*oll,<Rh»itIr. 



Film. Itdtn. 



Pincn-n 



:«■>!• I. Sknut*. 



Pir, A»l>i 
r*rkliiiai 






Float, eAonatnti; ( 
Fluilin^ ittem^ 

FIootinam.knK; 



"^nvf"^':: 



Fiicus. IinKBpaili. 



fVrcatK. Sunrut. 



Ftru nantMi iteoti 



FulcToni, 6ttHn■^ 
Fmwl, »1IK- 
Fbw, Sut-Mitnor. 




DICTIONARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS. 



■in*[»p«nl), Iiflii. 
retnoTer, XuttnbccCDrttAtnna. 
Talvc, WoifitMBlil. 
wateij EUl XntwcK a'P"!)'' 



i|, Vnilitiiifllfnll. 



I. (CAilltuiin.) 



iigi 



... ,JAfllt 

GriU, gilAEDttiin. titttailKc IMikn 

CirooTS, ^iiBt; llinnt, 
Gi.nriaK Iron, eprnMoticlcilcn. 
Ground*, SelBflti- 
Graim out (in all), anlgilintftil. 
cirmins noor, Rtlmttuiu. 
■all), SBnittrtiim. 



Gyle, Cull. 

GTtHUI 



(lop f.: 



libflltt. 



aindcakc. SHitbrlAtit. «Hiu1(tri«d(, 
UardenldK lower. Xtaiin tarn ^lUn 

MaiP, hai I nesL e4Uin. 
Head Ibeerl, CAaun; M .. 

— (fermcntailnn), ftrOultii. 
Seacl mold, AopMAiMOII. 
Heap, Oaufin. 

aeapinu up (malt), «aKftn(i(l)tn ; jo. 

lanntnltHii, 
Flt^at capaclir, SBAmtMtmlSHrt. 

— onil, STAlinRiiibdl. 
- value, (xijlwitS- 

— ol suliillficaliun, Eillanuiiat- 

Heater (luecli.), SDCtvimil. 
H.'ats (lup f.), IrtDDtnitunn. 
Uickory, nKi|(a"tn>a>ii'4t3Bailnab. 



ibaL-h, KatlAlaObaitt. 
• jack.&DBlinffiM.. 

mill.^oDKniitniS"''!*!"'' 

-oil, 9im)in&L 

rvtciitlon.ra&ty HDD ^opftn lu- 
Tll4g(4alHn. 



it^ltuiiM bdWrdtiul 



PoUffiiiUCnii. 



Hydrochloric acLd, 6al|tllii". 
Hydro»Bi.,«BoJ|[iflon. 

H)-phumyceieB, ijabinpirji, i©il(iiii 



m (barlejl, liiAtt Riimt. 

tiofl, CiliaHttn. SiUHr. 

Iii-Tcire(aied(iBalt),iAinbinnEa<Uin. 
IniiKrim-.ihiliiT, ttnbnitkriiiBliiKiiti 
S»on<rliiil(. 
Ic-M.vntliK)it.eiliMil»l. 
[■rt plane (mecli.l, )d(it|( a*til(. 
Iucrea>M Imaltinv), <Btmi]|llpnal|n(. 

' L-ubaior, BiutlBfltn. 
dia rubber, ttummi. 



tofiuloa method, Uanmiailrtir; 

fliAmrjnbni. 
[nlilal beai, Cinmiiijitlinititiatui. 
Injector, SamnltRitlpuiiiiii. 

Insula! ion, Sfolitnpotcnal. 
Internal revpnoe. Smite nlttun. 
InTeri, Iti, Mrindtni. 



utiSiB ftrtiSlDDll 
Lolullon.gobU 
)t, 3iil>|itMi(. 



«, V«»ttiitila1t; SUigtlolMir 



— — a[ lotion, ZAniliumini 

rJiTKrcw.vAiiiutNiitPlwn. 
rt-ni!tk fif iwiirl'. VURIniivllil. 



lieiuu, Smi 



Liuaifacili'U. Vnllii 
t,ii|D..r,m3^li. .ma 

Litv SI.MW. »rtrti>t 
Ltud .iHiiMiavl. » 



VraiRiiN. 

line. ^DPiinbTi 

CioVttiinwliU 



irlili-. CM fpTIBiium'i uin 



R>ill<if])rlaliii< 




DICTIONARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS. 



H, fallxlirlauri e<ilit. 
I. lalMliJHtSHR eal|t. 



us,3rnCitii. 

uecta.), 64[iiuC«iiinulttr. 

Itb substrata, StdtiliolKit. 



Ob«ervii 



Oak, ClAi- 

' '-as, Bijouitlo*. 

mm laciin. Utillbll|4immil. 

cuii, BaimitxbliMi. 

■ tr.-ip^mech.l.CelDblAtlbn. 

liaBimiDlliji. 



oMBiivw; 



iriMlnal 



'•",■&.! 



OriRlnal wort, etamMlnacu. 
OsclIlBtDr;, tiWdinffiiit. taIuIrIi. 
OBIcrnp (veaati, bt\ittBti, 
Oai|)Di, JJutHsft. 

OntsLde mMhinff device. BomiiiilUd. 
Over baniflnit. iTbcifpnnhcn. 
— cured mall, )u ftni* oliBrbnrcIti 



acklnir (niech.), 9)tTt>i4litnii(i<Ka. 
addle, CAduttl. Waildftrttik. 
niiii, )lnnri4. 
utau fuUiicBK. Soninuntiinhit. 



renie, fniiininln«Hntiih. 
l^il1, >D[|J(ii|itun« Rail. 

iitt. Sanrtii. 

ited, bur4brDiteii, biirdilDdjI. 



Jtali. 
I rin.ili). OauftB' 

|lli:isllUn[uirl,1lHl*IDi1ll)HlBfIft. 

nr Uliick. etURhtflit. 
iic>it;k,Ciittld)bsl)ii. 
Iii-il, rInAifdrtflrt. 
.Siaittjianti.. 



Pilchhiif lyeaw). atlMfltSm. 
•- machine, «1(feBMIilt. 
PUchy la»le (beer), 1!(itqi|«i 
t'ilb. ScUAlBwbt. 



PIvoi.3q»|(ii 
I'lasiet nf I 

Jtnlf. 

Pliers J 



etilt. 



«, (djlnffrllonrtr 

liers.aonflt. 

luir, WroBl. emkl 3"fl*"- 

■— lie, SlollttlBU 

lalic cnjeyor (n.™l,.), Bafl. 

lli>pf.).(l(WloI!(nr Wttrbflllt mil 
Wann[ii4 obtii >uiii nintfiDbcn 
btrftfTf. 
PoBj-maHher, SJtrtinoitiSoMMtuI, 



K"*'!" 



r,U!upti('l. 

■i'.uin»),'3!aiiil>|[oi!or. 
lanirer. I(BiilaB(t. 

aoiilaund (tali. 
■, Utafl. 
litate, to, nuSl^tliiii. uictwtlibfa- 

IloHlEibiiitnnSiititlrl. 



Pressure, »iut/ 
— rauuv, CimliiKlln. 



_ _n, ttaNltii mil 8ulrilu|ni 

Prlnclfial (ermenlaliini.&niilil* 
PtogKtiy, 91(i4Ii>tnnni!Aiifl: Crni 
Propaitatiriii, ftortrHniriiinii. 
ProiEld, SiatrlittBrtiti. 

~ tDrhidi[y.VllHifilTiltiiii.|. 
Piaieulvilc.titniMlialltiil). 
Pulley .'» itiiitn|4nbt. 
Pul|), 50 ki. 

Puncheon (ton f I. HUrla^. 
Pure cullur«,«tmtvtoi).i. 



tI94 t>t^'OVARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS. 

?,T»J«M.lt<Ln«f<; , Pntrrfaclioo. rHulnift. 

Pnctfinu ib.vf'. t'lmiun »«« Su*. l-utri<] l<.TmvDiaii..n, Ian 
Iftafltn. I Pniiy. Niti. 



Rack, bi. oWaDti. loCnt. f Alaudcn. 
Hack and t>i>i>»B> d^niiTiiindi un» Vai. 
Kackiair benck, «MiiUI>i<(t, 

— iiin ir» itnii I.'. nMuUbmtt. 
RaJlatf.w. £tii)bmii4. 
Radlclr ,b«t.'. Wutuircint. 
KMf, tHccttR. 
Rancid, inn (ii|. 



RiW [LK^lr , biib. 



i1>. WpMihAI. 

. iiiiiirfMIr iHtajf. 






, 1:^1111:0x1 VnidfL 



.lij^'Ki;;™—. 



Renrsinir (mr. Undiutmnd. 

Ridrrcatk, ealMllaJ. 

KiDf,ini( (cask*'. ?i«||dunDttn.~ * 

ftivet 1iiitr,Si(tlsit- 

Ritcilni;. WTHiotn. 

Ruui .mall, toll tn. 

K ivk ■ 111! vail <■, »HiiM«itt«it>ti!t :. 

R'Tller. WdlK. 

Kootinu uaurr. laAbiiVM. 

K.>.ri].-i, UiivlbiiP. 

Ril|ri'.i^l>rn|icWi:b. 
K»>in. HMPVM>Rii>:li. 

- ..i'..0«|i'l 
KiiUrjr i_iumi<. WuTtttlDuniM. :.-'.:nr.bi 

R)!uii.l:i:i..1.f?,nili'ilr'(u'rtHltir!"*'" 






n:;»>Jlt:t«K. 




MCnOMARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS. 

uPtfnmiKi. 
laJjtTCbii. 



Setilne lap* (won), duoMn- 
SetUing tank, Ufl^ti, 



Sever, tili|iia. Panal 

Sbkde of ci)Iortnai 

Slialt (Rwcli.). BtHt. 

Shailogs, epllnc. 

Shell, $Ut(. 

StalppliiRbMr, Snianbh •j>DTl>fHit. 

— cask, ZniElpBRla^ 
Sbot, BipiA. 

Slirlnkace, eAniBbn. MXHHlmaii. 
Siamese |iucc1i.|, SiriDitabnMnbiinsi 

ganlUNiti. 
Sick fret, IraNnalte Sa^ganiBB' 
Silica, KifldtaHIt. 
Silicatcul Bod*,IBafln8lal.(itfc>l<iiiR< 

Slflcrlc acting (mecb.), riifo^BiiTlCiib. 

Sinlf, HBteon- 

Sinkers, XonAninn. 

SlKTOw barlev, 1t4«|till«t •oflt. 

Skim, to, abfitauintit. <ib|A6|i|(n. ab- 

Sl.mimer,6[liniiinlcffi:, 

'"""'Inlftrn^aoHiiiuVruiiy. 

— pnini.atit jHniCp(t(atl*ilunnii. 
Skininiintf8,edin>iiiiiiit|(iili. 

Slide (mic.!,'Cli|(tllraflfr. 

— (nuscti.l. SAicIkt. 

— valve, (plutilxDiiitljji; Sd|i(liw 

Slime-forinliig bacteria, e41i<><b<'' 

Slot led (false tiottom), gtWilL 
Bluiritiuli fetmeoUlion. IriM Mnnifl. 
— -■--■---" -lUim eiiSnlininiiH 
(nXbtiltbciMibeitt. 



.}, |flUi4( 6 

r, RauitMilinNiKi. 



Smut (bol.)', Bianli.' 

" -■ - TKiitn. (iniBflflmi, 



- l)e,%iBiil 



itbniiinti 6aba. 



o.lfll^n. 

Solid BKitaci, StHlinluMlaii), rfrttart. 

soiubiiiiy (maiii. nuiiamna. 

Sounds. HtliMlittti nilAblaft. 
Spaiirer, UtttllAtiidRjtc. KnlAWilllltc. 
SparitliiE, Gtti^dllDilnuiL onlitliiliiiun. 
oaWflStti. 

— be^I JtdnpHiituIlictllitcIlitlDeinl- 

KHtMnt. 

— water, lt(btrIil)lD4nit™iTr[. Slafr 



Specif Jed, ailfiat. 
Sprvii, ifl€f<itm«iiattit 



Sphere, Ruac 

Spigot, SopV. j^„,-.- 

— lioech.),lBolKll. etithl. 
Spile, VRixt, kaphn. 
SpiUnK lisp t.), wlln ontolctn. 
Splillln« u|> (cliem.). fHaluii. 
SpontaaeaiiH cumbMtlon, BtUflni^ 
lOllbUltH. 

SpomlailoD, epnnnbilbuna. 
Sprajtae noiite, 6i>iiBtop|. 
Bprin(( tmocb.), J(*b(r. 
Sprinkler, fflmup; Ciefeldnn.. 
Sprocket wh«l (mecli.J, Itcunnb. 

•^ — '"""££■, 



il, Elitnral 






Stab culture I III ic), eiiittnlliti 
Siablliiy, (KiIlteiML 
Stare ImicliObltfUiM- 

Stale, tttoL 

Stamp (beer), CltBtitlBaitt. 

Stand Imaiih.}. StiililHihiil*. 



tuning tub, «ii[l(llboll<4- 

3 lav a, Suubi. 

itay-bolt, 6pnnB'- 

^leim chest (mech.), SamPltui 

— coil, SapintfAloiilU. 

— jacket, SaDplniaRltl. 

— kettle, SanPlftnuUlD II nr. 

— Blerlllier, iBamrtlopl. 

— trap, SmRptwiifftRolit. 



eely (m. 



I, CuidXkL rotiAbllllt. 
er. SDciqinallEi. 



Slenchj fernientatiun, louliat waiunil. 
?it"i!i;' iv..ri, ajiaijt im UrtlEl WttiT. 
Stinker' (top (J, llteliiti(tnt« 10cr)antit- 
Stirrer (niashj, 3Nai|4ma1[tint; IRoiIdh 

Stock beer, CoB(iliin. 

- celUr, WuMdlit. 

- tnb,91glilo|. 

Stone winateVov^^. «*»Aw!.*'<W«*- 
Stopper, '4\"WS«i5«>W'- 5:^5^, 



,,,6 Vf^""*"^ OP TECBMCAI. : 



sum. lo, MBt"'.,^ 

Stmk cmiuie (mlc), 6tTi»riUn, 

SiritM (•»»>. snllAIxin 
Slrlklu hnlllopf.), * 
iiiBBll^Mnnl. 
SlTobileihDw'.XtlM. 



SbccIuLc iclil. StrnftnnUnrr. 
SncliuB pump, eauflpuBM- 

— uf milk. nilAlmiln. 
Snlobaie, f i|ia>tklliuini CoIl Ciltat. 

— of lime, MRwttl)a*ni^l(. MM. 

— of mviwo'a; lAwhlluun OIbi- 

Kiflo. OintrfalL 

— ol putaHtlum, t4«MtMnl RoIL 



Swlpfc>lgofindliia.j nm|(lfa'iTl*i 



na I pa lie, iqiKpifliaBR* eou. 
SBlpbantled bj-dnwcB. C^W^i 



Sniphnrlnr, f4ncttli. 



>n, IIilRMa(:'Sanln; SafKi. 
ca attncthm, ClnVA*tM>|itV 
IJJl- 

r.AaWIAiff. 

iir«lli1Mln)i_u 

Sjmthclical. t 



— water, •nntaiafln. 
Swaa iiFckii[tupf.i,aBrsai11|lnauk 
ntlcttt Bt Am lam 0(K«b*Si*«. 
Sjmtheiical. Mitrirttnlit aatkoBCBtL f|B 



Taih Ik. iinuitittn oiintAin. 
— iK-.it.ltntwiatuibti SPlrKlKii 

~ ro.ni. eitmnmrlb. 
T.iivriuu. liddirtniid. <I>iRi>t (Blau'iiil 
T.i|.s .masli lul'.. lUtAtH V"""- 
'I'.ir, lUtrt. 

T.irt ii.i.io'. ttrb, (ijail. !<">"■ 
Tariar, SetmHiin. 
Tartaric ni-i>l. liftiiiftnnlauit. 
TVmiilrt. cOidMfiit, 
TcmiH>rar> baiOnnm. tcnl>DrlH, t>i<' 

BttrnhrEtc iUxU. 
T^iiniU. ntr.'nirtli imitb.;, 3m|1['i1"- 
T.'n>.i..n.^l>Aiim]r,I. 
Ti'-t inlv. SI(i>o»ll«lltlt, 
THicl..m;i4li.5mmdi14»- 
TliiM til,' ll.xr |ni.-itiMi>aDTtn)i(l:(n. 

ThI«'n,"'\-.ik.3Hr 



.!, taniliK 



Tin. jinn. tBtifiblnt. 
Tinfial. eWBi- 

Tnp|iin|r iboprj. ramliil' 

— HIS iiadiniitn 
TiTred. t<>. rtllni. 
Turrefacliiin prodacts, S 
Tndc |Kickat.'i~i. Inin«t>< 



Trap PtJIS^^' 

— (nastainM.Wail^tititiil. 

— dunr.nomtiiT. XIMipc., 
Travelinr crane, HaaftniL 
Trip™], frntafc. 

TroDch .vcaitl.daiifi, StBltt. 
Track, RarwB. 

Tr.ve.«k. Sn-itftl. UrnbiciMB. 
Tub,*""". ^Mti* Aabei. 
Tul>e imi.'.'. WifirlFoln^bn. 



r;. lalldL SmtAIauAca. 
.<rt). mllctlagtB. 



p. T(J|iciiT. 






DICTIONARY OF TECHKICAL TERMS. 



&IUA, Rob. 

ipf.J.eaaiinmtaiBUIti. 
-■■- n, SH«Hi(ii"l«iB. 



- (rlBcSBanienlrim. 
Vcitetaied (malll. atnaAltn. 
VEnt, Uull4tiibn. -Vtiilil. 
VeatilatinKplpe,SHiift|itlu4 Dmtll- 



Vertlol, ItntnAL 

Ve»«l, iutli. Bob. 

VlKooa farmenutlon, f^ttiniiflt « 

Vltil j'caat. flimaftiflt ^rfi. 
ViueooB , BlepB- , 

— mall, etcinmal). 
Viitlty, WraCaltB. 
Tolalfle. nMhg. 
Toliiine, SRaflt, niVttlHin ^nhilt. 



Wauli (^ea«t). Td|tittiitt(n. 

Waaie pit*, KbiuflliDbi. 

— uToilvciii.nttfnpTiitull). 
Waier ivoaal). Mlim. 

— bath, raafltrtali- 

-- cuollng luwcr. •takiimif . 

— tatw boiler, XDaflmvlI'Mkl- 

Weevil, (tDiRlDltr. 

Weld inn, lUmiJiB. 

Wh»t niall, miilfUIItitl). 

Wblie lead. WniciB. Ip«lfii|ituRt» 



WhLtenlnif. ediUumCnibf. 
Whiiewaoii, RaltnilAonntiit. 

Wild juHt, milbt $tT(. Aalthtt, 

Wlilaii, ntitiTiibUn. 

Wire rope lrBnBailu1oti,3:iii4l|ciltlirt. 

Wllber, (o,tiWi>tU(R. 

Wooda1culiot,4[il)ll'iR.S)ttil)IaItobiir. 

Work OHI (beer, Teikt], aulflDfitB. oat* 

I4afltn. 
Worm sear, eqnutN D^ni Cnbt. 
Wort, raBrji. 

Wrench (mecb.K S^couliinblttitl. 
Wrung lit Iron, CAnuMtiltu. 



isi bi.uill.m. wanitifld etitaaliutt. 
bill-, biiurci Ocfitva^ ddr M' 
<i(tiUl([riil 

ippanlDi, 4<|ilOU- 



n food, ftrtrnaliuti 
rate, 3r»llf*ff(. 
rooBer. emniid.. 



Tv^nW" 



c. naiungftingtiit. 




DICTIONARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS. 



Inigtl tXqiu). aqu aiBmoal 
1, come throagb; beglnnig 



n. aeconil moBhlntr. 



VnfnmifAt 

llulliViifen 

nuljltAtii (wit). i[ininilag the pleca. 

■uMitftlrtde. rouaer. 
Xltjua. bolat; eleTBtor. 
llDliiiibn (ftrtt). •legencratinK. 
Kalall^n liBti^flUI). reaprratlan a 



(I!56). take ai 

imofi'liiW.), a 

si^ittiK-mlDci 



HdlgnMitlin (IRolt]. growD obi. 

BuiaialKii, sxcaTate. 
XuthUcni. (o clear cellar. 
KuitttiNt, tapping or serTing; to | 

mullilao. tan ol wort fnmi ketllb 

— Mre, underbacli; hop-jMli, 

— Wfint, flaished wort. 
HulEtoft (Siti). oBlpBl. 

— l^flrmjfcbftBO.eleaioslBKBjBte 
Knlfta^tn. flBinr - ' — 






ig oat Di bOBKbOlB. 



ag'a) ind!i 



itr. InUrnalreTeniu!. 

l3Btii>(iHtl. lealbrbltlnK. 
EpKim sail; aiuptiate of 



llaltnalitui 
llalllEim. I 



eitnbc|iiiil.j;<tiaphTairm:al«|: 
Subtn-ttS. a^-anli; acilliBeiil. 






- lcia(Uufctt.ie(, BQderdoB 
BiMtnliiil. arc liRhi. 
■^oltrn. bolljaplke. 

■Blttl. BBl. 

Idlibc. waaher. 
aouoad flBTor, 

SptliA ISfltll), val: (UBk; Inb 
WouIOdii ec[atiii(, nieatbrolh | 
Siantmartrn. bcaiidlnir. 
Biinti. yeaat tub. 
IBiitiinTDblt. llgBlie. 
BiaunriaufEn. fuiiy h«ada. 
BcoMjik apTlnkliBgcan; rose. 

XnAin (««(«. ctwVi\na\ mv 
9ttdAan\tTk4<IAAl^\.\u3.'e'«'a 

SrtAnnR WWA. t<>iinc\w«. 



1200 DICTIONARY OF TECHNICAL TERUS. 

Viallaftfi, 



SitMN-tiicn. Iirandiiii! 

— auttiwl loci. 

— punfl iDhf. . uwi 
-- Mile l«il.'. I'-:' 

SluA W«M'- l<r.alc. 



Vuikt. hm-h. 

VajIraiKMU. babbiii nwial. 

«aite. bruli. 



IinnpT-dttiMnKiitil, II 



CniPtlilir. I'lil.iri Jc (-1 limi.-, blvjcliini 



Xn>ptIMi>l>liiiUiiiM ShiiiKii. bicartnm- 
— lAmlijiiisni Aait. bipui)>iiii< oi 



u:vrtr.I! 



Sni'til) trifi-d. 



■nbk- J. 



rui-i' Junt. 



1(A M.:£ 



XuiSfL-dKn. \KfU-TMvT. 

SuiOKLa HtJavr. . ■.■ullapK<>t 

wn iHMll. 



— \.i»!i'ii-i. vn«wiA v»^"»jvl , 




DICTIONAHY OF TECHNICAL TERMS. 
!tM.), priBurr ballery. tlPfl-nuttil, motlierof Tin 



Clinilt. label. 



uftiiacini. bnat ot ■ 



tnb |»iirl, ropr- 


gfxatittftii, dioiiitiin!. 

-r ftljfl. fire copper, Ikellle). 




ilp; fiUT. 


k; barrtl. 


|i'll.mB|5°pi.lp. 


li«b<ii^., MrapinK prior lo 








iflcr. cask dcposll. 


{JlanuKtoftrtrntl («rf|.). tabular or fl» 


boil«. 


ri,"Si«,. 


ie».s's.SE. 


uL cross beam. 




ll■al4i^(,k•^ft^<llnlIKmaclllllc. 


HlUittiii. *ulalile. 

mmt* InmDNiit; anlirdrons o: 


BVftn. euleriuitcask llironiih 


nxlcn.(o rinse. 


llaBld ammoiila. 
jjBlrirIrt 3m (»(•.). lotcod draft. 




JlnJ.'totBo: to'rack. 

r. BfatncM ur V conn«ll>.n. 


|timm*l'«.'fc J'm(i.)I'lriclio« p»ll«j. 


MllBilBl, rotUB;«ttnclir. 


RniiW-lBplt. embrjrii. 




"-^ lu«er.^teTBl.ie. 


id|'[im& (mit.). microiiH.'ier 


SuStfoS. carrlanB cash. 






n. rock or innnel cellar. 


{{uJeISI, fnsel oil; anivllc aluiHol, 
nu&funti imt*.). loo. pound. 




iSli.'slack'maf.'!; 


{jiitHtMI. leed. 



1ie<.<l ..f a 
; fCtatii ), 



; to felt; to cake. 6<lniBtt^^T41nuuBiina(Vlal)ntMI.>li 
Jltrn) u>lc lun; ~ ttrtfltny IyIUog«■lic■ 

•f fvrmentatloni ecUait.' blast, 
galioii. «»(btln. brEw: gyJt. 

iclteon: siiliiim; <Bcbuiib(nt RUAiiui, lau-ni heat. 

IS<ntdt {Vmiil, ■petklcU. 
d of termi'ui.i- ttciuDbliKL counter or back pressa 

HcytnfifUiiift. cuunti^tbalaucE.cuun 



[IbrftinlBtuiiil, fi.rmrnt^livi 



io (©th). vital. SrMiimnt. eouniE(.»Via.U. 

iSfltu, (crnieiilaiivi: emnry. IfttfttVll *o\.\, na«e\V.i. 
■rmnnlaliim, tSilOftM, weAiovonw vn™"***- 



ethyl 



130Z DICTIONARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS. 

•tlUltIn SaR. rtiknl I'mt aioOa, eiafj; TitromiB; kuely. 

■MKlll UttiHO. Hi>.->-pc<l. VMinL TitaltHing. 

•mMAbr. tannic uul. Sutii. euBsl; larmsb. 

•nbhDtT. laiioin. WattSBflii, Iwl ma. 

•triRMn i^mi^i. cfBgulai*. •kiMamijIcit unirorniitt. 

•tn)))". corrugatal. Wli4l|t>>il<«l ISHDt.:. eqnilibrinin. 

•nflc. barlCT. M(i4n|i. aiuiiun. 

•ciailiaLHiiiralcd. •liiMtttItt lUMt-I. link bell. 

•clAlliflln SanPI. wiiBraicil >.iiuin. SlMbnKitliL punpri vaivr. 

«cj4li|l, Bluiiol. •ntiRi. lo lake Indioaiiiiiu •■! < 

etHAHKIkltHil-MlclilutTiov •nbiiWiil. luiKGo^init dcT-iof. 

•cmite. iirain. ciim. •tank, nnilvrback. 

— sitcn, CEFcals. Snifcn :lNa[)i, tunali tofcit; loca 

•tiritbi. iiii'iuD. Vran IdHtn: rack i ni; f rum lermn 

tttnuiMin, IJHati'. vcveuinl; unnvn. itliila lernuataiioB ino 

BtivinlR leitiiiHlit;, ilnead. pleic. 

AcniMbr. aivh. — nali, ificen ualu 

lAiflllanBC. Hurinklrr. IsBBini. India Tobber. 
«iM, lOpHnai: ul/i>IEr el I'urr-: >iil- HuiUnlnnKlnnRlr. bell cuDTr.T.ir. 

ttlanilBI. briUiiwt. 



C<iUTiibnNaiili[kHnn*Itdtl , cainil^rv (vit.ranc, irpr. 

aiirjciii'n. -~ liullunil vvai 

tliltti. •»!•>. — idlilaiwciit, 1 

OAliit, i.i|>: OKTli 1 s|iIiiKi. — tiUti yi-oM n 

OulllHiilKi. M.^liiiiiv: hniiint; jno).- (witii rUHa-l. fttxkt 

true ilur;il<iliit. (^itiDcnb, hi-aiinu 

(iillIllBaHiS,' bicjrhi.njic ..( s.ij.i. rlKiHuBvjr. 

trjn*nilb~i>iu. ^ccli ActitHikil'. ra 

eflriidafl.t |iB(*.l. ilii-ti liaautr. vcilBtnn *[t». 1 

' lorn <>ne brew tu uiiuiiiirr. tvTiiitlin ,^alv. w 

^liTii. liuriliie-». CkcumKiIiHiii ilSui 



— Irbu, cliiircual. 
G>Di<f(ii.>UMn. i» lii>ti: liD|>pi uif iiuH 

- i]i(bl. Invnltn. 

— lutbllliau. niililev un fa«|Ki i 



X''::, 




DtCTlONARV OF TECHNICAL TERMS. 

3 

3k 64>i^ tilHR igonn). amuirlns In 3|Dba[Dintttit4<i«MBaii|iiiaTat.c> 
^npiaanittn ' (mil iliitltiilBKn), to ginliniiiii. Insnlatlon. 

3 

SolipiiiM. Iodine tcs(. 3mia4auftn 0^^1(1. floor when 



ftoblc XIalliii (eAluIgl, bam spota. 
Saim. film: pcllldc. 

— tN|(. mycoderma. 

Ra:imilV<nil>'o(|lme' 

— ini!4una, freMiDB miiiuTt 
BqiKi »iiii», tteak of toW won. 

«aL(htt, wildjE»at, 

ffapMln (»iiT). tappimr- 

ffaftsnie. chutnut. 
Jhfld (MKft). cone. 

— f4iini(i,coolc»lit«perlnf. 



ftbi^T, paste; gilallnlied hi 
Wsnnnl). mallet. 
RnoAmrDMt. bune blacli; 

Ri'S'nla '(nUnnitAil 9itm^. 
RmSfitl). common sail; ch 



■ tilliiii 



ntiuji-apli, CI 



- (auiii Motion: bo 

bo n ale of aoda. 

- Taunt Hall, caibn 



fltnii,t(id)tit. cbaracicriatlcH. 
flciiMXd. seed veaal. 

— IPolIt (etATltJ. cenital spl 

OflTrr. Ilie toopeV; kwilc; boiler, 

— — ' milKL builer compoi 

fittltiinti (nuiSJ. sprocliel wheel. 
Jtwtd, fir. 
flitWun. silica. 
ALliDIIDitKnbaccc dumplnr kiln (l< 
fliPUrntl (mtil).). dumping grale. 



— uMninkiflltlL plat 

— t^iMHEl. club mt 

RolntibDiiiuM. rosin. 
RDnbenfalDT. cundensrr. 
ltgn)nDiiuna«nllttl. prcK 
RotlUAiIItlllEt. brail mold 
RStnia (OTali), hriitle. 
BoiK-faltr. wcETil. 

ffottlAltult! sewer. 
Jliall iktii.l, power. 

— nbcitiaguna, irai 



-" b(i'.n'"larM or' Tri'l^y" 



1204 DICTIONARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS. 

RmuBlAiAttl. tviitcd berries peca- Ailing maiie: com. 

liar lub-ruHluIlcj. RMniMt. cbIIub reiist- 

Mm. cuopcr. JtaafBiJ, anificUl Ice. 

IbwL splierc: ball: balb. ftuiia^auti (6N4n|. ■«■<; ni«i. 
— bolKIii. cuccoa. ... — tibial blsa *iuial; sal^al 






EABtttiuni. ersod. 

XiMiL lI^Ked oil. 
KaftBugtOhgliil (■n^I. el 
UitgCBM UalAiH*. taur 



Saumrten lSiir\ tu nt roiir. 
tfntiiitt Wanu. lalrnt Ileal. 
liqHltiBlig, IntvclinK rraoF. 



Cu trn, aeraw; tuliliiie. 
VBh-l«Hii; rein. 






ffinii! ln< 
IN gilded I' 



TOJU-iiilitM^. auitnt. a 



WolvFdK. malt bin. 

— |uni'i1''lL>naliadJDacim. 

— rrrliftian. mail bm. '" 

— UHnhafDuiiit malt tncn 

in<il)<ii(ttn. bae^inn malt. 
IHuilTiilr iDuli," cundltion < 
IHltlia ilMiU) . mulV: lariaao 

— Iluu. milJiHi bliicbt- 
9R(l|iigiiiibiraiil4«UB. cunpoa 



Wrffinji. bra.^ 
Wihtnii ildb . bntEila. 
WitlPJEoPiutn. labE. 



Ibuitii&nuiB. I; 




DrCTIONARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS. 

rantnaRblkilt. ullne cunmitn- IRiil^ tmagh. 



dlfibcn. bjri^i. 



ilQiSflarun)!, atler, aeconilai 

iloitafininBiimiHIi (Dbttfl.). 

Soiauh, Bparjtin^ water. 
TiajMbiti, te«l beer. 
3la6tu^-a, topping up. 
Jtanmtiilitit. tocoDCb. 
<naat[p[Dli( (nal)1, flntrernal 
na«T-tiDbtn, nulrilive subat 



naliHBo, alimenl, food. 
ytafetau^ (inal|). heaptintll ihi 

Nahiraliiiiat. capailc auda aolnt 
RtlMiilnsbultt, by-prwiBcti. 

KiAtjMttl. non-anear. 
HitHititlaB. depiMlt; prcclallai 
HuUMb. nvet-taole. 
nDiBUlirltinicnl. standard 

nukclT'It jBi<4'), mechanical 



OhcRIIAtnaniltlninii. aartacs ati 
ChT|Uibtn(Dnbtnial<iT. Eurfacs i 



Ot|ttMi]4 (wit.), atan. 
— trddti Iwf.). Bllda, 

Dflnung iMir.l. aperture. 
Otuloi (mif.l. eye piece. 



fatUuriflRit. paKeDrliina; tai 
*«4, pitch. 

— fltldinioa, pitchy tame. 
VcnnintnlE f>liilc Itsafltij, pi 

VrHritAe SitDlt. FeuidiRh. 

$Biiiilrn-t.nj(iS, reireiable all 

— laltr.ccllulime: fiber. 

— oiUn, chloroptayll. 

— ftim. Teiretableflne. 
motl. epUe; pluir. 
1)(rDp(. plBgi stopper. 



VI|i>lptDrfoBnl Kali, pliFwph.ii 

SlAsplMiEt. pllchlnii mactainn, 
Siittn, to piicb. 

VlllttMA'nM([, brash mold; 

Sliutlftaiini (mill.), cunnecilnir 
gDliiciiilAint (anolj), m^H iK.li>. 

itDbiiiMbn, l>low uA or try 
iiBltinltipci, pmteida. 



i2o6 dictionarv of technical terms. 



KaWiunf. KS> Itnn 



SDMrn. rve. 

Miitliii4L ■onulli-d ccreaU. 
9l6tnaliatl< Alii bur. piiw cuil att*ai|» 



Mtnatnela* Mil t™t 
»i4cn. raw. 

I una. Irit-ii.in. 



ESi' 



taiiMf. Hi 

SSI 



KtDoItiri (mir.l. ■«« wietu. 
SJincB, twit; Mrap. 

~ |ikti»iinn».:. pDllcj. 
Rlnnt. KKM^c; Knlur. 



lobiiiKlii. caiw n| 
lsfl(B(4.1. giate. 
latnn. lurrrfy. 



Nifl-val|. b._ _... 

~ PTDtulti. torrefu 
)liltii)n<tti. bn't Ruirai 
XBdhtianDcntil tnuA. !. i 

— pciicW IIXaiJA;. 
»Mi-|*I!"iand raki. 
RitnMAtEt«iBcnliI, ruck 



aiHrinliaR XIUniiiitiDi 
iftKinhoitt ttittofl. ; 



- - IS'und. hriar. 



M.itijLbi.lI. .-.'II II.- 
enunathult. .ii-uil'.>. 



1^al(lW^ll^<ubt 3>aCltrKii. sliiiitf 1,1 

£likiiniiU tAiinnfl. \l«cuiis -t r 

ZdHimmtv t>i *ra«li. 
2il)lcmnlTn»t. wliitirnlDK. 

eiklunH. r.u-kine n'. 

eamHltb^lH VldlU lUcit.l, fnilMr I'l 

CAnKluii. t.i (u-ii-. 
S4>ii(lt-;'ii::ll. mrlilnir puint. 

'^awHX.bv.ditt intit.:. »ii >.-ii|<: lui-i 




DICTIONARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS. 



CA&nt, Balajf, lalnilau. 
CinARin. lo Bna: lo clarify. 

edotntUlB, Rmokc Hack; cli 
*4riiub(Il-*o^ii, laiTKr™. 



epcdlsl^^tiofflitili. 
eptifflrr (fcinibc). elivator. 
epeilcBumlK, feed uunip; Inji 
epilit chaff; busk; aUell. 
eptlflll imsiu, Sid), aart: 
epRciab, ratchet ohecl. 



'•"asr'is?™,,, „....„.... 


epi|>n.lochiu 


evItnloB. Bcdimentation glaf 


mill. 




eS«l'»H(l. e»tn.ct-jieldinir malarial.. 


6b™. chaB. "^ 


6Iiri|-Iont«malijr (mtiS.i. jet c 


eoniiiili :««itM. shrlnkwie. 


— (dbI. Bprayinir nonle. 


etnmti lifwn fflBirii. »i"l. clea™l. 


6I>Toncn. bnddiair- 


Mtt1»<l- 


epunb, bung. 


eitttK>CJI Epiltn («(iflrj, blackened 


— oDliacat, bnngldg appa 


llpB. 


— ifliSh, bnshlnifjbHiinl 




= SKrc™ 




- Wun,™iphBtlcacW. 


— iop((R, bung plOK. 


— — Mif«tn^ sHliibiiric acid 


saSisr.!;.... 




— faun CeIu. nulphaies. 

— intllnftDn. anlpbii retted hjdro- 




of won; origioal n 


64l«t(1n'Sulpbnrla? (bleaching bar- 


ICJ). "^ 


6lQiini»l. tin fuil. 




eiaih-tlrillti. gelatiaiied 



edmllifiltlun Co^t. sulplilles. 

6*lt«itan. welillnB. 

ejiKlttii. air drrrnic; wltherUK. 

edlniiinrneT (nntMltc), attcmperatoi 

6<tli)lininnciili. Bkimminin; Doai bai 

— fftiiiii, float. 
6iliiDiiiS(nli. Hscillaiorjr. 
6ti6«i(ilifl( BfllK, Bin-row barley. 
6cil|«latn, raise butlum; Htralacr. 

©eltPtnUSn^'intt. spontaneous con 

— a*™"!!- sponuneons ferment) 



Ctnhtltt. vertical. 
CiAtT^itSVcnlil (mtit.), aafeiy t: 






allltiou 



eictapunn, I 
CtiD, bin. 

epSlH, chips, BhaTidgB. 

— ftoDlin, chlppinir; adding' chip 
thr..ugh6ndgholo. 
epAnfafti chip cask, 
©paltpiljr, fiision fani;!. Fichliiomj 



- lidbiinA. slarch turbldliy. 



etcDiing (ii»4.}, collar (on aha 

6ttiitt>t7inarIt'<I'in). Riamp. 
etcrnrlairlli. tan room. 

CltiifriiiiB (nitit.i. gear. 
dlifrlmtuc. Blab culture. 
— Brp»f, pricking test, 
-eiidaat, carlxinlc acid. 

Slilt. peg; apprentice 

eiedit, liiuBiy: fusty (odor). 
eiDtfrubHirn. filter dW. 
-etoVtBUAtC (mcdi ;. Biualag bun 
■etSnlrl. plug; Htouiier. 
etinbl, jcl (niech.^; ray [opl.). 
€liol|lmia. r.idi,i[li>n. 




- titwt. .iDk« 






siUTl... 


■"••".'•1.1 


a"C"is 


I»Rt. floor. 




»!<■. t.r. 




ton. cUy. 




Dtltt Vmill (mt« 




IN lOoikt:. s»aJc 


ottolor. 


otl, ptnt. 




BB«n (BK*.). t«T 


iBliua:^. 


lift, inm. 




iAa> «M»iift. -liiMirti (crat* 


lifltT. beam^gin 




~'~V-*;;i.! 


"r)"o*''zi 



XtA, Uf.-', bndi condltlod. 



XTOPt-bUT. ml Iieer from iwdiiKM 

— tan. >«dlnHiit lair WMniiwf. 
Zitti4(.>lalU(. ilrup)ci cBltiirv. 
Inb, th^dipwnt (rnm wurt: dnw 

— lad, «*^liiuDt bajf ur Hiraiaer. 



UnHtdMn ,lnMi . rr-rakr 
Unftnuninii iHHA'. rcvrri 
UBttuI[||»iin4[ii>. ■niiK.Tmc 



Uti(ilruiit«n.<j<'.-rtiuiii;ii>i.'- UnttialiBXIl- I^>>^ 

Umian.i. circuintctviii-i-. Unltitr.il ■mKTdiii 






Virbiittiinqtrin.i mnk.-. u.i(klni; f inir. VcTiiiminii .mnt.' rivpti 

KiBMhlfn ittli'if* wirinj. ^UnUnblticr. t-xuici ur . 

VdJiiiimiiin, va»>niitli<>n. «trtittt»:l. hJiv. 

Uibunni!; ItDiribi'Xt iBnltimn-. .lilm- **t<4!n!l m1». 

iioiiKitTthoil. Hiildiliif^ M.^iprri dm 

S'JS'VJ"- '" "'■■":»•■ f<'!'- WriilBdMn, iJblond. 

»«tflu'<l4iiin. li.jiii!l.ifii,.n. Vtrit;ftn l.i saponlty. 

S'rriXirliar. lt-rnii>niA)>lr: aih-nnabl'. VttftiAtn fid . tui Men 

ttrrrfdrnitii, A-rni<'iitntt<>n:aii<.>auav»>n. ««<»>«)«. ^jsi^iab).-. 




DICTIONARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS. 

SoiBhigtbtntt ^Actt eUAaV 
SDnpAniHr feed naler bea 



SuTbcinflr)!, flrHi nrotl. 
VsilauTnuwm, circuluiur: nort pump. 
WoncaWi, ci«ern>l or aplomiitc 
mash macblne; fure muber. 
Viii14ittl"<. circulate wort. 



BBaflt, scale 1 balance. 




WafftrtAI. Unriionul. 




aUaUBUb. ~alnnl. 




— mtiftti, bichory. 




OlilT|(, niller, cilindei 




XUainu. Ileal. 




— (instil, heat noli 


;<aloi7. 


— Itittt. condnclori 


Df heat. 


— BtrmlfliB, heat CJ 




HBflllH-fteb, »atrr bath 








— flW«, wateVf lim; 


«illcal.t 


_ rXMb'bMa»«.. 


- naif4c. Infnilon. 




- totrlcntl. water t 




S!fl!!!I"Mf^''''«!^ 


lfla«. 





lOtiittMfln, WeepinK wale 
mri^tn. toKteep. 
KBiinRtin. tartar. 

— laiK, tartaric acid. 
XBtifeb[t4. iii>. 

EBrntbtnimtBung, delerir 

IBi*I(n (tJoS).' washing. 
ISiittlgBni. nlcklnii. 



IDiiniAt Rllrauciloii' re. 
raiitli^tl fftiof I, real e: 

— Btrnaianatfliab. i 



lo6ii™» (innW 


, cnir wheel. 
wpariHU. 


fcS: 


|,l.«r». 
Kpik-; 1 


'lutt; 


bre».r 

- loacrliBci 

Jtrie, oil. 
4rtnHmi(t. cm 


i'liina" 
■tally 

?H 

leuH. 
juice. 


£■ 


■losixn. 








K-ns.. 



Sua lit*" draft. 

— Ttatllmnt), tei 
3BnM*iiut. tniie. 
3utild(Bhn (Hilliihit 
ItulainiiintlaiitlTatlc, | 

Sufamiiit!i'ifB(ii'(5llil 
MulaMntnlttunfl. o 

3l0i*l, Irj- cock. 




PUBLICATIONS CONSULTED. 



BOOKS AND PAHPItt.£T8. 






DJe Blerbrnncrrl mlt bcaonderer Berllc?b«Icl>tlciinc der Dlt-knuils^ 
brauorel.— I-prcr-IIclnii. 

Brauer-Knlendrr.— IlfraiuceKebeD Tom Ver. 8(. BnnmrlBrpr BnDil. 

Brew^rr Arrblli'Ct'B and Rncldp«''B IIoDd-Book.— E. Solimldt. 

BrcRing BDd MnUlns Prartlcallr ConKldPrcd.— Frank T1iilch«r. 

('hpmlBPlms IJilMiratorlum 4m Braucra.— W. WliidlBrb 

ClK'nilP an DiPD^rbllrhpn NbHtiiiirs- unit (icuiDwinlttPL— J. Koraifr 

Cbfuile und Physlologle dp> Mnim nnd B lores. —RiiK» Vttor. 

Clicnilstty lit Ike Cnrlioa Coraponii'lB ~Vlr-ti>r von Rlrhtrr. 

Cominrri'liil Organic AdbItrIh— Alfrril II. Allm. 

4'uiu|icnrl nf Mtxlianlfvl RofriBcradnn.-J. R. Slolii-l. 

Canvcniion of the UiillPd SIhIps BrcnmaHtcre' Assadntl<-<i>. lUIrt' 
innri'.— AildrcB? I>; R. Wnbl. 

4'rltli-a] Ulcllonary of (be RnsllBb nod (■(■rnMO IjiDBiutre^.— ThKni'' 
I'n-n tuw r- Wpsrel y. 

lili-llunBry or Applied I'homlHlry.— J. B. Tbnriip. 

t^iri-i't)! of Bffr OD tbafte n'bo mnkp anil ilrlnk It.— (I. Thoiiiann. 

l^iirri-lDpnlta Brltnaclra. 

(i(lriinE)^ri:anioni(-a.— Allvrt KIGrkor. 

Uaiiot'x Kl^uiPniB de ['hyxliiiio. 

lIUDdbiii-b (lor BJrrliranerfl.— EhtlPb llaMcb 

Ilnmlburh tlpr InDdwlrthscbBtrllolion ttpwrrlie.— C. J. Liniopr. 

llfiDdbiicli fUr den aiiK-rlk. ItmUT unrt Miltipr.— Krnal llanfk«. 

Hnnriy BtKik for Biw.-n.-tl. E. Wriglit, 

IIbmhtU'i Mrcbnnlrs' and KnRlnoi-rB' I^ockct-llnok. 

Inaub'iirat Olpntrnatlon. Ilalli'.— llrrlifHd. 

iDtpiiiprranre In thp Llfrht of Coniiilr LawR.-lli'nry I. Row<lllrb. 

Intrrnatlonnl Mnllral Congrww, Rimii-. 1.>'H9. -Addn-n, Dr. BaVi-krr. 

KpiiCs Mifhniilral CnEfni'rrs' I'orki'i-K<wk. 

KbIUir'K Ardiilccti.' and Biilldi-re' IVMki-t-ltook. 

l.alioretnrj- I'oit-Book for Brewi'm.— l-nwroni?* Ilrbtnt. 

Ij|iidn'lrlli:<FbafIllrh und RFWi-rlillch nlrbtl|[e Sti.lTe.— 1, Kneate. 

I.€hrliiiob der BiorbraniTpl.— i'arl l.lnlnor. 

la'hrliiicb diT lllpr)<rnnt'ri'l.-<-.irl Mtchpl 

r.phrbrich dor riiyriK nttrt M«1<KtTOMGl<-.— Min-llir-PnalllPi. 
r.iilirJr'adon onrt LnVriPanW.— V*. h,ic*vV.iA» vwW.^'n. \>»\¥». 
Ualilicrolliiog nnrt BVcrtabrttaV^ton.— IviWw 




PUBLICATIONS CONSULTED. I: 

Unnlpnisllon of the Mlcroncope.— Krtward RniiBth. 

Maiiiinl of Bncterlolog;.— Cirorge M. Sternherf;. 

UeehnniBche Technologle dpr Blerhraaprcl.- fmis Fsclicnder. 

Mi'dilelPlBpr fro (.'arlHberg I.aborBtorlrt. 

MioroBCope RDd Its Ite vela t Ion B.—Wni. R. Cnrprntpr. 

Microscope In the Brewpry— MotthewB na<l Lotl. 

MLilo's Compendium for the LIqnor Interests.— William Mills. 

UlkroorKiinlaiuen tier an rnngslDdnBtrlP.— Alfred Jltrefnarn. 

MlkroHkopische Bet rlebacontrolie.— Paul I.inilner. 

Ofllcleller Berleht Scr K. K. Cealrnlcommlaslon frtr dip Wi-1t 
BtelluPK ■■> Cblcago.—FranE Scbwackb&tcr. 

Orgnnlak Kcml.— C. W. BlomBtrand. 

rrneUeol Ilrewlng.— E. R. SonlbLy. 

PmcllrnI Studies Id Fermeatallon.-Eoill Cliilrillan Hau'iPii. 

Principles and Practice of Brewing.— Walter J, Hyken. 

Proceedings of the Fortieth Convention of the V. S BrewiTB' A 

QiioutKatlve Analrsls.— C. Remlglns FrpBCDlnti. 

Second Annual Beitort of the State Cammlnsloner of K^irlre of 
State of New York. -11, H. Lyman. 

Soluble KemicntB and Fermentation.— J. Iti'ynolds Orpen. 

Soliidnn of the Temperance Prohlem proposed l>y tbe <iov< 
nient of Sffltierland.- O. Tboinann. 

Stiindnrd Dlctlonsry af tbe English I.an|[UnKe. 

Sfstem of High Llcenepti.- G. Thomann. 

Teit'Book of the Science of Brevrlng.— MorltJt and Morris 

Theory end Pradlce of Modern Brcwiug.— P, Faulkner. 

TranxBCllons of the MIchlipin atnle Medical Society for 1894. 

Troutwlne's Knglncprs' Pocket-Book. 

TreallBc on Hydra nllce.—UaDaOeld McrrlmoD. 

United States Com ml™ loner of Ijilior. Hep.nt for ISStt, 

United Slates Department of ARrleulture PuhlleatlODS. 

United States Trensnry Department piililloi lions. 
Wasner'B Jabreabcrlebt der cbcmischin I'l'Chnologle. 

PEEIODICALS. 



Annaten der Chemic unil PbyHlk. 
Anual.-H de Cliiiule. 
Archir flir Hygiene. 
RayerlBchcB Brsuerjonrnnl. 

Bcrlchto der deolBChen cbrnlacheu (lenellacboft. 
Botaiilscbe Zeltscbrlft. 
Brewers' Journal. 
Brewing Trade Kerlew, 

Centralblatt flir Ilakterlologle und PtraslicnlLatLilt! . 
CItemlker-Zei taag. 
Der Bayerlacbe Klein- nnd UlttellmtneT. 



212 PUBLICATIONS CONSLiLTED, 

D*r Blerlmner. 

Dpr BebiaUrbe Bmbmner. 

Der Denlarhf Blprbran^r. 

Dlngter'H I'DlrtechDlM-bM Joarnal. 

GambrlnDB. 

id Berrle«ratloii. 

lonnul of the Chemical Society. 

Ql of Ihe FederalPd ImiMlDtM Of BkwIkk. 

il fQr praktisrtie Cbemle. 

i-lrthHrlinfillrhc JshrbOcfarr. 
Updiral Ace. 

OrtterclvhitH'lie Itranrr- and HopfmieltuMs. 
Prilt Joiimal du Bnweur. 

Revue L'nlTrnielle de ta Bruarria M de U Malterle. 
SltsuDRen iler liarrrlarben Ahademle. 
TnDaacriloDB of Ihe Labontoty CInb. 



Wot-hi-Dwhrltt fUr Brnncrel. 

Zt'llxi'hrlfl rUr nneewflDdte Chemh;. 

ZeltKrhrlfi rilr Rlerlirauerrl und Malitnhrlkallon. 

ZrlCBibrlfr rilr Itlolople. 

Zelisi'brill (Ur ilas ReKitnnite Branwp«pn. 

ZrllK.'hriri fUr fiplriliii 




to pages. 

like "and." "in" "oj," etc., are tieslecUd iit llie 

gcment of words. 

ABBREVIATIONS, 
Nft.-DeKini., doiorminjiiun.-lb., ilLosuaiod.- Waih., 
'riferatioK.— T.. ublu. 

Abbe— AdUKIuD 



BU«. T. D12. 
111.433 



■I la (enni-Diiiilun. IH4. 



nnclc^l trljingle. BT. 







^BH 


1214 

.ia1.l«l]c forrr. 281. 
JoacLl, * " 

- drBoiiio""" •,«; 


.% d ■■ IM t Ic— An e r f c ■ n 

" "■ - pmp^rtla' of. 415^17 



— Diull. ilurliik- erimlnntloB. B»\, 






- utnR ol. 708. 


~ Hf wd'rTlM.''""'""' "'■ 








AiTiit'T srnln. 574, 








- wnrt.BTS. 


1 - Mbyllc *03. 


.torlKl lirptiar. BIO. 




Aftita. hnrtsy imp of. T. I13>. 


- lDI!»>o« on Tel,l. r.lT. 




- luMliTllr, <tf3. 


\t<ft.wiM> li,<thn.|. K.|,«-sra-i. UK. 


1 - u ).»(■»■( ul ffr-i„i,.aii..„ 


.W^i xiinr » n.lt<ir<- ni».tl<i<n. lOIR 


; — ntiHHinr .>f, SM. 


Air all>'ii>i«nil->r. fB-nnuid.' uinllln.- 






~ ''r^Si..*T!^i«is!"^ '"■' 






in nni 1!^. 


- In ramlflim. t-4. ly"-;. 










ti-. or. r. ffiST. T. IKS. 






AU-.h..|-ii«'I.-r. Ti«ll.'->. (■<! 


■ - i-«raiiuM!!ii.'i(erl'^(e5."'"' '''^' 


Al" iHT nlN lof. frnn.i. 


- 1m: In iKiw^n* hmtiiFii^ 19«. 


- Aiiierl.nii. n>ni|-«iii.« «f. 


tn-IOur" ..C. IIt! 


- ■■ IT.-lll.-Ii..N .■(, MS. 


- I<<;'ii1.. Illa.l 14,. 


■ -i-.iii;o«..f. sii. 


-. r.(rlB. ii:i'->.iinv. 2K. 2W. .IfG. 




- H'll'l'lif riir I,Tl.ill.fl<. Iiow 1.. ■•». 


■ - >i.'i>niii..ii ..t. lam. 


1...™. VM. 


-■ KiiBllrti. Di»bliw mMh-t 


- HiKii'oa !i> II. .-ill,! I.. II. xa. K.14 






America 

pnrtlr atHDilan], 1103-1107.' 

coaipuaLtloii of.' T.' 4U, 470. 

— iHipr bren. ri>ni|<M., T. 823. 

— Iionn. iiroUutllun 'of, SIS, 

_ tuii-fvnBenllDg beer,' 813^18. 

— Hvlsnbevr. cuiDposIIIoD, T. 83a. 



- Mctlunur or ■ beim, ITT. ITS. 

— lerer. 101, 153. 

tDfouuiali iraln motb (ll>.), 6M. 

tnliyilrlJe. Bu1|Aurir. detenu.. 684. 
\iilnia1ii. luver u/. 248. 



tnllHiiltv Hit. 4D1, 843. 
InllKI'llo, 4M)-493. 84 1^43. 



on rerrlg InucUliKe. 3W 

"nftlg. much.. 208. SOV 
I. eiiecUlcallaiui tor, 374, 
rm.. 085. 
leil. iiTOfiertlee of. T. 3 IT. 

enBtL of. T. 310, 



— ItUDKlDff. U84. 






eotlDg inwer Il'SI. 



Ilia.) 1010. 
lou-ltarlne. bov. 

Ig, D8Z-M 

inV.' eiw-ui:. 
IDS. 0O4 ■"- 



Ll lnlKinitorT. lOlM 



- for Iii]>]>liig barrel!. 802. 



ry 1>r Brown 4l Moniii, iXS 
<Wrla. BIO. 
■lao cuiupudtloo an 

/iboils. UTT-0S2. 

- ■, 004, 

elboil, 003. Mt. 



A r«aa — Bsricjr 



~ of tnirilum. td DihI. 

— or tniwaihl. to nmi. 

— ol Irlisel'. tu Bod. a 



i>' Ht^lKbloc sculr* tt 



luFF. 130. ssa. 



rmaa. «». 

Bi-.-! .in. 3S1. lat. 



vl»iiMiii (II..), HOT. T. 5ia. 
— il.'hrli.llwi oC. 511. 

i-k iTTMurr InnW Ull#ra, ttnH 



u»l rack. STI. 




'. 450. T. IBS, 









- b1lilJocniI'l>7. lies. 












— rbnnire* In. dnrine (tongp. OZU. 








— ripunr™, 670. 


- ImrU of, MS, 


- vlOTiiiln.: or. fiU2. 


~ almeliire of (Ha.). *sa. 


- filor of, IBT, 


Ilnr PygMln (•« bariejoorn). 




IIorTprhoruM («,o biu-liy..-o™). 


— «™, *57-l(i0, C8B. 






Barijnc, 4M>. 


- mp, of u^ ™t «™m 


na»i (iM leaat). 




Bannetpr, 117. (lla.) 118. 




Rami, hrcr. U. «.. 80. SS. 








nt™. T. 8T. T. M. 97. 06. 




- - Brltlah, T. M. 


— (or OcniMB nult, UnJ hhiI, 880. 


nrei™'''™' *'"■ °""' "*■*■ 


- i^rnilutliK oiMcCtj of, <58. 




- irowlb, determ., D§a. 


- - predared from laBSlMO, T. 1131. 


- MBtorj of, MB. 


in luoo, by alatc^ T. 1120. 




TodnwO to mblc (»(, NO. 


- Innrti tnjurlmt to {11*.). (S:n-a>4. 


— fmctlona bdH mnltlulja of. Ui on. 


dutmclloD oC, M4^«. 


1W3. 


— liwlelng of, 46T-*S0. 


- nomber In cyllndHeal luwla. T. 74. 




- itandanl U. H.. BO, T. Bfl. 


ninltlnK ot, OaMBT. 




In olennlnK, nklniiiilng nul Binlt- 


T. »T. te. 


ins. GittMnn. 


~ UpplDg Of, tn mttle abop. SS2. 


- In RlHiiIni In wntof pilnicdon. 


B.«l briatlo, birlo, (l|,.r4M, «H. 




n..», liyiK-rbolle. as. 


_ and malt, compared. T. &13. 


- of 11 lofarilbm, JS. 




- naperlaD, 28, 




- of nnmbcr. 14. 


osa. 




— molatun) of. «0. 


— o* powor. U. 


— Oelonnlaatlmi of. WS. 


— or trtannta, W. 



— ~ deacrlptlan of. OTA. <II«.> 0T4. 

dlmroMoiia of. T. 1141. 

ilae* awl rapadtlM of. T. IWB, 

naaiuhiiwr'a'BTMtial tablp. lOWi. 
IlnTirlan (»"■ alan Munich)! 

tlon' of. ISO. 
di'nnlllon of, MO. 

ho|n DWHl In. TS3. 



t2l8 



■J brcvlni bnrltr- **>■ 

vuDi. frli'UoDi) aatif or. ITT. 

- titu. Mte lua<Ia. T. 114tl. 
c»rti« rallcr. trtctinn. ISS. Ills I 

- dlalann ot. 2SS. 

cerh r!ili.i. iBT.' , ^^ 

H.'E eilnct, miii-Mltloii of. fia. 






rultnre iu«i1Idiii. I-'I- 
DiiEMl. V. B. ivcni.itlon 
iniab. Fomi-oiLtlna c(. ' 



n UlttMIC*. I1SI-] 



— rtlttt on irhlikT poosD-'jpt 

- EnroTMin. bora niiKiDDt n* 



«l-.rt.,,l In 1Si<>.l: 



- Rlttfiw. «S4. 

- fi'nlns of. vifrTtB.' 

- liK'im tn. artlftn <.r. :iV4. 



lilM 



I. ['. S. I 



!:M ISKP Of. ni.~ 

- '.■....■■• tff. ,iiw In rrot^.ir. : 



wnine n(, T«0. 
. .tiiKrleoa. mri)< 



In. •I.'t^nii.. ]>*.> 












-- porltj iHadaid 


t, 110 






- nekinc 


r, iM. 








- n»l «lr 






, an. 






If, mleil 












rnlM 


tot, iw 






■mm bn 


wirlct 




w 




In 1900 






1130. 












b, S* 


■ tc M 


oimlttH 


on 



or, tllnGllDOl d 



■Ions of. T. 1H2. 
nt, IndlnlioM, TD7. 
e U, Til. 



lUon of. T.- SEO, MO. 
in, compiMllluD. T. «2a 

I. proiliwllop , BIB-""' 



•ud iiBiiw'. m. 



n*rry, Diirlpj, <6T-iB0. BSS. 

U*Tel gp.t, Mellon of, 183, 184. 

lUbllocnphr. lIST-im. 



— milt, ■pcclikillDo tor. 302. 

- ilu of, to aDd, IB. 

— itaniiv, null and gnlax, 079. OGZ. 
lllcloR- Of RilFn>-ar(iinlanu>. )03-B(l8. 

Inimrtaan to brewer. 4BD. 

ni«nlplili)« or carbon for ilHlmjInE 

■nln IDK^, «4a. 
IIIanlphllM. 89t. 

- of UuM. «97 *M. 

ai intlaeptlc, 4SI, S49. 



Itlnilikrr fenneni 

tlleacblni pnwiter 



- yriMa (met jMiita). 

- - cl unification, C34. 
^[lo. floor (lla,). «2. 

- crnln (lH,). WS. 

-Wn.'nnDnoalllon at, T. KM). 




r r«i>t, T36. 

.]«H.(™ (Gere 
. Ulnd. fHW. 



11-1121. 



ntory. ees-ioio. 

oi'imniu. 1003-1000. 

cliemictl*. M«. 

ilnct (or mult) tor brewing, com- 

- twr qairlw (BillUta). ilsllMi]. WT 
■ ■ of, T. «78. 
ot B». T. 873. 

mdartloa. GTS. 
ir bolu'l, STS. 

rvnnfia, cumptwltlon of, 873. 
Milst. r»)*Uoii to bnwiDK mi- 
idll. STS. T. ST4. 

mniilcs for iMlriU, ptopanllon 

tJIEutlon or. BT0.8T4. 

et. bniUieltfelElit of, STS. 

i rclniloD of. i<H3-I]l». 
vscot'lf*! Iiliontoi]', 101I-1U3;<. 
lH>r uf In IJ. S., br itBtea. for 
W. T. 1138. 
nils luiwU In IMO. T. 113S, 



tlltUllOD of, 4 



■ iperlOc (TiTltr. «M. 



riUoQ, eM-eu. 



oolfll, MT-on. 

_ bibllognpbj, ll«e. 



of, T. lHO-1143 

- vorKmeo, oeaiu rmu of, 1111, tllS. 

mnenl hultb ol, 1118. 1118. 

bnltb (tntlitln of. 1114, IllB. 

phrilqiw of, lUO. 

MroBftb of, ItSO. 

rewln*, aiUDiKta, ue of, oplnloiu on. 
litis, 1108. 

- beiitf {an boilcj). 



- bibiioRnmbr, iin. 

- caleolatlouj. r ~ ' 



tbw.n, MT. 



S31-83e (see i 



Bmiliilid. TM. 
net jleldlDf, 448-4T4. 
t, blbllorraifbj, 1174 



- prfpantloot of. 473. 
' ItmpertJes of, 4T4. 

- nmple* of, for anal) 



irehc* In Doors, SSIT "" 
vorl. Di^rare, 80. 



llUanl ale, American, prodarllDD 

SIB. 
Ine ■tlempentora, 978. 

rnlrlnm.chlorlds, T. 313. 

c'ircalallon, 810. 

colli, STO. 



1222 



Br Ibc— C'apac II7. 



liiuflian. roniw 



- lit uialb tD)>. W^IHS. 

- iiiafrrliili f.ir a lnv«, Kli. 

- nal>T ror l.rpw, iiuouul -I 

- yk-hl i>f inmertnl. Vl.-h. VK- 



il!iiH tit iiiF>i>lni:. Mn 

(i-r cr-i-IU-illDc Mo.l.^.c 

I'.l-al. »». 
iiy. motltlp*. 
l-fr wnt. T. 114!!.^ 

,■"-»"'■) -iiT. T. ,-.73. 

I L-r. Ilaixlrl..!. T. lU 




Capaaltr— CktU. 



i(/. UIOIBUKI ot. 80. U 

r1.;e tub. 609, T. 1141. 
■ti^ Uak, to MDd. TG 
■lark IDtM. T. 18. 



rilnl In Uqnor tnDkr, T. 



■■k •ouport, ess 

- ulIsgD ot, to Sl.d. T3. 

- U. a. mmmreiDtiit ot. 72, 
ametue. E8. 

oollilo*et lUge Id top femi. 
■uHi of bcei turtddiiy. 10S2 
aiiBlIc ro'ii'i, 364. 

- (odB, S9G. 

u fln antUcptlc. 490. 

far ctHUlDf, 843. 

elUnm. tDiuliltlan or. 33T. 



~ cumposllloii or wort m 




T. ell. 




1. 80. 








Kjl.y.l rales. 400-414. 






OI.I1H' .cale. 0T3 


n brcwerm- ■nlca, T. 873. 




eonvertlDg into Fahrenlwli aixi 


u re«t. 051. 






nenmoDr. S7I. T. KB. 
CvlDcnl floars. STO. 


ilr'rHiqiiwl In combtntlo 




(, lOT. 


- wuibn. hrdnnllc, SeS. 


.i.ui],i.i.j(. or. tor de>in 


rl 




CodKI tenin), 01. 








Cvulrr. 00. 




402^33. 


CenOjnOf (■» CUlon). 


lioilde (W.-0 cirboulc ac 


U) 




Cectlmeter. grsm. •«»»] (C. 0. S.). 








c1ec[H»l unit. a.1. 


o( conpor. 400. 






Ccnal hoppen. (fcvrlptlao ot, IIIh.) 


ot Iron, SM. 






at lenil. 400. 






gB2. SBS. 


ot llnie Icalr-lum). 31W. 








at poUnlnin. 304. 






rcreallnc, 400. T13. 


ot '»d.. aos. 






(Tenpoota. .pfcia«tl*n» tor, ;0B. 








Chnln. itiengtli ot. Ml, 


HmSti^ o^bwr. rar. 






UiiBractCT ot beer. maU-i luDurnce on, 


vacKDiu beer. TBS. 






SSS. 








m»hlnit method 1ni1nou«. 7«8 



.lL-velop«I, 1032. 




irnlnrnce ot. on jtiat. H.S. 


- uoni o( aestrojInB' iDsect*. (MO. 




-properties of InbrlfaoW. 1041. 


Id retrlg. tnachlnci. 303. T. 318. 


Chemical* tor laboratory u>c., OIW. OOT. 


utIllulloD at, KTO. 


CbemlxtiT, 3^2. 433. 


wMte of. In broworl™. STO. 


- .nnl?tlcal, S82. 










— yeasH. T. 022. B34. 






- organic. 402-433. 


C«.k H: 8. welfhl), OJ. 




- rn|«iebt7 of, to nml. TS. 






CbeJaiic? birter. 440. 



C h 1 1 > ■■ K-^;a lo r. 



- l'l|]|loxn|>l>f, 1IC4. 



vmiinil.i]. 488. 
I»rrf|>lldn nr, Tl£ 
Jcmian. TBT. 

iiplal. 4SS,' -KS. 



Urn or. *m. 
KMhi-r. (111. in 







fjOlar— Conaaetors. 



wort, errrcted b^ roBlt, 010. 
J il<]i«r Ian. lom. 

ta. tex-ist. eos, me. 

lysla of, melhal, 094. 

ir llnDctD of, detami., SOS. 

umlUeii at, 483. t. 1M. 

jturs In, deMnn.. BM. 

pcrtlea at, 4S2. 

nr Id. dolcmi.. DM. 

g nutrriill (•«« nrionial). 

itlOD, cbamlcal ■nd mecb.', SS3. 

leqntred for, T. lOT. 

coal, 'beat of, 202. 

na unilar prenim. lin. 



[FDtuckT, pmluctLoa 
Burea to metric, cool 



— lnj||«, T. 498, T. 4T0. 

— malt, T. -HI, T. ai9, T. 020. 
Ilndlab, OIM. 

aproDti.' am'. 

— NorwceUn 'b«n. T. 830. 

— oniB, T. 400, T. 470. 



ntlnc, 4tu-4tT. 



t eitiact. tlH. 870. 
OKope. m. lots, 11)20. 





,117 «a.' wo. 


ilKMllloD tf («« Btao analyala aul 


„7t „.: 288. 




_- Bleam, decree of, 288. 


al™. T. 8S4, "828. 




Am^rlnn al«. T. BSI. S20. 






CnrKiTle lo Hour InBulntloD,' :=a 


- Wilaahcer, ' T.' asa'. 


— preiinnitlon of, 3H. 


AuBtrlnn bcq™. T. raO-829. 




bnrlcy. T-B. <M, 4WJ, 4M, 450. 0111. 








- Tarioue,'T! SM-SSO. 




nelclnn brvn. T. 830. 


- Blaani. different klnda, 287 


iNVk b«ia. T. S2H, 


tnjwllon, 200. 


llobemlao been, T. S26-S2S. 


Ilolni-a op^-n nlr. M8. 


brewen' Rmlns, 830. 


Hibmeffed, 280. 




anfcty diTlcca (or. 201. 


foloranl.. T. 4f4.' 


BHtlcHiBl, opeo Bir pli* 


mni anil com pmliMta, T. log, 


al|.b»a, 201. 


T. 470. 


CundenBlng preaanre In nfrlg. 


liaotab beera, T. 830. 




nabi-a (romV T 4711 


'^ lnlh»n» „t !ni 




*.-isLt i.(. a. \\ 




Kl of WOH. cilcuUthv. B13. 
IT. CBlcalatliW. 027. 



- oil, WSJ. 

eiipontlnc iwlnt, 



• noa.'ai.' 

la, rapBdtr nr, T4. 



>, barlar, In dill, countrlus. T. 
>i, hull, ot lUI. cooilrlM, T. 
le. pctn.leoRi. 2W. 407. 1030. 

- dIallllattOD, Diolucla of, 

- US amina at lubricant!. IK 
polMb, a»4. 

- a'amiilo for aiiBljala, 4H. 



Itlcn. 08. 

octlon mettiod. T80-TBI. 
In Bnfdanil, TOO. 



- ralrnlatlon of. DIT. 
Kitrr llflnoc Iswa, 1002. 
itlnm imlluliDa. (I la.) D 



1228 



Ue!k.trlDii— Dr>. 



I>vxlrlu8. achrtM*. 411. 
('olorU'M. 421. 

— amount of. influi>ii«v uf Invoniiiin 

ti'inpenitiiri' tm. 7iNi. 

— niiiylo. 411. 

— in \twr, iK'tenu., 081. 

— vrythro, 411. ' 
.— fvrniiitloa of. %lewa by dlilcrcut lu- 

v,-Kl lira tore. 420-421. 

— lilnturU-nl ixvliw. 4 JO. 424. 

— iii.-illo, 411. 
lin>|it>itlcfi of, 410. 

- n-J (prjth'^'-'^^'^fliH. 421. 

- tl!i.-«'rtt«. diffoK'nt, coni-vruhii;. 420. 
-- v:irii-tlc« of. 411. 

lk\tnMM>. 412. 

— In lio|i8, 479. , 

— t:iMo. .\flllin'«. lUOU. MIU. 
hiii;;ruin, f«irce. 153. 
I>tiiplir.i^iiii (lohFcs), 120. 

— of nilt-nwouiK'. iMl'J. 

— tfUMiu tnii'tf, Wi<. 
I>iiiim>(r>r. Cii. 

Phiniotois of citvk-tf if com 1 luUi, «il. 
-■ iZiJira, 1G»>. 
I»i;istjj*t\ ju-Moii of. on bi.iix-Ii. rj'»-l24. : 

- >iH fi-».l f.ir irtTUj uf linrk'>(.iirn. 0^3. 

- !'i>rirnii«iii uf. hi nuili, 017. 
ppipi iiii-< tif, 117. 

- .iii'l si.iiih (Mfrluiii.al nvirw 1. ^2»i- 

424. 
J«-i'.| I. t:iir:v -if ill si:-iii-i!'ii. T2l. 
1 i..>r iti.- i-..u..'r wi iialT. Uu'., \?jO. T. 
017. «;ji. 
- — .|i.ii.i«»' i.f. In iKc "IK'H. 7^.i 

- - 'Ii iiiiti.. 1»1>J. 

- - i.n -.i ..f Kilniii.: 1..11. .v.M. 02J. 
l»i. iii.ii:i y uf U«.-!iu!>-iiI t»rrii>. llfyi- 

l'l<i>ii<- v.iiiif «if malt atii] :i<]jiiiii-i:<. 
i:titi>ii I <iiiii:iiiu-i' ••I'liii'.'U • u. lieu 
iMtT.i, nil . 2. 11. 
i>i:>i-i,:iii. 1 III... k .Mil f.iil. 10r» 

liiiiir;. MJ. Ml. 

li jMi..t..r I ■.: .;■. 2iW. 

»«n\\. 1«'J. 
l'ini:^5..ii, li.'i, :.'.j 
I'ilijfj.iii iii.ili..i;. II iiis.-:i'>. It»22. 
I' •■ .■iisi..ris. r..:ii !i l.-t •■■... lir. r. 11 tl 

>i-.r t..iik. "l*. 11 12. 

I ■:,-.' I . nW. T. 7^ T. IMI. 

- Ill wviy \.K-;.l>, T. in«'ll4:V 
i-.-k^. I'i'.i.il . I.. I lix.il. r. 77. 

— r. tl' lilt. :>:. 'J'. 7*'. 

L-:-.:ij, t.M!:,<. T. 111;;. 

— 1-..II j;i.L. T. 1112. 

M.tsh iniK. T. nnv 

— III-.- tul.s. T. 1141. 
^l'Hk■ III!.--, T. 1^. 

■ ^t'.lli':*. »>|-i-. li^ ,. tii.'ll- fi'l . I'-Z'Tt. 

- l!,rf... 0::. 

%..i:-r J;iiik.<. T. 11 12. 
l»i-.\i.N. i.f i;ir1««in »'■■■.• i;i;|H.)ii.- :ii iiit 

/'//♦■«i i.iini.-iii li^.M.'jo. 1;0. 



DIrpot expftDBlun. SliS. 
DlM'luirsP. co-eflk'lent of. !:;£«. 

— of iirlnnatlc re«aol. 138. 

— of water for a fflTen Iwa*!. T. It: 
to flnd. 142. 

throQsh |>lpc«. T. 141. T. Itf 

ItUoa (rofrigrratlnr plfie^). dt09. 
HiH^'Unt 00 lie«r tax. 1043. 
Dtebea, CTaporatins. (lU.) 96SL 

— IN^trt. 1014. Ola.) 1015. 
IMcoaM^l yeast <aee eontamliidCcd jMrt '. 
l»liilH*nsurj law In Sooth Carolina, l«C ' 
I)l»tllUitIun. ISS. (11a.) 125. 

— proiliicta of erode peimleaBi. 1057. 
nutrlbutor, gn^n malt. CU*^ W), >I 
Dial riot of Coluuibia Uqoor Ltwa. IVC 
Dividend. 2. 

Dirialon. S. 
>- of deduials, 10. 

— of fnctlcina. 7. 

— alpn of, 2. 
DlTlaor. 2. 

— ciminkin, 3. 
giratoat, 3. 

— exact, 3. 

iHMjrw, Inanlatml. 8i«cUlcatiou. 3&» 

— uianlioli*. G81. US2. 
iKuiMe rolllu;; fii%-tlon, IbT. 

— wiiljci-. l."»7. IJVS. 
pMiiMiii): (yiast). lliZ*. 

Ihiiigiiliii; iu it>ni|ioratuiv. tn rto-.i. w 
wutiT, teni|<vratuix' of. !■.• 

Unv \a\\ in Ohio. 1087. 
I>iMi.tini ili«iuid uieavare>. ^7. 
Dr.iiii. aiiOthtiary's welsh t, W. 

-- r. S. wt'l;At, fN». 
Itr.i:iislir p laws, states ucd tern: : * 

liKV-lue. 
iirnii.:]it Iw-or (see also boff). 

— - - iNiHiri. |irx>dai*tlon uf. 77i 
I »ri ■_•.«* r'Trub'), ivuioral vt. >74 
luh-ii iiix>\viM-}i* irrains. 87»*-S74- 

■ \;iliie of. 870. ^T1. 

|iri<>n<. Ii;irlvy and frruin. r»74. 

— i:r:i{n8. renulta vilth, ^71. 

— f.ir laiut. S«.B!. 

l*u*i* ruiiurv. Lindner'*, fur »attr c\- 

;iiiilii:itii>n. lOSTt. 

sis. ha 1014. in«.J 1010. 

|ii-,,|.Ii-t i-uliurv motli«>l. l.in>lni>r*is. l«w- 
]>rii[>|ilui; system In Knglf<>b fenui^tt.. 

til III. KKi. 
I'Mtri. ilifTt'rx'ntlal, l<t2, 104. 

— II 1.1 It I. iL'. 5S", COS-OllR. 

— (iiialtin;:). const ructloo of, 5S3. .'i^i 



r»so. 



and kiln combined. 5;^. 

[•i-A- iM:ii|>P.'K!<lun refrlic. niaeblaea. ^SC 

— I'Xtri^t <nrlli»h>. d^>fiu«^l, S&7. 

-- ::i;iiiis i-*i'0 brewers' ffraliu, driwl' 

— L«i|i['iii:r iHvra (top ferm.). M)7. 
— Hli'kni>sa eaosej by, i>lj 

kUu (soo kit II). 
- \uv*\\. i^^XvA cc«\^a Itsmu. si7i. 




miAiltlon of, T. B2n. 

»n, OSS. 

Mr, deODllloD or, TOl. 

il, 771. 

dllTercnt barlerl. SSI. 



Blllptlcal CTlladoT, t». 
Kmbno ot birlejreorn. 41 

'liuploycii In Hqoor tnili 



■Ed udIm, eaa, < 



n ol, 4ES8. 

I, 1b EermlMtiaD, 000. 



UrIIIMi) 

lOB. T. Bto. 

(top fctn.). oiwnfliiDa 



ilta of. ion. 2Kt. 



I dlcUaoiirj Utt t4H'bDl' 



~ In hoiw. 4711. 



Inhnnlnrj'. 1011-103(1. 



— i..al..ri»l». OS*-!W.-.. i'>as-inK. 

- mlt.pnil ■>l]i. ewl. 
_ rl.--. U93, 102,!. 



— of cow.^r, ISl. 
-Ilrml.!.,' 131.* 



- mni|tw1l1iin of, Si 




- lilbllDgnplij, lioa, IITO. 

- blHrlOerr, TEO. 

- bolllnf. TBI. 



I. d^nilDot npon. 740. 



IntLclne, 7rt-^B0. 

i;, iiruUva or. TRtT.sa, 
lu of. S2T, MT, T18. 
■nil eipUiutoiT, 627 -&32. 

(hbb c(, ne. 
'fide. 

I Dioobolk. 5.11. 532. 



lirinclpni. T. 7W. 
— deOnltloo o(, 73i 



-- poticu. ns. 






- .una-, for wmcr. an.l 


— K'n^nitiify. - 


33. SOT. 




FlllerjDg DinleriBl. 084. 




T. 734. 




Biiinplca tor onBlrBl 


hccn. as 






tlon of. 4flT. 


— Kliuraa of. 7a 


i 




— oporatloiu. 708. 


- KyHlOIM, T. 








(OaEllili) 


SW-ROT. 




- of btM-r, 7OT-I08. 


- t..iiii>fr.lD.f 


T40. 




In>»« tcom, SS8. 




743. 




Flnul nttcnnallon (Englli 


- i,*"(iw'^5 








J-"OBt, 63. 






- tPitiiKTiitiin! of muib. to 




nl of .. T 


7K. 


FLiiincliil Iniiiorlsnco of 1i 








T. I12B, 112S. 


ilticrli 






Fli.lne of bwr, 7U3-T«U. 


— vletn of dlir 


rent nntbar 


on. .127. 




- of wort, pit 




T, 740. 




— II Hi reoHI, 


527-BHl. ' 












~ blbllosruphr. ]ifl4. 


MO. T. MO 






- pn^nntloB of. 7B3. 



Fomented llignoH <h« hIh 
(1893-lBod), 1 



»opo). 11 

falcutalli 



:la. 913. 916, 9IS, 93 
fit ketile. IKI, 933. 
^ntun roofl, D«e-eio. 
(M« *1» BtoU fungi; 




- nil*. 4IW. IW(N. 



., itcrrll, lll^l «M. 
ruaaihuUlBE nwiHV. TOD 
b-vnuloa In l-ollcn, S-t, 



■I of. SX: 

- .iu. .... ^,'.. 

- liar* I'r, 2u. 
liiaEnltnb' «f, 131. 



i^^n .■.Ud«. vaino of, T IM 

.ii.M.-1.j-'i'-- vJa. HIZ. 

i.nli. I'Li-'iiliil. ilrnMnl. ."SM. 






. T. ac 
ui.iikHi ..r, 3 

■'■■in|>«ltt<.D 







if bnel lean. If*. IM. 
■uttom or DprJ^t (fanrt, 1ST, 
■oeilWIenl, T. 170. 
>n bnrlnnlal pIedc. 110. 



- tviiiDE. laa im. 



iiiplhod of mublDC. 119. 
I jKim. 1. G33, BK. 

In ballcra. £M. 
tiead iLigo (t<i|i r*mi.), 8i 



I. «. 00. 
rfn« of, 08, 

en. 00. 

f«w of, OT. 



, COH-SIO. 



ii™. Ml-eiS. 

e <[p. s. I 



D ilrart. SI 4. 

of lire In. 200. 
1. T. GOa. 



Fowl oil, 404. 



1. dry. u, a.. SO. oa. 
andard U. 8., HO, i«. 
. B., of Iwr. revenue, 1M3. 



a coble feet, T. SO. 



- coal or lUomlutlDe 

miillloc. EST. 

- cliKIc tore« of, ItO 

- cipumloD of. 123. 

- pli*. .Ilmennlou of. 



-- DiiBii tub anteir. ' 



lifaml Jurk. IBB. lOT. 

- I«»el. (rietlOB of. 18*. IM. 

- l.UcJi of, IflO.' 

- (|iar, Itlcdoa of, IBS. 

- thwc luln, lOS. IBT. 

- clBr1[)lnc (aw laloitau). 



tDueleia, T. KJ. 



milt (we aiinHiti), 
— i-nmiKHltlan of, T. 



ntlng brm, 81d-8Il. 



impoalllon ot, T. UtO. 
*, aTeraGF comrotlllaa or. TM. 
'. baTler imp eC. T. 113S. 



!<•■ at, dnnna RDnfc. T. SSO 

— oTtaH?/, °DS»^. M*. 

V:i«:li»li. 'goo. 007. ' ' 

InWrAii.'img ot. 501. 

ol.>-<-;. of. MO. 

trin|>cratDrF Uurlns, (£8. 

— p[Vcaul1'-D> ilurlng. 609. IS<W. 







- bHlle. (Ua.) ViL 

- FlHHra., STB. B7S. 

- IdbkU InjBiiii— ID, (1^ 
PHtas of daatnrlic. d 



- •rmnlni of, K7S. 



1 boabcl. T. HS. 



, liKllciiilniw or. .-««. 



. r.riti 

I-. S. llqiiJd inr.Knrr. MS. Dit. 

ilKIonc on Inwr, 'llulk-nOT. 
M ■runmctnl rcfki. IKO. 
— Unti, (III.) TU. 

(sy kERiel4 'in malt nnil bsripj, 

Bi.lt, S95. ' 



GUldlD, 410. 



. u». 



, <1I. T. 4T3. . 






viiwtrli- iiniilTi4i>. i 
'ailr.MU<n of, IM. 

li:.1.Hlil ncaiiincor. Baa. KIT, 
l-niiHl <UrilMi>, doODci, laj. 




le (HtKHn bwD, 822. 

I. SSI. 

1unc«i In lurlcrconi. -ISO- 



11 


rtiborn Hit, 3V0. 
wli^y ddwn-dnfi fi 


rna 


„,!„ 




,- 


n in b«r, doe to' 


Klhl 


mlDol 


* 








™"' 


« 





















clRulattan of, ISn. 
Inutll'lot. Iin. 



— In boiler K*le.. 2Z1. 

n 

inmnilmvlcr. (11a.) 1011. 
Inir hj'Bromstcr. IIB, 

[iimllLon. on tcmimmir* proMnn, II 
lnnK^n nioli. UK.) WAS. 1014. 

(•■r'.lnlfctiiw Willi tenft. ID3U 

— iinrn enltore miiliod*, inU. 
jtmat, EGS470. 

— - — ii|>|innitua. {I1».) BiM-WW. 

— Mfiillintinn W, SM. 



' boiler H>t«. 221, 



I lli'tebt at ' 1 



IT«ilii( flock. flU.I 1012. 
' Hi'OiT (elMlric onli), lOo. 
i ll.-i.tnEnn, U>. 




llolDia comlruKiT. £10. 



— unwnnt of. ror il 



- Invk (w* iMii Jnr«). 

- IxilH'.ni. 4tiiS. 

- Nlilloirnililir. ]1G3. 



bnlliT. IM. 

lo lilHl. UJS. 



iltur,' III i:. 



iiillun of. liSKi. 



T. W<. ' 
Hr<lr.ill<>n cf imr.-h. 420, 



r tor lu J- 
Tii'l, IPS. 




enflue. 214, 

or. zie. 

81, 282, 283. 



oullliilflnc hd. Ii; tnelloa, T. 



1 IteieoiK lawi, lOt^IOBT ( 
tlonul Duni'au <i[ wOghls. c 



a (tDp fenn.), 710. 



- (fmpcniiunj o(, TIO. 
lau. 413. 4IK, OXi. 
irpu of tMctBrta, B13. 



drinl tur woitl. 610 






I -3^ lr«>u-I^lM»ri 

ivn |-<iL>. l.-inilr! Inc vl. ^i'- K'tl 



— -."llLL'':v'^l-.:li,.ill,* t-V. :«T, lU-l d!'r,v!l^„u> :y'..!:i 

I>lii^-I;.F«. lu>. 4>»-«" 1** ali-u v^'Uli" It. T. 1111. 

— <'l.rli>iii)C ^.--lUJi u(, iw. — •li'LUiiii: of, Mti. 

l.'-l. IVO. _ - •l-f..'ll-IMl »f. OCT. .lli . 



- fP!!i 



K.v, frl liun Mt ILo. l!.' 
Klll<Tklt. '(Il.-Itii-!; I!-ii!!'l 



Ilair, tsirl.-y .T..1. of. T ll:*.. — ut^l iliva ■.-•■ii.liiun!. »..- 

— UiT l-nJmti.-u •^l. T. 113y. ;■.-!. 




- BnniiviiD, comiKMltlOB tt. 



lUud. Wahl'i. TIT. 
nmii relwll/. 171. 



:UrlJE«> niolbod tiir, 3WI. 



or. itMUtlurJ. n. 

iimrini of. laa. 

a barlprtuall, 400. 



-LUnU. 




1239 


Ll«!ii«, efftcl 0(, 1 


ain.r» 


t fountrliw. 


UM. 






Lire or beer, TOO. 






Lirt pomp. H8. 






UtM. an. seo. 






- i*.m or. vm 










250. 






- InUuencs ur.'on 






- m=.al., 804-307 






a/silHiIi lud 


welKbtB 


T- 381. 



LlRblniDg rfdii, HIXKlOviitloDS fi 
Llgmlne, propttUcs ot. 103T. 



Id boiler 



iter ror ijn>ia>, l«ir. 
impouDd. 3S1. 



u intlM[iUc. 400. 
r KHUdtDenU. 43S. 



D <lop rerm.). TIW. 



. IJignld*. 
imuDl*. BSO. 




LldDldit— Msohlue. 



Ill la hDlllDs. 



; i-inl nimu.ll. fnini, T, ilW. 

; - - 1..M-. iKiM. T, 11!T, nSB, 

\ ijvr •iMtu In main bcalLnic, BUS. 




Murjlunil liquor luwi, 1012. 

— douglilns-lo temiMiBture, la I 

— kiuKT-. Uemiiiii. T82. 

— iimrhiiiE, inwsr rajnlml, T. tU 
rcvolulIoDi |er ulDnto, T. 1 

— at iHt, tline (4, 130. 
_ lull, 000. 



- comp. M. T. tan. 40S. T. 4T0. 

- golatJnlutluii or, T. 70S. 

- nioahlQK of. TIB. 

- mlglit Dl a CDbK foot. 003. 
Iculy bnly uf «im, 403. 

- kcnieU In mult ami barley. Hit. 



, loEii DDit or. ice. 



■uiwli been. TSO-TM. 



f Icnslh, TO. W. 



ncll.les of, TOS. 

itcDia. dllTcnnt, TII-TKI. 



- U. B,. reduced to BriUab. I 



— ahljiplng, U. a., 88. 



am. JU73.' 



- or Burf.M. «. 




In baticj. ioe. WI. 




Uant cltr\«MeMv. 5ffi, 






— DiDivdo. (III.) 49D, T. SOO. 


~ 10.M of, In »li™g,; GSB. 






bn-wliiit bukb™. detenii., (MM. 




Uulot Id» IB Iowa. 1007. 


TOlomnli. determ.. tut. 




Multiple. S. 


11 (wn producll, ■lerngr. T. 


m*. 


Huldplr* Dt l<3TTel>, lai on. 10I 






MnltliillrHnil, 3. 


- 1 Jrwrtn.. CMS, OOS. 




MnlUylLc-nUoi. S. 


- ■iBwii. tn. 




- of f^ttloM, 7. 


«rV""""' ■"""" ■'■ 


T 


MolUiilltr, a. 






- ilMermlBiitlol). BSD. 




or, T. SSB. 


— KdeIUL. unioDDt of. e08. 




Miinkh (»*6 D]» II»¥nrliB|. 


- (Ipnnmi, aoiognt of, 000. 






— Biwn-. iiuouDl of. DBO. . 




- trenlDgwnt*™, com'|>Da'll1o 


- Mnnlrh. >iii<n>Dt of, 81*. 




MT. 




-J 


- malt, kilnlnt of, 013, (CI 
NirKntic .CM. &a: 






for clennl.ir 8«. 


Ino.mnl in com pmlncH, <no. 




M:.n;iri!ra of mold fnoH, SIO. 






- of T.>D>I, 623. 






MT««lEnufi, KM. 






— nwll. lonilnt bj (lop frrtn 









pstroylng g™!" In- 



i, bArlej' crd|t of, T. T 




at ilUer. 400. 


'V.i" turlcT. 440. 4S0. 


il.'i. cl-lrmilnnllnn st. KT. 


-. IV* L.W, 10ST. 


io .irM. iS». 


^ llinnt liwp. lOST. 


- Id waltr. 436. +38. 










iiMinni ioeil», (il&) av.. 


la wHm. T. CIS. 


nil nnJ rait. 4'a-40i<. 








- ""iTsirii on refrif. 'ii 


lo 1! ,11. T. Oil.. ■ 


- IJ<.n.|.-d. 1039. 




i- - '■k.«n. lOKi. 






In l>ar1>T" rnf. tM. 


i; .-llnnlarioa H-frlf. nic 


- - in hc^;. 478. 


- pUMUh-JllOB of. lOfi. 


- - In nijlt. unnDai of. Vt. 


. in own. 4US. 470. 


»mlllu»nli at rrixt. dSI. 


i,rn.lu.lii. nvcian. T. 




.fT'iKlu^t'dv. .l-flncl. l!s. 


. .MOIilMl. 40T. 


n:1:.lKr ^jlE.-. T. 530. 


- r-ni.;, r«r ■™j. s.--;. 


.vv-iiflv" niiliTnlll. >llj< n.-.i 


- }i\f'.. v^ loss. 




i- - fUK-l. vn. 


Xt. 


11 a rprir»<niaU'>D i 


.. .. i.}r.l«l. Mj«-I=M'. 1. '*' 


- "(^ \^-t. 41)1. 4IS. 4>0. 






l...rat:iri- on, KIn 


I>v •oM inrtaM*, 'l 


■K.! Fnlmi.<w. «P7-I'i«i, 


(.t liot rartj.Y*. 1^ 


1; .■.■B.lirt l!-;ii.r l..«^. 1"W, 


. MinT.il. 407. 1-X. 


[i:<'Li.ia Il-iw^r |JH«. lUS't. 






nn In yentl. Mi, I 
ilniun, SOT, 





- tempcntim, proper, ew. 


- KaU, T. BW. 


r'nBlOBrlUllK OflTlCH, WID-OII. 


l-alcot milt. 608. 




renri Mb. aw. 


rcfk (RrlUsb), OT. 


- (U. S. Dwuarc). 88. ST. 


PiMliocomu, (in,) BOS, T. MS. 


- gc^ldl lartld. (11b.) we (KO 




- dpn^ptloo of, 018. 



felt Id?. SIT. 



I llq^r liwi, 10(0. 
. Dnxlocllon of, TW. 
: rTn>T welKhl), M. 



eDtagonal [>rlni 
- pTramia. OB. 

cpInK' (historic 



I'epaln. *10, 
['cptoiM. 41G. 



>r turieicHB, I 



1248 



Pereeii taire— Pi teh I B V. 



! 

■i? 

I- 



■I 

1 

;i 
1 



; r 



: i 

it 

•■;i- 

. I1 

1 
I 

I 1 



!! 



1.1 



rercentngc. dlfrerencc, 11. , 

— • to filHl. 11. j 

— nite of. 11. 

— Rigu of, 10. 

— of sugar Id extract, lnflu**nc« of 

teuiiK'rature of Inyersioo on, 7<t6. 
IVicli (stono meaBQre). 89. , 

— (U. S. measure), 83. | 
rerinioter, G9. 
i*eri(Nl of steeping for different bar- 

leys. 594. 
IVriplKTy, CO. 
reriiinnent Imnlnesa of water, 220. 433. ■ 

(letemi., 08G. 

Pennan{;anate of potassium, 842. 
i'ermealilltty. 255. 1 

r'Tinlts, lirewt'ra', isHninl in 1000, T. 

1138, 1139. 

— for removal of beer, 1047. j 
nilcs for, 10*7. j 

ri.Ti*<^n(Iioulnr line, GO. 

IVrsons eupi^ietl in litiuor traffic, num 

lier of. T. 1127. 1128. 
Petri (Ilslies. (lis.) 1014. 1015. 
iVtrolonm, 205, 407, Itt"^. 1 

— <-oi>iiii»«ition of, 2UC, 103G. 

— < ni«1o. 407. 

— - distillation, products of. 10::7. 
ns sr»*jrce of Inbrieanti*. 1iO.«i. 

— ftlier, pn»i»erties of, 103<». 
re\\Ur. 402. 

lM.il* isophical wc-oi. 399. 
I'imno^r.ipli, l^l. 
I'liMspliatCP. oIK:. 

-- in l^arlcy and mnlt. amnnnt of. T. 
G2i>. 

— of i>«it;i<h ns fooil f«»r genu of bar- 

l«-jiorn. oS'X 

— primary, in larlry. 4iio. 

— i»f sMitiin. 303. 
ri.i.-j.liork' arid, :il>3. 

in tl;i* asli of Itops, 479. 

-- — in lioer. di'tonniuatloii of, ;«70. 
IM iispLojus. :;yo. 

Plivsical pntptMtios of iabri<>nnts. Um. 

riiy.^Iis. 112-i:tl. 

ri.\ si"lii}.i«'al ilntp. ami pn-,;*i-'ssea In 

Ti..iltlni:. 017 r.21>. 
rfiiff. iriash lul). 004. 
rirnunif^tr. tll!«.) l>«iii. Im>1. 902. 

- sin-iiih- i:iaviiy. to lliui liy, 9<'.3. 
ri«itt lluid. prnpertii'S ««f, T. 310. 
I'iiTc (II altln^'i. ili'r'iiiiii->n of, 595. 

Pier in. n. ^{*^. 

PH,;i:K-nt lia»-lorla, T. 512. 514. 
I'iisi n I'lxwln^ wat«'r.<, «'oinp<t««iti'»n of. 
r. 447. 

- l-ii:-'*. i-..n>i»«.^Mi.in of. T .**2<», 8-7. 

— 1:1.: It, IvilniMK .'f, T. 010. 0J4. 
PilvinT (sto also I*.ii!u n:lan». 
I'Ino lMn!ii«!, jiMfo Imi.lfi. T. 1140. 
I'im (Itrltlsh liipiiil ituasurvj. !»»;. T. H7. 

— ('Irj- mcMsuri'). SS. 

— tl'. S. ll-ini'l iinasuro). 85. T. W 

T. 97. 1 



Pi|ie, pipefl. 

— (Rrltish liquid measare). T. 

— (U. S. Ibiald iQcasare). >7. 

— brass and co|»i)er, dlmensioiis 
1153, T. 1154. 

— cleanlBS of» 851. 

— computing diameter for clrc 
charge, 140. 

— cooler, Bandelot, (11a.) GTS. 
slzea and capacltlos 4 

675. T. 1141. 

— for cooling, Imolatlon of. 34i 

— coverintr, speciflcatlons for. 
: — diameter of. to fliul. 142. 

and bead and dfachargv of 

I T. 141. 

— fitting. S|»cclGca(|AD for, 379. 

— flow of, approxIniAte. 142. T. 

i of and bead of water In. 

I of upn-ani or downwanl. 

144. 

1 of water In. 140. 

steam tbrougb, T. 198. 

— iron, dimenslona of. T. 1151. 

— layinir. nilea for, 1-15. 

— li-ngtb of. for a ^Iren ^^a 
find. 142. 

— linos, to bottle sbop, 914. 

application fur. I'M.-. 

rcveuiie rog^lation. 

1051. 

— rt-frlReratlnir, amoant of. : 
discs f«T. 3t«. 

Pllt'tte. (lis.) 9G2. 

— testing of. 971. 
Pipiui;, ammonia, sficcltication ••f. 

-- si>4rificatii>ns for. 379. 
PIsti.n. li'aliase of, 279. 

— pnmps. 350. 
Pltili of coars. ICG. 

— for Insulation, S30. 332. 

— Jtrowors*. 4S5-4!>7. 

— -- J»IMlo>;rapliy. 11C4. 

coin l>- .sit ion of. T. 472 

colopliony In. 4Sti. 

cottonPCfMl cU In. 4S5. 

linsidl oil in, 486. 

pnipcrtlos rf, 486. 

- n'sin In. 4H6. 

— — samples for analysis. |trepAi 
of. 497. 

— — s*»ftcninff tem|»cmtnres of. 

taste of. 4S7. 

- iniluencc on l»cor. 4**? 

v.iluation of, 4M5 

Pitil.liii; applian**e8. fi!M-f5»7. 

— naoliln'^s. 095-C;)7. 

— ..;<TJtl'm5i. C94-G07. 

— torn peni lure, higher, 739. 77- 

— \\«>!t, «levioe8 for. C77. 

— - iiiptlnxl of. American. ^:M 

T.ngliHh. 803. 

high temperature, 7 

750. 
advautagea of, 7' ' 



ntc hIaK— PreaiiB re. 



t. jenM. nmonnt. AiMriPA, 
GngLimi. T. wn. 



nd. it«aDlllani of. 7ft, 80. 



Wiilc onlliiren. I 
- (ICL-lita. 128. 

pi-iiiiuui. boi. 



l-oMa Blr lilt i>udi|>. 

l>alDti. i). 8. mpRiur 
IMM, i|*(>t1vc, 120. 

'" nMm iihI (vrriti 



tatil.: glrani i-uglne. 383. 






l-n-r-rtiiK •urfncp for ipolntlng. 6ft 


American, unxlnrfkiii ot. MS. 








Ea»li»h, TM-TBR 


Hlr loiimilltH r?|»ri on. IIM 




- nitnnl. lu Kort snd bnr, I>l 


(erim, i'ss. ""^ *' ""'^' " 


ot T«Ht. TM. 




1-icM. Imp. «T3. 




— hT'lruullr, ISA, (lln.) 140. 


.•jrb.j.iiil.> of. HM. 


I-iowd r«*t, kind ™«l for. 53(1. 


l.y.lrale •nlultot Id inlccrM.'olT. ini9 




nifia-hliiulphiie o( IK. M. 8.), »0I. 


- bunglnit. T(B. 


nllrun. of, 395. 




oililp of. 31M. 




Dcriiianjiniiul«. t«2. 






— Joiinul, 18B. 




— uiiiBb1n«. niw cereala. IIS. T1D 




- n»-Htiire* of. 103. 


'k-^>'.r."" T'''" " 


_ normal la 1iyilnialln<, ISi, 



Pan^AT Kolrcliiiioli 



E^^^^H 


1250 p„„. 


„ 


..„.„.. 


■■n»urr of KiitPf due to btlihl 


T. 


rnjivHIra. ninll. lUnlr t-I 






(rr-nw In. T. eSO. 






ilrni'iii. A<9. ei2. 






iDdufmfll by kUalnt 












- - » koo^. ew, Bii'. 






























- mniliih. ue. hV-l. 




»8. 








- r""!. M3-m, 






- '."imi'i": ':?-■ 


"TJoIlwu'llT' 










rmi'rieinn 1u ll^unr iniffi. 






of. T. uj;. uss. 






■■roln-itnn "I nirtncpi. stii-?' 






I'luiplili. 4in. ;iii i»« iU 


'-'"'."'.li^h. CI 




-.;!2..=. 






- b«» In l**r. 701. 


1 ' ,|>...'tnms"''M'. fk 




- iimtrii;ii1np nl. TU. in 






ITni.vivik- eozyn™. «K. :,-.i 


--„l;i='^;£.„ 




I'n.l .■.«■., *i-.. 


. ;;•'';;.,';;: 1.; 




- vli.illif -f," i*»i. 






[■ly.llio. 4111. 

r«ul'Ji"i?.i 1"'™ ai, '""' 


' ,.;-:;.i'T ;;=:■"■ " 


■M: 


r? f.,r'i<~-r' ln<n«Dil«l!>n, ': 


,.,|i;j::;:^^;3,J/° 




|-"mi'*1"iuiw! 147,' 31a X>/'.. 






-^ .!■■' ■.'.■.'rmiVoV. .V-l 






- M:.i'ii-tiiT"f. a-T. 












- !T.".|",."^tl" :ar.' K2 




., 


mil «"«.' iWi.' 


;;-^^,.,. 




,.-,...„._... ,«lr.s, ,„,. 


■■■;■" : ' -: ,;;■■ '" 


.,.■, 


:":'■■: ■''■#■"" ""■ 


- -':t;::yrxsr'" 




'_r /..-'■■'. ,., 



ruDchHD. U. S'UqnM meBinn, T. M. 


Rate of tutoTHt. 11. 






10X1. 


Hitlo, 12. 


Uann'i dllnUOD nwtbod, 1022 


- ■Icn of, 12. 


gelitlM BNttaod, lOU. 


- >iipir to »D'>imr. to Bod. 062. OTT 




B>w l^mlM. 40S-4I2. Tll-714. 


^t022. 


for ■ bnw, ulculatlnf, B23. 


Llndnfr'i mstfcod. 102S. 


828. wa. 




miililDS with, 7111-718. 


niitun. UT-DT'o (wt u«]«r 


Reil«llt>, 8B0-10aS. 




— mJcnaroplral labantocr. lOIS-IOIT 




IlMl ntnimilhio. mcDliK cf. H8. 


PDIrettctloD bulerli. T. BU, SI4. 


«lciili.tlns. 848. 


- dEDnltlou of. Mn, &B3. 




- ot Tcut. 660, 


UGO. 


PnrttJ ot bwn, KiDdtTd, 1103-1111. 


Dinnlnf of, BOO. 


PTnoiKI. e*. 










muBlM ot, 818. 


- [«n(ii«oniil. OS. 






rtohi-H KOd CeUln*. 872, T. tl.R. 


- wBiiliir, B8. 




^ right, andliv nrr^iM of. OT. 


HHtmiitlP, 68. 



ntire analfili defined, DN>. 

HrlUsh, llquldl T. 88, 't. 8T. 

B. lliiulU 'moBsure, 8fi, T. 80. B; 
r tBHtlib). T. 17. T. BO. 



'HDlBC. {Ilg.l 063. 



uFhlnM. 200-306. 



•qnarc, IB. 
~ (for I-IOOO), K. 
— BibHIur of metbod, 1 
ttet of iMrlcjconi. B8S. 
>t tuall (Kc iiinnitf). 
c trIclliHi. ISS, 1S4. 



irrlKbt of. T. Ills, 



e wall*. apcclBi-atlnn, nsS. 

1 alooii or Mono tnba). 

H^.' dliwHon for, Itl. 
cnnaM .i(. TaS-TiM. 
ej crop or. T. 113s. 



I. m. 



: T. iiM. 



. «B, T. 470. 



«"l»«. 1253 

- iDdlntlODS drflned (•«« ntBo Ball- 

Iiu). MT. 
or h»r. maaBlBg of, W9. 

— Kalnefa. SOB. 

— KMeccr'a. snS. 

— L*nr«. aw. 

— Preibtl'a. DM. 

— BirliardHii'a. Ml. 

Ricvlmranivlrr, lilbiia«nphy, II6Z. 

IHa.) 5Sa. 
iI»ri1ptloD ot. 6H. (13S, 

— wrevlalae. (lU.) B13. 6H. T. 620, 

T. aa. (Da.) ox, 983. 

— claaalOntkHi or. SH. 

— ellliMDldaua I. (11.) B19. T. BM. 

(lla.) B3S. 

II. (III.) BID, T. Bai. BSB, IH2. 

lurlildltr «ua«l by (tou (srni.). 

812. 

— Hliniua. saa. 

'slT'''^"'' ""^^ '^ ""'' '''™"'' 

— lAdvifii. lat. 

— nwmbniiMritnana. BM. EM. 

— PiMortaniu. 1. (lla.) BID, T. 020. 

Ilia.) aso. BM. 

11. illa.i on. T. nw). (II..) BO. 

Ill, (11..) ni7, T. BSO, (lla.) 

S36. 
Ill tOrblllitT «UK<1 by (top 

— ffmwBMdon or. Mi. 

— profwrtlaa of. 413. 



ifewlnn. TST. 



ft.tlFjlie and for wlI1n« wa.i 



- i«ir«r-. (or cnlo, iw^ ( 
fltHrtlutf luht £31, 



I. raaportttan U. T. «M. 






t»ls»i). M. 






MrltlBC imrr nrai 
HnnlclrvU. M. 
S*uM nuuulttH n 







Snateli— SpeolfloatloAs. 



1255 



Snatch block, 1S6. 

Soakers (lee bottlo ■oaKing). 

Soaking bariej (see steeping). 

— of tMttlea. 880-886. 

dcTlces for, 885. 

volution for, 888. 

strength of, to find, 883. 

temperature of, 88ft. 

tanks for. S81-888. 

wheels for, 888-884. 

— of kegs, tank for, (lis.) 008. 
Soap, 406. 

— In lubricants, 1040. 
Soda (see also sodium). 

— as an antiseptic. 490. 

— ash, 385. (see also soda carbonate). 

— bicarbonate of. 896. 489. 

— bichromate of, as boiler com- 

pound, 228. 

— as boiler comiKHind. 226. 

— carbonate of, 226, 880. 
In boilers, 224. 

in boiler compound. 226. 

— caustic (soda lye), 395. 

as an antiseptic, 490. 

In boiler compound, 226. 

— sulphate of. 895. 
Sodium. 396. 

— bicarbonate In brewing and malt'g, 

439 

— bisulphite of. 896. 

— carbonate of, 226. 396. 

aa a boiler compound, 226, 444. 

— chloride of, 396. 
In water, 486, 439. 

— fluoride of,. 228, 396. 

;i8 It Imiler c*ompcppd. 448. 

— phosphate of, 886. 

as boiler compound, 228. 

— salts. 395. 

— sulphite of, 395. 
Soft soap, 406. 

Softening hard water, 220, 443. 444. 
Solar day. 101. 
-- year, 104. 
Solder. 402. 
Solid, solids. 03. 112. 

— expansion of, 121. 

— extract (British), defined, 967. 
per barrel (British), calcnlatlng 

063. 
conrertlng Into Balling. 

064. 
per quarter (Brftiah), calculating. 

066. 

— lubricants. 1040. 

— measure, 85. 

— specific grarity of. to find. 069. 

— total in water, determination of. 

982. 
Solubility of gases in water, T. 316. 
Solutions. 116. 

— soaking, for bottles, 883. 

— normal, for analysis. 997-1003. 

— staining, micro-organisms. 1016, 

1017. 



Solutions, standard, for analysis. 997- 

1003. 
Sommer beer. Bnropean, comnMltlon 

of, T. 826-828. 
Sorting of grain, 676. 
Sound, 130. 
Sounds, different kinds. 488. 

— for finings, preparation, 763, 764. 
Sour beer, U. S. regulations for, 1048. 
S<»urlng of ale by bacteria. 812. 
South America, beer production, T. 

1139. 
South Carolina dispensary law. 1093. 

liquor law, 1093. 

South Dakota liquor law. 1094. 
Spain, beer production of, T. ll.W. 
Span (U. S. measure), 88. 
Spanish beers, composition of, T. S30. 
Spargers, dimensions of, T. 1140. 

— bop Jack. 671. 

— mash tub. 662, 668. 
Sparging, 771, 772. 

— Mpiiamtus for bops, 672. 

— of grains, directions for, 721. 

— hops, directions for, 727. 

— water, amount of, T. 721. 
for hops, amount of, 727. 

temperature for, Engl, beers, 

796. 
Sparkling ale, composition of, T. 824. 
Special brewer's tax, 1044. 
Specific grarity, 116, 959. 
and Beauiue degrees corapnrcil, 

T. 1166. 
degrees of (British), calculating. 

962. 

'— defined. 967. 

of gases, to find, 960. 

liquids, to find, 900. 

mineral oil. determination, 096. 

and saccharometers compared. 

T. 067. 
of solid bodies, to find. 969. 

— heat, 124. 

of malt, calculations with, 938. 

of saturated steam, 194. 

Specifications for brewery buildings, 
general. 364-881. 

— carpenter work, 358. 

— coppersmith and tank work, 878. 

— excaTatlon. 864. 

— floors, 870-372. 

— insulation, 873. 

— iron and steel work. 368. 

— machinery and millwright work. 

370. 

— mosonry. 366. 

— miscellaneous, 373. 

— painting, 866. 

— pii>e fitting. 879. 

— plastering, 871. 

— plumbing, 308. 

— refrigerating machines, 874. 

— refrigerator or stock house. 304. 

— roofing, 866. 

— tank work, 378. 



I2s6 



Spee I flcatloM 



Sii«N*l!k>atkiiw. tlnnlnff. troowork. 3jT. 

— wash boase. 305. 

Spelt (fptdermls) iMirley. 454. 
Spent irralDM (nee brewers gnilna). 
Spent bops. 874. 
use of, 852. 

— jeost (see yeast, waste). 
Sphere, eo. 

— circumference of. G6. 

— surface of. QG. 

— volume of. 06. 
Spherical aberration. 120. 
Spiles (top fenu.). 8U0. 
Spindle oil. 1037. 

Spontaneous combusthin of fata. 108S. 

— fermentation. T. 734. 
beeri. «81. 

Sporangium. &10. 
Sporea of bacteria. 513. 

— omU^ipenouii. r>]3. 

— of molil. 510. 

— of yeaiita. (lis.) 508. 514. 525. 
time of formation, 1030. 

S|K>rulatlon. 510. 

— of yon at a. ri24. 
Siwnts. eruln. (lis.) 581. 

— 8|K'i-If1(*atiitiiR for, 377. 
Spray iiii; beml. Kpargor. H03. 
S|irlnkU'r (s*v also sp:nvt*r». 

— for kf>:s. iiWl. 

.^pmutini; :ip|>:iriitii«. iUs.) t»S?*. 
S|iriiiiT'«. :iiit Hint of. lu malt, T. 032. 
T. ♦•..t:^ T. «>V.. 

— of liarl«'yi-<irn. '»>{<. 

pi-.»|H>r K-iictIt «if. uJ»S. 

— malt, at-lils \n. tiiiiuuiit of. T. tl2T. 
itiuipiiHiritiii r»f. S()5i. 

Iiiio«|.l,;iii>«( ill. ainmiut of. T. tl-T. 

nlill7.:iti«iii of. Nil*. 

Spur ):tMiT, frirtUtu of, 1S2. 

-- iNiiiMi'iN* iiuasnnO. S'*. 

— iKii^lisIi f»Tm«'HtfiK TliS. 

— .in'. I «if. ti> liiiil. ."•'.». 

— aiKl riilNS fi.r l-miH». T. I'J. 

I -.|H f,.r i-lmm. T. IH. 

— iiifasiiif. ^'I. 

~ mill' thi'iil nn\i<un'>. S,'. 
- riHii. l."i. 

;iii<liii_'. j; rvr.il : -.i-tli-Hl *'(. l'» 
Staliillty .if l-.-t-r. •!>>liiiil:<ili of. lOl. 
— - ill L'» ii'»;il. TTl. 
Si.i.k. siii..kt'. 'Jll*. 
>♦.)::*■. iiii«iMSi"'ia'. li.'lS'. 
St.>Iiis. InliS. 1017. 
Stiiii'i'.: \' . «.■: !.i. I'iJl. 

— tiioMs. 1«*-J4 

— yi>ast ol!-*. f.ii .oiinrni;;. lu:?.». 
Stiimi'S. !.'•« f'l :»!!.\. l«»Hi. 

— If l»r»-w-r «.. lU :i''ail. HH7. 

— iMiw I ::':r. Itn:'. 

— can* •'lllii;; <«f. mh-. f..r. lUlT. 

— hoii t'» ol.tain. l'»l»; 

— iiitiniKlv j>siit- f..r IHOO. T. 11:1^. 



Stamp p-nate. application of. I047. 
prpparstloa of. 1047. 

— on reroored psokaiiv*. 1<M6. 

— remoTlnp or (lefaclnc. peoaltlM. 
1053. 

— renewal of, 1047. 

— on returned packapps, 1046. 

— re-cse of. 10I6. 

— tax. 1043. 
Stamlanl barrel (IT. S.>. 80. 

— - lieer (U. S.), 80. 

— for Iteer. natlon.il opinkm.«i oa 

llrt.-». 1107. 
. ^ — dlmenslona of brewery TeaiBela. T 
I 1 140-1 14.T 

— ffslloo. Ikiuld (U. S.). SO. 

— heaiied bnsbel (U. S.>. 80. 

— scales (tbermoroeterl. 872. 

— sol ut Ions. 990-1003. 

— of steam engines nuil boilers. Iflfi. 

— Htnwk bushel (U. S.K 80. 
- — unit of lenelb. 70. 

^ of weight, 70. 

; Starch. 471. 

— action of diantase on. Tiews by dif- 

ferent InTestigators. 41iV420. 
-- nlliuniivilila In, 472. 

— In liarl»\vi>om, 4.Vi. 

— for lin'wlPf; purpo«ie9. 472. 
ciimiKiditlon of. 47i. 

— oellnloae. 410. 

— f^ontahiinc materlaln. 44S-472. 

— ili><i>ui|H>8ltIon of. 411. 

— d«'Xtrlnit from. 410. 

— and dlastaiv. 420-424. 703-707. 

— ?idannlz.ttion of. 703. 74.M. 

— - :rraniilof«». 410. 

— - iiivi-rtdon. pDHlncta o', 7tVi. 
time of. T. 7l>4. 

— I'Mlint' action on, 410. 

— as malt adjnn<-t. 714. 

— in ni:>l(. atiii'unt of. MW. 

— <i«>rni ma.<lilng of. 717. 

iiim1»t iriii ntsn»|»e. <n«.> -571. 472 

— (»il In. 472. 

— pMHtl'. 41". 

— pn'iKiration fur Invenlnn. 7«^. 

— - iir.Mln«-t«» I'f liydnttlon of. 422. 

— pJt.jtTtlt'* <if. 410. 

- ti'mii^T.iiiirp of Inwmlon. 71<«. 

— fiiilii.iitv. <lpt(-rm.. Iu33. 
-- -- triMtiiM-nt of. 7«W 

hi .M-ast »>\:iininlnK for. 10211. 

— yl«>idins; matoiiul. v.ilno nf. 44S. 
Startlnt: tuf<. »;77. 

.^stutt'S nf mattiT. 112. 
Stat Ira 1 p1«-. rriiity. 12.S. 
Stntlon.iry stnani engine. 2tU!. 
StaiUilo t»f liiM'.ltli of brewery work- 

niiMi. 1114. 111.'*, 
stfnm. li*::. 
-- I r raUfiiviila. |inv|iH*tlon of. 770. 

— ■ ilrimiiltiii "f. tan*. 

— IniIIit. 2iCi 'J17 (aee also boiler). 

— loilH lu kt'ttle. (Ha.) 007. 



pj, Amntlcun. a02-OM. 



lIliJfT-. cql-oB. 2>M. 

HWcincallnB (pi. 370. 

Mlvel. Klllnil of.'liM. 

— How of. tlirongh pl|wa. T. IWI. 



- i.l|->. .iliiH-mlniM nt, T. Il.'.l. Ilj2. 

— ^^diiB^to tcnpermtDm. T. J05. 

202. 



e uT barlvr. ISO. 



1258 



Stor«se»SwedeM. 



Stong^ of lM>ttl«d beer. 914. 
~ cellar oiieratloiis, 757-709. 
tblck mash been. 788. 

— malt, blDS for. 579. 

— of malt, effect of. 637. 

— Tata. cai»«citj am! dimena.. T. 7S. 
Stoat (aee alao top fena.). 

— American. proJuctloo of. 816. 

— compoaltion of. T. 824. 825. 

— definition of, 089. 

— Iriab. maablnr metbod. 796. 

— London, maablnr metbod. 796. 

— water for brewins, comp.. T. M5. 
Stralfbt line. 5ti. 

Strainer, maah tab. 601. 
.Streak cultarea. 1022. 
Stren^b of ammonln ll<]uor, T. S16. 
~ of material. 237. 

— modal of. 237. 
Streuirtbenlnj; of j-«**t. 744. 
Streaaea. 237-241.. 
Strontium. 397. 
Sublimation. 123. 

Submerged rt>ndoDiier. Holm's. 289. 
Subettiure of barley loat in storace. 
629. 

— ci)m|H>unJ. SS2. 
Subtrartton. 2. 

— of (-umniiiu fraotiimsi. 6. 

— uiixtHl Duiulii.'r!i. 7. 

— sipn of. H. 
Suhtr»li«'iid. 2. 
Siirijiil*' n- I'J. 4i.'.'i. 

— — ii-* a ft-nnt^iit-itl'in pnMlu<t. r»44. 
Sii<'tluu I'Ti-ssiir*' ill n.'fri^. m.uh.. 318. 

— iMiiuii. l^^. ili8 » Hi*. 
.<np:ir. suL.Mr-*. T'Ci. 

— ■ aini.iuiit "f. iuUiu-niV uf tvmiK^ra- 

iiire of Invfr-iitiu on. ~OCt. 

— ill li.trlfV, jMiuiuiil. 4:iri, T. Ol**. T. 

Gll«. 

— in }-trr. i«ft»-rmln;itlvin of. l«SO. 
-- Mllii.cr.ii-: V. ll»;j 

t'l.wmL'. IT'J. is.'f lirowlnir snp.ir*^. 

— -- r.riti.^h (.■•■iji:iiltii'<* roi-'Ht on. 

111". 
.'Xtr... t ill. ■lii^TUi.. lit»4. 

— fi l..r. 41.'i. 4V!. 

- — riiTiiii'ii: "li if. 4*»4. 

— Ill ■•'■li'!.'tii«.. .i»-ti riLiMi.iiion of. inn. 
■ il.-L'!.<- 1 :!■ i! •';!!;:. f.M. 1*77. 

— -- 'l.:.:!.! r...::....l. '.«7«"i. 

- i-.i-.!i;i :: ■ f. '»:,!. 

- ■liH'is^.iri •■'. .'.>i.-,. 

Ill •■v::. t "f «;--::i:iri t:i:i1i^. Cll. 
-- f"! iiLiii"!! .'' \ i.Mv«j ..* »lJTt»rfnt iu- 
v»<i:[c.;:..r.«. 4i:o.jL'j. 

— itivtit 41". 

— Kr-n:s*ii. j-r^Kliii'j.^n ».f. 774. 

-■ In \:.\:t. .i::..-:;:i; 4.'..«. «Ui;. T. OW 

r •:!:« 
vfi. ■ r ■■' ';iliiiii:: .■!». G*J,T. 

— '.f II ilk. 4i;;. 

— (■> ih^ii «>iii:.tr, : itio. i-.il. .>i.t:niu:. 



Sn^r. i.ropertlea of. 412. 

— ratlc of to Don-msar, 977. 

— remainder In beer. 74S. 

— in wort determliUn?. 976L 
Tolnmetric eattmatloo. 076. 

Sulpbate. aalpbates. 392. 

— i^tper. SJe, 400. 

— Iron, 892. 

— Ume. In maltiny and brewing. 43S 

— aoda. 39r». 

— In water, determination of. 9S. 

— Bine. 309. 
Snlpbide of iron. S85. 
Solpbitea. 391. 

— aa antlaeptic. 490. 

— aodlom. 395. 
Solphar. 891. 

— In bariey. 459. 

— comboation of. 196. 

— dioxide (aee aolphariKM achl). 

— In boi»s. determlnatloa of. 98CL 
Sulpbnretted bydrogen. 892. 

produced by yeast. 547. 

Sulphoric acid for cleaning. »I3. 
propertlea of. 302. 

— anbydride In water, determ.. »S4 

— etber In refrift. macblnea. a02. 
Sulphurins of iMirley. 392. 

— of lirifia. 391. 

Sulpburous add (anlpbur dioxide t. ^9! 

an an antlaeptic. 41i0. 

pnii>ertle8 of. 316. 

in refrig. macbinex. 302. 

Sum. 2. 

Siii-i>rhoated steam. 193. 

SupiKirts. tub, OKI. 

— .MHlv. 082. 

Sim-liargine batteriea. lTi9. 
Snrf.ii'«». 07. 

— '.^.-olor. 673. 

I l-nnlnir of, 845. 

Mi:t mi. 72Sk. 

— ff ouIh-. to find. 06. 

— oyUiuler. tu find. 67. 

— frli'iiuDal. 17."i. 

— froatnui of a pyramid. C7. 

— measure, mvtrlc, 92. 

— rlclit cone, OS. 

l-risni. to find. 06. 

I'jni!!!!.!. to find. 67. 

— of split rv, OtJ. 

— i-r s<;i!;ir".' lorNtaurea. S4. 
Surfaix-8. nifiisiiratlon of. 66-68. 

— prvparin;; for palntinj;. Ji63. 

— protfotluii of. S40-S68. 

— treatment of. S40-S6$. 
Siiiveyura lin»^:ir measures. S3. 

-- siiuarv measures. 85. 
Siispc:i.!r<i matter in water dettrm.. 987 
."^waii iirtk?. «ns.> 800. 
.^MaiikvT. IViin^vIvania brewlnr. 779. 
.'^ueai i!ii-iltin;;« warm and culd melh- 

i^\*. r»'.'7. 

."^wtiK-ij. I'lirlfV crop of. T. IISS. 

— I ■«.*•• r |-n"iii4 tkon of, T. 1139. 



i'.VJ. 



SiFreillsli^«TerniO. 



1259 



Swedish been, compositioo, T. 830. 
Sweet water attempentors, 678, 079. 
Swimmer, 667, 680. 

Swiss commission ioTestigatloD of tem* 
peraoce problem. 1122. 

report of, 1122. 

Switch, electric, 261. 

Switzerland, beer prodnctlon, T. 1139. 

Symbols. 386. 

— of elements, T. 884. 
Symptoms of abnormal fennentatkm, 

760. 
Synthetical chemistry, 882. 
Syphon condenser, 281. 



Tangent. 62, 68. 
Tank, tanks. 

— (U. S. measure), 72. 

— beer, dimension of, T. 1142. 

. — bottle-soakinff, different, 881-883. 

— capacity of, to calculate, 71. 

— enameled, 682. (lis.) 688. 

— grains, constmctlon of, 666. 

— with hopper flnding capacity, 75. 

— iron, staining of. 860. 

— pasteurizing, 000-912. 

— round, finding capacity, 70, 71. 

— soaking, for kegs, (lis.) 602. 

— steaming, 000-912. 

— steel, for malt storage, 570. 

— time for emptying, 188, 189. 

— vacuum fermentation, (lis.) 763. 

— water. (lis.) 666. 

cleaning of, 845. 

construction of, 068. 

dimensions of, T. 1142. 

— work, specification for, 878. 

— for wort or beer, 678. 

Tanking of beer. Indication when ready 

for. 757. 
Tannic acid. 406. 

as an odulterant of lupulln, 481. 

in lupulln. examination for, 1023 

— sulistances of hops, 478. 
Tannin In hops, 480. 

Tapping barrels In bottle shop. 882. 
Taste of beer, 700. 

abnormal, 770, 771. 

Tax on barrels, multiples and fractions, 
1043. 

— beer, discount, 1043. 
how paid, 1043. 

special, paid 1899. 1900, T. 

1120. 

— from liquor trafllc, T. 1120, 1127. 

1128. 

— on malt extract, 10G6. 

— retail dealers'. 1044. 

— special for beer, paid 1809 and 1000. 

T. 1120. 

brewers, 1044. 

paid by bre\i«»ni and dealers 

1800 and 1900. T. 1129. 

— stamp, 1045. 



Tax on tonics. 1066. 

— U. S. Internal ReTenue, 1042-1067. 
Technical balance. 606, (lis.) 971. 

— terms, 1186-1209. 

English-Oerman, 1186-1197. 

German-English, 1106-1200. 

Telephone, 180. 

Temi>erance beer, composition, T. 828. 

definition of. 699. 

production of, 776. 

reTenne roles, 1067. 

— and natural laws, 1111-1114. 

— problem. 1121-1126. 

Hamilton's opinion on. 1123. 

inrestigatlon by Swiss Got- 

emment. 1122. 

Jefferson's opluion on. 1123. 

opinion of U. S. statesmen, 1123. 

Temperature, tsmperatures. 

— air, for floor malting, 596. 

— of bottling cellars (top ferm.), 811. 

— of combustion in furnace, 199. 

— detenu, by fusion of metal, T. 

1154. 

— dougblng-ln. of mash, to find, 940. 
water, to find, 939. 

— in drum malting, 603. 

— during germination of barley, 589. 

— in fermentation, T. 788, T. 740. 
improper, 748. 

— of fire. T. 1164. 

— final, of mash, to find. 939. 

— Influence of, on inyersion of 

starch, 706. 
of albnmeD. 707. 

— In kiln drying, effects of, on dif- 

ferent properties of malt, 501, T. 
622. 624. 

— In kilning In U. S.. 001. 

in England, 607. 

Munich malt, 614. 

Pilsen malt, 616. 

Vienna malt. 615. 

— In malting, In Tarioas countries, 

597. 

— mashing water, to find. 935 937. 

— mixing, ice and water, tu find. 

943. 

of water, to find. 935-937. 

and material, to find, 93S. 

— pasteurization, proper, 908. 

— pitching (wort), 729. 
higher. 730, 740. 

— Rpurging water, 721. 

— 8 team, and corresponding prc-ssures. 

T. 195. 

— top fermentation, 804. 
Tempering, 114. 

— steel. 399. 

Temporary hardness of water. 219, 433. 

determ., 980. 

Tenacity, 114. 

Tennessee liquor laws, 1006. 

Tensile stress. 237. 

Termo bacteria, (lis.) 606, 507, T. 512. 



i26o 



Termc»— Troy. 



TeriDA iMCteria. docrriptloo of, Til. 
Terms in algebn, A2. 

— arithmetical. 13. 27. 

— in e<iaatloDs, IS. 

— In fractions, 5. 

— Inner, IS. 

— outer. 13. 

— In pTOffresfrlon. 27. 

Tests for. rcfrig. mnch. materials. 
U14. 

— tul»es In microscopy, 1014. 
Testinj: burettes. 071. 

— graciuate<l Haska, 971. 

— pliwttes, 971. 

— miccharometcrs. 909. 

— refriff. miichlne materials. 314. 

— thennometpra, 973. 

— weiirlits. 97rt. 

Texas Ihinor laws. 10r»G. 
Tlierinal nnit. 193. 
TheruKMlynamlcs. 148. 
Tb«*nnouiPters. 123. 

— (Ii^sc'rtpt ion of. 972. 

— uinith tuli. lU;!. 

— nHiinllne. 0»M. 

— M'ales. <-on version of. metliotl. 972. 

tiii»l»». T. V'4. 973. 

ftiiihlnnl. 'JT2. 

■ ■ t••^tillU' of, '.•7,*l. 
ThiTliHipile. 2.^4 . 
'nuTiiio-ii'milaiMr. 1012. 
Til*' rm. Stat. lorj. ills) lftl3. 
Tbi«-kin:ish h»'tT^. tiiiii-.:iii^'. TW. 

-- - i"<*ll.ir irvutin«>nt. TM. 

— — KriinsiMtin;; nf. "Mi. 

— — |iniilni.-tl<in of. 7S«>-Tl«2. 

— — proiitTtirs ■■f. T*»«^. 

«^;|1«mI.!Ui'«i. IMl. !»!■_•. 

■ ili.-iuiiii; III', i .ill iil;i[ 11):; ii'irr^'N. 

'.Ml. 

— KM-t!.-"!. 7^ii-T«*4. 
liii. kiU'.l ..IN. H».'^.». 
I'lioiiuin. r.l'T. 
riin*'. mil- i.f. l.T 

Tifi. f il'.iifSV li'ini'l nw;isur»»». 9*5. 

— iV. S. ]i.)iii«l ii..'.»<*iir»'». S7. 1»»V 

Till- ;i..ii..iv. iiisiii:iiion. x\*.K :u'7. :uu: 

— — fill- w.ili-. :i."i7. 

Tinili»»r. \iiliini«'S .tf, ti> llu'l. *»'.'. 
Tiiiio nf li.-t r <:"i-.ii«'. 7.'i'*. 7r»V. 

— ll|iM«.-:'lS i«f. lo|, 

■ «f-. I ini:. ..-f l»:i:;»'y. MM. fiOtJ. 
li'i »«»i 

- f-iil. lol. 
-- — ri"'. 'i^r-vy iif. *»*»«5. 

— — M'tiiiiVi-rs. •**',*i. 

!■■ -r- j.:iiiifiri:; I'f. si'.J. 

— s!..-.r. I«'l. 

Tliii'iir l.ii li.iWiT "it .Nil ■'•J-iiTiniS' 
-- — i>f 'VitiMMtitx. ■Ji-t-nti . [fXt. 

Tldninj sf itii :ttMiii'4. .''Im 

Tnii. I'lii;; «ir :rii»'>-« il .'«». im liht*. 'M^ 

— rJJ.Mric. !»••. 9^.. 

— Jvfil::«'J:iTi"ii. ;U4 

— n'L'i.-^ft'r I . S.. sS. 



T*m, shl|»|iln«. U. 8., 88. 
British, 99. 

— abort <U. S. weight). W. 
TOulcs. mmiiosilioa of, T. 8S3. 

deflne«l. rcTenoe law, lOM. 

deflniUon of. e90. 

production of. 775. 

rereane laws. 1QB6. 

tax on. mac 

Tonneau. metric, 93. 

Tbp fermentatloo appllaneea, TM. 

iKwrs. 793-822. 

Aroericaa. 813-818. 

compoaitiOB of, T. 8M. T 

British. 613. 

composition of, T. 824. T. 

825. 

German, 818-821. 

compositioii of, T. MD. 

bottled beers. 817. 

breweiy. American, sketch. 814. 

ileflned. 733. 

operations. 803-807. 

rsconi of a. T. 731, T. 808. 

tempera tnret, 804. 

yeast, 53.1. 

Torrefartlon products. 414. 

Toniional stress. 237. 

Ti.rula. T. .'21. ills.) 524. 533. 

Tiiwt-r. lift^ucry. Hrranpnnt^nt. 017. 

Tikwnsblp (lan<l messiire). S.'*. 

Tnult? packaipe. iHramling. rercnnc rejt- 

ulntlons. 1U51. 
Tr:»Mf"8 .1 l«I;t lit ii sifter, 9iJ8. 
Trunnfrr of grain in malthnnsc. 571. 
Tr:iii(imi>(fiion of |iower. 230-201. 

oleotrli-.il. 249. 

wire roiK*. 245. 

Transverse «ir»*?»», 239. 
Trap, steam. (M7. 
Tr.iiit»zliiiu. 5-s. 

— • -.iycir fif, to find. 00. 
Tr.ii. 7.ilil. TkS. 

— ari'.i of. lo And. 50. 

Tr.ivA. sti-Mtriiii;; (pastcnrixlnjr^. 908. 
Tivntiui'iit iif *«nrfaces. 84t.i-!iiit8. 
Tn'in|M»r ptvi-nior. 263. 
Tii.in;:!*'. r»7. 

— - :ii uti- .iiiirlcil. 57. 
~ ftltlrn.i" ..f. .%<i. 

— iiivu K'{. t«> ilnd. 58. 

— Imso i»f. .%7. 

— (>iiuihit(-ral. .'i7. 

— lu-i^'ht Ml". r»*». 

— l84.»»e<'li'!*. o~. 

— tut>it8iir:iti<in of, 58. 

— •ilitij.io anclc^i. •">7. 
-- rjpht an>:lt*il. 57. 

Triaii^'ular prli^in. tW. 

— |>>rntniil. Os"i. 
Tnci'Mi-nu-triiMl fnnrtlons. 02. 
TiiiiM>th>lan;{ii in bops. 479. 
Tri-sfMliniii p'-.-^j-liate. 395. 

■ -..41 Vrt^VUv «-«>m|ioond. 228. 443. 

'\\%\'>f \*<\\\\v\. "'.^ 



Troy*— Vtrvetati re. 



I261 



Troy weight. 00. 
Tiypsin. 420, 42G. 
Tub sapport*. 681. 

— fermeuting (see fermenting tab). 

— masb (see mash tub). 

— rice (see rice tub). 

— starting or settllna?. 677. 

— stock (see stock tub). 

— yeast, 678. 
Tubes, iron (see pipes). 

— seamless brass and copper, di- 

mensions of, T. 1153, T. 1154. 
Tubular boilers. 206. 
Tun (British liquid measure). 96. 

— (U. S. liquid measure) . 06. 
Turbidity, albuminoid, 760, 813. 

detecting of, 1033. 

— bacteria, 514-618. 

in (top ferm.) beers, 812. 

detecting of. 1032. 

treatment of, 769. 

— beer, 760-770. 

causes of, detecting. 1032. 

determinatloo of, 1032, 1033. 

treatment of, 760. 

— hop-resin, detecting of, 1083. 

— proteid. detecting of. 1033. 
treatment of, 769. 

— starch, detecting of, 1033. 
treatment of, 700. 

— In top femientating l)cer, 811. 
causes, of, 821. 

— yeast, . detecting of, 1082.' 
Turkey, beer production of, T. 1130. 
Turi»entine, 860. 

— oil of. 407. 
Two-armed lever. 151. 

— row barley, 450-454. 
time of steeping, 504. 

Type, metal, 402. 

— of yeast, for pure culture, 5^8. 

U 

tillage of casks, to And. 73. 
Undcrdough, 874. 

— composition of, 834. 

— excess of, cause for. 722. 

— loss caused by. 833. 
t'nderlet, mash tub. tJC4. 
Union. Burton, (lis.) 801. 
Unit, absolute. 135. 

— compared, 103. 

— of electric measure, 253. 

— graTlty, 135. 

— heat-, 104. 124. 150, 103. 
brewer's. 034. 

— legal, of electric measure. 106. 

— length, 79. 

— metric. 81. 

— money (U. S.). 100. 

— ijower, 103. 

— pi-essurc, 103. 

— thennul. 103 (Hce oIho heat unit). 

— of velocity, 104. 

— of weight, 70, 103. 



I Unit of work, 103, 135. 

Unmalted cereals (see raw cereals). 

Unsteamed bottled beer, production, 
I 774. 

: Uppertlough. excess of, cause, 723. 

UpVight boilers, 206. 
I U. S. (see also American). 
I —measures and weights, 83-01. 

Utah barley, 452. 

time of steeping, 504. 

, — liquor laws, 1097. 

Utensils, sterilization of. 1020. 

Utilization of by-products, 8G0-S77. 



Vacuoles in yeast, 610. 
Vacuum, 117. 

— beer, chip cask treatment of. 75.1. 

— fermentatiiHi, description, 754. 755. 
record of a. T. 755. 

system, 752-756. 

— fermenter, (lis.) 753. 

— plant, 752. 

— refrigerating machine. 290, 301. 

— tanks, (lis.) 763. 
dimensions of, 75 1. 

fermenting, capacity of, 754. 

weight of. 754. 

Valuation (sec proiiertics). 
Value of barley in U. S. i>er acre, T. 
1132. 

— of coins, foreign, T. 110, 111. 

— of drie<l brewers' grains. 870, 871. 

— of moist brewers* grains. 871. 
ValTe leakage. 279. 

— mixing, hot and cold water. 657. 

— safety. 172. 178. 

— setting of, directions for. 268. 
Vaporization, latent heat of, 122, 124. 

194 046 
Varnish.' 484.* 485. 853. 

— bibliography, 1164. 

— iiH a brewing materia^ 484. 

— Columbian Spirits in. 484, 853. 

— composition of. 484. K*:i. 

— grain alcohol In. 484. 853. 

— preparation of, 853. 

— properties of. 484, J*53. 
-- removers, 854. 

— sampler for analysis, prepanitlon 

of. 407. 

— 8hcll«c In. 484, 853. 

— turning white, cause of. 484. 855. 

— wood alcohol in, 484. 85.1. 
Varulnliing. 852-858. 

— accidents during. 857, 

— dangers In. 850. 

— explosions during. 855. 856 

— iron vessels. 859. 

— precaution during. 8.55-8,'i7. 

— preparing vessels for, 854. 
Vaaelliie, 1037. ia38. 

Vnts. stock, (see sto«'k lv\lvft.\. 



1262 



Veloeiti — l¥a t«r. 



Velocity. 1S2. 

— or light. IS. 

— tbcoi«tl«il of flow of llqotd. 1S7. 

— anlt of. 104. 
~ Tlrtul. 170. 

law* of. 171, 171. 

prindpleo. 170. 

VratiUtloo of cclUn. 84& 

VenliffTlt. 400. 

VermoBt Hqoor laws. 1006. 

— prohibition law. 1000. 
Vertex <tf cone. 65. 

— of |>7Tainid. 65. 
Vertical boiler. 200. 

— Uoe. 56. 

VeaaeU. brewery, dimeDalooa of, 1140- 
1143. 

— cjrllDdrlcal. capacitj of. T. 74. 

— preparing of. for Tamiahlng. 8M. 
Vienna beer. 7M0. 

mmiKNtition of. T. 836. T. 827. 

bopa aaed in. Tsn. 

malt for. <Ki!». 614. 615. 

— — ~ composition of. T. 611. 
properties of, 7M). 

— brewing waters, compoa.. T. 447. 
\ ineisar. 4iM. imm? alK> .ntftlc ai-i»l.l. 

— mother of. .'il7. 

V|r*l:ittiip rcTcnuc lnw«, iH>ualtie9 fur. 

1052. 
\ irfrliiia Iniiior \:i\\». 1000. 
Virtual mi»ni»»nr. 170. 

— Tohvliy. 170. 

— — law» of. 171. 

Vlju'onn bartvrla. lUa.) ri07. T. TilS. 

dewrlption of. r»17. 

\ Is-'imsut'ii* iif Wkt nup ft'iTO.). S12, 
\ iirl«il. liluo. Sl*'2. 4tiO. 

— pr\*on. a»2. .TliP. 

— oil nf («iil|iliurli' flclil^. 302. 

— uliii.'. ;f.iO. 

\'ila!lh» ai i«l In U-tr. 4iVi. 

— — — (IttiTiiiinatt'in of, ItTS. 

as f<>mieii:aii<«ii pnnhiot, M4. 

Ill wiirt. ftrnioi»!«»il hy diffvrpnt 

ToasiM. T. :*i*\. 

— I'ils. 407. 

\.Mt. H>:>. 120. 25.'?. 

— .liiij-i^r". 2."»4. 

— (■••iiininh. LTil 
- mc!« r. J.'iT. 

\ ..?t;,;.. J. itT.^rv. iL^.i, 

— oMl. 12:». 

\i<lrili;»' of lifirl'T, 

st-oi^e-l. .MM. 

— « j.no. <.'.». 

— • i;l'f :■» linl. »VS. 

— .^\Mt.'i»T. 01*. 

— friisniiu iif I'.vrainl'I. to flD<l. 70. 

— nu'aj«iir<«» of. Vi. 
-- r7ii'nvur:iTi"n. 0»». 
-- m^frio l!i'»:is;iri!« i»f. *.'2. 

— /Mnjllfloiilj •»•.]. In iin«\. K>S. 

— prisu}, t«i Cn.l, 06. 






oli::n^i.-K in dtor 



Volome. pjmmld, 00. 

— aphere. 66. 

Volnmetrlc analrala deflned. 9M. 

— eatlmatlOQ aogar Id 



U'achahaafen (German maltl^rt. m, 
Wagona. ISO. 

— acalea. 652. 
Wahl's formnla. 016. 

— iMlDglasa. preporatloD of. 704. 

— lauter-maah method. TIT. 

— procesa for lalnglaaa, 489. 
Wahl and Henlos apparatna f6r 

reaat. (Ila.) S664T0. 
Walla, hollow tile. 

— inaulatlon of. 
speciflcatkm of, «■ 

— partition, tnanlatloii of. 342. 

— nibble stone. S65. 

— uiM^l insulation of, 333L 
Warm sweat <maltlng) method. 507. 
Waah-honae ootOt. 601 -6M. 

apcclflcatloof for. M5. 

Waaher. filter masa, 687. 

— ahaTlnga. (Ila.l 604. 
Washiiiff barley. SOS. 

machines for, 570, 

— Nit ties. 886*S8e. 

machines for. C57-¥01. 

— chi|«. bTiO. 

niaciiino for. ills.) 604. 

Washinfrton liquor lawa. looo. 
Waste pn^lurts. removnl of. sCC. 

-- yoast. ntlHutlon of. 875. 
.U;ii.r. 4:1.-, 447. 

— f'T :il<- tia.>««ing. comp. of. T. 441 

T. 44."i 

— nlknilnitr of. deterrainlni:. 087. 

— aliiniiniiiii uxltle In. deterni.. S**2. 

— for .Vm*>riciin lager been. 715. 
.— Amerl.-an. typical, coiup. of, T. 441 

— nmmtmia in. 438. 

.illiuniiiiuiil in. deterra.. 0S6. 

fnt' In. doterminitlon of. 0*5. 

— amount for brpw. 715. 
calculating. U3U. 037. 

— :iij:jIv!.js. 0lfi.*-988. 
-- r.ll.nn.-r.»pby, 1163. 

-- f.T l.-.il.'r8. 218. 210. 
trr.iinK*nt of. 218. 

— iMlhuf: pt.ipt of. T. 123. 

lino to pressure. T. lOT*. T 

• •n't 

in vacuum. T. •2S. 

— in lir«'W(>rT for dlfTeront nses. 440. 
-- brewing proi^rtiea of. 440. 
Kniilifb. 444-447. 

liiirtonlring. 442. 

— — lianlvnlnir. T. 447. 
iiupntriiii;, 445. 446. 

-- — i:«'riii:in. i<t>mp. of, T. 447. 
nifcntsitipical examination. 1025 



^^ateiv-l¥eigrhtii. 



1263 



Water, chlorine In. 439. 
determination of, OSS. 

— classlflcatiOD of, 436. 

— 00-efflcient of discbarge. 138. 

— constitoenta, action of different, 

436. 
importance of, 436. 

— coolins, 806. 

by ice, calculating amount. 914. 

towers. 344-346. 

— destructive power for wort. 1027. 

— discharge, 138. 

— donghlng-iu temperature, to find, 933 

— effect of on boilers, 1:20. 

— examination, chemical, of. 982-986. 

microscopical, 1024-1027. 

Hansen's method. 1026. 

Lindner's drop culture, 1025. 

Wichmann's method. 1027. 

— expansion of. 121. 

— flow of, through orifice, 137. 
in pipes. 140. 

— grains-, pressed from, 722. 

— bard and soft, 210. 

coniiK«itK>n of. IST 

treatment of, 220. 

— hnrdness of. 437. 
of, determining, 080. 

— licnd of. T. 141. 

-- hfat of evaporation, of, 194. 

— heating of, in tanlcs. QM. 
steam required, to find, 046. 

— hygienic exuralnation of. 1026. 

— and ice. mixing temperature, to 

find, 943. 

— ignition loss in. determ., 982. 

— Improving, 440. 441. 446. 

— iron in, 439. 

oxide in, determ.. 982. 

— judging of. 436. 

— magnesium oxide in, determ., 9S4. 

— malting, properties of, 440. 

— maalitng temperature of. to find, 

935-937. 

— and material, mixing toraiwratiiri', 

9'J8. 

— measures of, 103. 

— mixing temi>erature, to find, 935- 

037. 

— nitrates in, 438, 987. 

— nitrites in, 438. 987. 

— oxygen consumed in mo'.8t oom*»u8- 

tion, detormiu'ttion of, {»S<t. 

— plfie, dimensions of. T. ILM. 1152. 

— pressure, due to height. T. 1155. 

— properties of, 440. 

— purifiers (see Iwiler com|H>unds). 

— salt in, 439. 

— sample for analysis, preparation 

of. 496. 

— 80<llum salts in. 430. 

— softeners (see boiler compounds). 

— softening of, 443. 

— sparging, amount of, T. 721. 
for hops, amount of, 727. 



Water, sparging, temperature of. 721. 

— steam required for beating, to find. 

946. 

— steep, for barley, character of, 502. 

— sterilisation of. 1021. 

— substances contained in, 435. 

— sulphates in. determ., 9^2. 

— sulphuric anhydride in, determ., 084 

— suspended matter in, determ., 087. 

— tanlcs, cleaning of. 846. 

construction of, (lis.) 656. 

dimensions of, T. 1142. 

discharge from, to find, 138, 139. 

— total solids in, determ., 982. 

— tube boilers. 206. 

— weight of. 99. 117, 193. 
and measures of. 193. 

— in yeast, amount of, 650. 
Watering yeast, apparatus for, 680. 

method for, 747. 

— — water for, 440. 

Water-free condition, yield of mnlt in, 

to find. 000. 
Watt. 106. 254. 

— hour. 254. 

— meter, 257. 

Weak yeast, symptoms and canses, 742. 

top ferm.. as cause of turbiil- 

Ity, 812. 
Wedge, 157. 

— double, 157, 158. 
moving, 158. 

— single moving, 158, 159. 
Weevils .and other grain insects. {\U.) 

637-644. 

— means of destroying. 644-G47. 
Weighing, process of, 071. 
Weights, apothecary's. 00. 

— atomic, 385. 

— avoinlupois, 90. 

— of l);»rley, per bushel, T. 458, 4.VJ, 

a'M, 053. 

steeped, 594, 

per 100 corns, 457-459. 

— of elements, T. ,384. 

— malt. i)er bushel, 463, 034. 

— coninioreiol, 90. 

— of grain (see buehelweight). 

— grains. 103. 

— of horses. 91. 

— avt\ measurements of merfhHn:]ii»e 

stoivd in warrhouse. T. 115G. 

— and metiMun-s. 7P-111. 

— measures of, 79, 90. 190. 

— — metric, 93. 

— compared to common, T. 98, 

— mi8(*ellaniH)us, 91. 

— standard. 80. 

— testing of. 970. 

— troy, 00. 

— units of. 1C3. 

— V. S., 83. 

o<«ra]Mrisnn of different, 91. 

— of vacuum taak%. T?A. 



1264 



W r lulwr r_ W«rl . 



- DrtHncr. Iiiujnrtion or, S13-MK). 

- Crnunn. ramiAiilon or. T. S3D. 



(nialllDEl. dellBKIoii 



— tliimi'. •■■TlitlE wUh untliidOBli 



iw llWlWi 




n-.. K.' 


ttiral. M3-4a3. 




- In bniilui 








liii ur. 400 




- ittnii-alili 


* nt. T. ^«^. T. *« 


- llDkn. m 






- Uiall. n.»i 


U-OllluD »« 




BUlllBi 


E "lib. ri 


T. bl*. 




T, ;!.. 




- pr-i-nlri 


of. ws. 




- bJI,-.!, 1* 






- Mnn*. -Ill 


.\rt lU' ml. 












I'-fxaUnC 


S6S. SSL 


- fii-il.ni. 1 













Mion. T. ll!B>. 



- It.llli.it i.f. MT. 



I2J-T»., 



, n< fur. KI. 738. 



brml ar.) Ralllnc. !■.! 



Wort— V«a«ta 



1265 



iHiiMi, '1'. iooa-ioa< 

— ■Urillnlloa of, 1U21. 

— itroiiilli r-t, toi dlSotvat > 



- Dinaafuctarlac oi 

- hlMlotruiihT, 111 






>j, 1160. IIM. 

Id criwral, 4«S«tt. 
-nn.). BIS. 



- boUnlcal cimnl 



— bnaK ef, BM. TSS. 



tor dUiminc iplriU. ^33- 

(or pnaaHl ymt iiroilof tloi 

— — tor wina prodotUoB, B33. 

— iBDCth ot, Elfl. 

— LofOh tTpi at T. BS:. 588. 



- nltra«rii;)iu r 



r. cbtalnnl. TIB. 



- nmtoiilum oi. BIS. 

■terlUuIJaa 'or. HI. ' 

- — Carijbcit Inn*. "*. tSX, S 
cullnn. fiST-en, 

•lennlllod or, SOT. 

llnuHD'a, U»«Ta 

I'uatnri. BCT.' I»8.* 



I, typo of, T. 822. B»T. 











«(« (orr"«40.' 




vinptaBi of.'TU. 


<l. lUM. 


° nut. fa> OBd. lOM. 


Mining pnjperty of. OM. 


l»KlD. SM. 


bMd In top t«n»-Dt>lhM 


ortire for p^nUiv. 88S. 


■re ■■» eitnrl). 


nUiUne oC. SIS. 


n ROGUHt. SOB. 



rpHTlflc cn>lt7. MS. 



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